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Algebraic Structure Unit 4

The document discusses algebraic structures and their properties. It defines an algebraic structure as a non-empty set equipped with one or more binary operations. It then defines binary operations and provides examples of binary operations on different sets. It discusses various properties of binary operations such as closure, associativity, commutativity, identity, inverse, idempotence, distributivity, and cancellation. It defines semigroups, monoids, subgroups, and products of semigroups. Finally, it defines groups and provides properties and theorems about groups.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
663 views13 pages

Algebraic Structure Unit 4

The document discusses algebraic structures and their properties. It defines an algebraic structure as a non-empty set equipped with one or more binary operations. It then defines binary operations and provides examples of binary operations on different sets. It discusses various properties of binary operations such as closure, associativity, commutativity, identity, inverse, idempotence, distributivity, and cancellation. It defines semigroups, monoids, subgroups, and products of semigroups. Finally, it defines groups and provides properties and theorems about groups.

Uploaded by

yash
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Algebraic Structure

A non-empty set G equipped with one or more binary operations is said to be an algebraic
structure. Suppose * is a binary operation on G. Then (G, *) is an algebraic
structure. (N,*), (1, +), (1, -) are all the algebraic structure. Here, (R, +, .) is an algebraic
structure equipped with two operations.

Binary Operation
Consider a non-empty set A and α function f: AxA→A is called a binary operation on A. If *
is a binary operation on A, then it may be written as a*b. A binary operation can be denoted
by any of the symbols +,-,*,∨,∧ etc.

The value of the binary operation is denoted by placing the operator between the two
operands.

Example:

1. The operation of addition is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers.


2. The operation of subtraction is a binary operation on the set of integers. But, the
operation of subtraction is not a binary operation on the set of natural numbers
because the subtraction of two natural numbers may or may not be a natural number.
3. The operation of multiplication is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers, set
of integers and set of complex numbers.
4. The operation of the set union is a binary operation on the set of subsets of a
Universal set. Similarly, the operation of set intersection is a binary operation on the
set of subsets of a universal set.

Properties of Binary Operations


There are many properties of the binary operations which are as follows:

1. Closure Property: Consider a non-empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then is


closed under the operation *, if a * b ∈ A, where a and b are elements of A.

Example1: Consider the set A = {-1, 0, 1}. Determine whether A is closed under

1. Addition 2. Multiplication

Solution:

(i)The sum of elements is (-1) + (-1) = -2 and 1+1=2 does not belong to A. Hence A is not
closed under addition.

(ii) The multiplication of every two elements of the set are


-1 * 0 = 0; -1 * 1 =-1; -1 * -1 = 1
0 * -1 = 0; 0 * 1 = 0; 0 * 0 = 0
1 * -1 = -1; 1 * 0 = 0; 1 * 1 = 1

Since, each multiplication belongs to A hence A is closed under multiplication.

2. Associative Property: Consider a non-empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then


the operation * on A is associative, if for every a, b, c, ∈ A, we have (a * b) * c = a* (b*c).

Example: Consider the binary operation * on Q, the set of rational numbers, defined by a * b
= a + b – ab ∀ a, b ∈ Q.

Determine whether * is associative.

Solution: Let us assume some elements a, b, c ∈ Q, then the definition

(a*b) * c = (a + b- ab) * c = (a + b- ab) + c - (a + b- ab)c


= a + b- ab + c - ca -bc + abc = a + b + c - ab - ac -bc + abc.

Similarly, we have
a * (b * c) = a + b + c - ab - ac -bc + abc

Therefore, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

Hence, * is associative.

3. Commutative Property: Consider a non-empty set A,and a binary operation * on A. Then


the operation * on A is associative, if for every a, b, ∈ A, we have a * b = b * a.

Example: Consider the binary operation * on Q, the set of rational numbers, defined by a * b
= a2+b2 ∀ a,b∈Q.

Determine whether * is commutative.

Solution: Let us assume some elements a, b, ∈ Q, then definition

a * b = a2+b2=b * a

Hence, * is commutative.

4. Identity: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary operation * on A. Then the operation *
has an identity property if there exists an element e in A such that a * e (right identity) = e * a
(left identity) = a ∀ a ∈ A.

Example: Consider the binary operation * on I+, the set of positive integers defined by a * b

=
Determine the identity for the binary operation *, if exists.

Solution: Let us assume that e be a +ve integer number, then

e * a, a ∈ I+

= a, e = 2...............equation (i)

Similarly, a * e = a, a ∈ I+

=2 or e=2...........equation (ii)

From equation (i) and (ii) for e = 2, we have e * a = a * e = a

Therefore, 2 is the identity elements for *.

