Pesticide Resistance Management

General Considerations

Pesticide resistance is a shift in the genetics of a pest population that allows individuals within a previously
susceptible population to survive. Resistant pest populations have inherited traits that reduce their susceptibility to
individual pesticides or groups of pesticides. Resistance develops in all agricultural pest groups–insects, mites,
fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and weeds. Pesticide-resistant individuals are initially quite rare in pest populations.
However, when a new pesticide is first used, a very low number of individual pests never previously exposed to the
novel chemistry can be expected to be resistant. The frequency of resistant genes to novel chemistries varies
tremendously, but history makes it clear that resistant individuals should be expected to be present in all pest
groups. By the nature of the process, resistance most often develops to pesticides that are initially very effective
and frequently used.

Pesticide resistance management is an effort to slow or prevent the development of resistance. It relies on pest
management and pesticide-use strategies to prolong the effective life of pesticides. Resistance management is
difficult, especially in high-value crops like fruit, where high quality standards and limited numbers of registered
pesticides make the task more challenging.

Managing resistance requires an understanding of the factors that influence its development. Selection is the
process of pesticide-induced selection for resistance. With regular pesticide use, those rare individuals that are
naturally resistant survive and reproduce more successfully than their susceptible peers. Resistance
frequency refers to the proportion of a pest population that is resistant. Cross resistance refers to a type of
resistance in which a pest population develops resistance to more than one pesticide within a chemical family (e.g.,
organophosphate insecticides, EBDC fungicides, etc.). Multiple resistance involves multiple, independent
resistance mechanisms, which often lead to resistance to chemicals from different families (i.e., organophosphate
and carbamate insecticides, dodine and DMI fungicides). Resistance stability is a key factor in managing
resistance. Stability is an estimate of how well resistance persists in a pest population once the pesticide is no
longer used. The rate of reversion to a susceptible state varies enormously. But when pesticide use ceases,
selective pressure for resistance is removed, and over time resistance will often be reduced. Resistance stability
estimates may allow limited use of resistance-prone compounds.

It is important to emphasize that control failures do not confirm resistance. Other factors (poor timing, sprayer
calibration or coverage, wash-off, high pH in spray tank water, inappropriate materials, etc.) should be eliminated
as causes for control failures before resistance is seriously considered. Factors influencing the development of
resistance can be grouped into biological and management categories. Biolocial factors inlcude pest reproductive
rate, mobility of the pest species into and out