5. Inverse: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary operation * on A. Then the operation is
the inverse property, if for each a ∈A,,there exists an element b in A such that a * b (right
inverse) = b * a (left inverse) = e, where b is called an inverse of a.

6. Idempotent: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary operation * on A. Then the


operation * has the idempotent property, if for each a ∈A, we have a * a = a ∀ a ∈A

7. Distributivity: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary operation * on A. Then the


operation * distributes over +, if for every a, b, c ∈A, we have
a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c) [left distributivity]
(b + c) * a = (b * a) + (c * a) [right distributivity]

8. Cancellation: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary operation * on A. Then the


operation * has the cancellation property, if for every a, b, c ∈A,we have
a*b=a*c⇒b=c [left cancellation]
b*a=c*a⇒b=c [Right cancellation]

SemiGroup
Let us consider, an algebraic system (A, *), where * is a binary operation on A. Then, the
system (A, *) is said to be semi-group if it satisfies the following properties:

1. The operation * is a closed operation on set A.


2. The operation * is an associative operation.

Example: Consider an algebraic system (A, *), where A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9....}, the set of
positive odd integers and * is a binary operation means multiplication. Determine whether
(A, *) is a semi-group.

Solution: Closure Property: The operation * is a closed operation because multiplication of


two +ve odd integers is a +ve odd number.
Associative Property: The operation * is an associative operation on set A. Since every a, b,
c ∈ A, we have

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

Hence, the algebraic system (A, *), is a semigroup.

Subsemigroup:
Consider a semigroup (A, *) and let B ⊆ A. Then the system (B, *) is called a subsemigroup
if the set B is closed under the operation *.

Example: Consider a semigroup (N, +), where N is the set of all natural numbers and + is an
addition operation. The algebraic system (E, +) is a subsemigroup of (N, +), where E is a set
of +ve even integers.

Product of Semigroup:
Theorem: If (S1,*)and (S2,*) are semigroups, then (S1 x S2*) is a semigroup, where * defined
by (s1',s2')*( s1'',s2'')=(s1'*s1'',s2'*s2'' ).

Proof: The semigroup S1 x S2 is closed under the operation *.

Associativity of *.Let a, b, c ∈ S1 x S2

So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))


= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1*1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.

Since * is closed and associative. Hence, S1 x S2 is a semigroup.

Monoid:
Let us consider an algebraic system (A, o), where o is a binary operation on A. Then the
system (A, o) is said to be a monoid if it satisfies the following properties:

1. The operation o is a closed operation on set A.


2. The operation o is an associative operation.
3. There exists an identity element, i.e., the operation o.

Example: Consider an algebraic system (N, +), where the set N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}.The set
of natural numbers and + is an addition operation. Determine whether (N, +) is a monoid.
Solution: (a) Closure Property: The operation + is closed since the sum of two natural
numbers.

(b)Associative Property: The operation + is an associative property since we have


(a+b)+c=a+(b+c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ N.

(c)Identity: There exists an identity element in set N the operation +. The element 0 is an
identity element, i.e., the operation +. Since the operation + is a closed, associative and
there exists an identity. Hence, the algebraic system (N, +) is a monoid.

SubMonoid:

Let us consider a monoid (M, o), also let S ⊆M. Then (S, o) is called a submonoid of (M,
o), if and only if it satisfies the following properties:

1. S is closed under the operation o.


2. There exists an identity element e ∈ T.

Example: Let us consider, a monoid (M, *), where * s a binary operation and M is a set of all
integers. Then (M1, *) is a submonoid of (M, *) where M1 is defined as M1={ai│i is from 0 to
n,a positive integer,and a∈M}.

Group:
Let G be a non-void set with a binary operation * that assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of
elements of G an element of G denoted by a * b. We say that G is a group under the binary
operation * if the following three properties are satisfied:

1) Associativity: The binary operation * is associative i.e. a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c , ∀ a,b,c ∈ G

2) Identity: There is an element e, called the identity, in G, such that a*e=e*a=a, ∀ a ∈ G

3) Inverse: For each element a in G, there is an element b in G, called an inverse of a such


that a*b=b*a=e, ∀ a, b ∈ G

Note: If a group has the property that a*b=b*a i.e., commutative law holds then the group is
called an abelian.

Properties of Groups:
The following theorems can understand the elementary features of Groups:
Theorem1:-

1. Statement: - In a Group G, there is only one identity element (uniqueness of identity)


Proof: - let e and e' are two identities in G and let a ∈ G

∴ ae = a ⟶(i)
∴ ae' = a ⟶(ii)

R.H.S of (i) and (ii) are equal ⇒ae =ae'

Thus by the left cancellation law, we obtain e= e'

There is only one identity element in G for any a ∈ G. Hence the theorem is proved.

2. Statement: - For each element a in a group G, there is a unique element b in G such that
ab= ba=e (uniqueness if inverses)

Proof: - let b and c are both inverses of a a∈ G

Then ab = e and ac = e
∵ c = ce {existence of identity element}
⟹ c = c (ab) {∵ ab = e}
⟹ c = (c a) b
⟹ c = (ac) b { ∵ ac = ca}
⟹ c = eb
⟹ c = b { ∵ b = eb}

Hence inverse of a G is unique.

Theorem 2:-

1. Statement: - In a Group G, (a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G

Proof: We have a a-1=a-1 a=e

Where e is the identity element of G

Thus a is inverse of a-1∈ G

i.e., (a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G

2. Statement: In a Group G,(a b-1)=b-1 a-1,∀ a,b∈ G

Proof: - By associatively we have

(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (a-1 a)b


⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (e)b {∵a-1 a=e}
-1 -1 -1
⟹(b a )ab=b b {∵eb=b}
-1 -1
⟹(b a )ab=e, {∵b-1 b=e}
Similarly

(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a(b b-1) a-1


⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a (e) a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=e {∵aa-1=e}
Thus ( b a )ab=(ab)(b-1 a-1)=e
-1 -1

∴ b-1 a-1 is the inverse of ab


i.e., b-1 a-1= a b-1

Hence the theorem is proved.

Theorem3:-

In a group G, the left and right cancellation laws hold i.e.

(i) ab = ac implies b=c

(ii) ba=ca implies b=c

Proof

(i) Let ab=ac


Premultiplying a-1 on both sides we get
a-1 (ab)=a-1 (ac)
⟹ (a-1a) b=(a-1 a)c
⟹eb=ec
⟹b=c

Hence Proved.

(ii) Let ba=ca


Post-multiplying a-1 on both sides
⟹(ba) a-1=(ca) a-1
⟹b(aa-1 )=c(aa-1 )
⟹be=ce
⟹b=c

Hence the theorem is proved.

Finite and Infinite Group:


A group (G, *) is called a finite group if G is a finite set.

A group (G, *) is called a infinite group if G is an infinite set.

Example1: The group (I, +) is an infinite group as the set I of integers is an infinite set.
Example2: The group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} under multiplication modulo 8 is a finite group
as the set G is a finite set.

Order of Group:
The order of the group G is the number of elements in the group G. It is denoted by |G|. A
group of order 1 has only the identity element, i.e., ({e} *).

A group of order 2 has two elements, i.e., one identity element and one some other element.

Example1: Let ({e, x}, *) be a group of order 2. The table of operation is shown in fig:

* E x

E E x

X X e

The group of order 3 has three elements i.e., one identity element and two other elements.

Subgroup:
If a non-void subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of G, we say H is a
subgroup of G.

Theorem: - A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if:

o the identity element a∈ H.


o H is closed under the operation of G i.e. if a, b∈ H, then a, b∈ H and
o H is closed under inverses, that is if a∈ H then a-1∈ H.

Cyclic Subgroup:-
A Subgroup K of a group G is said to be cyclic subgroup if there exists an element x∈ G such
that every element of K can be written in the form xn for some n ∈Z.

The element x is called generator of K and we write K= <x>

Cyclic Group:-
In the case when G=, we say G is cyclic and x is a generator of G. That is, a group G is said
to be cyclic if there is an element x∈ G such that every element of G can be written in the
form xn for the some n∈ Z.
Example: The group G= {1, -1, i,-i} under usual multiplication is a finite cyclic group with i
as generator, since i1=i,i2=-1,i3=-i and i4=1

Abelian Group:
Let us consider an algebraic system (G,*), where * is a binary operation on G. Then the
system (G,*) is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies all the properties of the group plus a
additional following property:

(1) The operation * is commutative i.e.,


a * b = b * a ∀ a,b ∈G

Example: Consider an algebraic system (G, *), where G is the set of all non-zero real
numbers and * is a binary operation defined by

Show that (G, *) is an abelian group.

Solution:

Closure Property: The set G is closed under the operation *, since a * b = is a real
number. Hence, it belongs to G.

Associative Property: The operation * is associative. Let a,b,c∈G, then we have

Identity: To find the identity element, let us assume that e is a +ve real number. Then e * a =
a, where a ∈G.

Thus, the identity element in G is 4.

Inverse: let us assume that a ∈G. If a-1∈Q, is an inverse of a, then a * a-1=4


Thus, the inverse of element a in G is

Commutative: The operation * on G is commutative.

Thus, the algebraic system (G, *) is closed, associative, identity element, inverse and
commutative. Hence, the system (G, *) is an abelian group.

Product of Groups:

Theorem: Prove that if (G1,*1)and (G2,*2) are groups, then G = G1 x G2 i.e., (G, *) is a group
with operation defined by (a1,b1)*( a2,b2 )=(a1,*1,a2, b1 *2 b2).

Proof: To prove that G1 x G2 is a group, we have to show that G1 x G2 has the associativity
operator, has an identity and also exists inverse of every element.

Associativity. Let a, b, c ∈ G1 x G2,then

So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))


= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1 c1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.

Identity: Let e1 and e2 are identities for G1 and G2 respectively. Then, the identity for G1 x
G2 is e=(e1,e2 ).Assume same a ∈ G1 x G2

Then, a * e = (a1,a2)*( e1,e2)


= (a1 *1 e1,a2 *2 e2)
= (a1,a2)=a

Similarly, we have e * a = a.
Inverse: To determine the inverse of an element in G1 x G2, we will determine it component
wise i.e.,
a-1=(a1,a2)-1=(a1-1,a2-1 )

Now to verify that this is the exact inverse, we will compute a * a-1 and a-1*a.

Now, a * a-1=(a1,a2 )*(a1-1,a2-1 )


= (a1 *1 a1-1,a2 *2 a2-1)=( e1,e2)=e

Similarly, we have a-1*a=e.

Thus, (G1 x G2,*) is a group.

In general, if G1,G2,....Gn are groups, then G = G1 x G2 x.....x Gn is also a group.

Isomorphism:
Let (G1,*) and (G2,0) be two algebraic system, where * and 0 both are binary operations. The
systems (G1,*) and (G2,0) are said to be isomorphic if there exists an isomorphic mapping f:
G1→G2

When two algebraic systems are isomorphic, the systems are structurally equivalent and one
can be obtained from another by simply remaining the elements and operation.

Example: Let (A1,*) and (A2,⊡) be the two algebraic systems as shown in fig. Determine
whether the two algebraic systems are isomorphic.

Solution: The two algebraic system (A1,*) and (A2,⊡) are isomorphic and (A2,⊡) is an
isomorphic image of A1, such that

f( a)=1
f (b)=w
f (c)= w2

Automorphism:
Let (G1,*) and (G2,0) be two algebraic system, where * and 0 both are binary operations on
G1 and G2 respectively. Then an isomorphism from (G1,*) to (G2,0) is called an
automorphism if G1= G2

Rings:
An algebraic system (R, +,) where R is a set with two arbitrary binary operations + and ., is
called aring if it satisfies the following conditions

1. (R, +) is an abelian group.


2. (R,∙) is a semigroup.
3. The multiplication operation, is distributive over the addition operation +i.e.,
a (b+c)=ab +ac and (b+c)a = ba + ca for all a, b, c ∈ R.

Example1: Consider M be the set of all matrices of the type over integers under
matrix addition and matrix multiplication. Thus M form a ring.

Example2: The set Z9 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} under the operation addition and


multiplication modulo 9 forms a ring.

Types of Rings:
1. Commutative Rings: A ring (R, +,) is called a commutative ring if it holds the
commutative law under the operation of multiplication i.e., a. b = b. a, for every a, b∈ R

Example1: Consider a set E of all even integers under the operation of addition and
multiplication. The set E forms a commutative ring.

2. Ring with Unity: A ring (R, +,) is called a ring with unity, if it has a multiplicative
identity i.e,

Example: Consider a set M of all 2 x 2 matrices over integers under matrix multiplication

and matrix addition. The set M forms a ring with unity .

3. Ring with Zero Divisions: If a.b=0, where a and b are any two non-zero elements of R in
the ring (R, +) then a and b are called divisions of zero and the ring (R, +) is called ring with
zero division.

4. Rings without Zero Division: An algebraic system (R, +) where R is a set with two
arbitrary binary operation + and is called a ring without divisors of zero if for every a, b ∈R,
we have a.b≠0 ⟹a≠0 and b ≠0

SubRings:
A subset A of a ring (R, +) is called a subring of R, if it satisfies following conditions:
(A, +) is a subgroup of the group (R,+)

A is closed under the multiplication operation i.e., a.b ∈A,for every a,b ∈A.

Example: The ring (I, +) of integers is a subring of ring (R, +) of real numbers.

Note:
1. If R is any ring then {0} and R are subrings of R.
2. Sum of two subrings may not be a subring.
3. Intersection of subring is a subring.

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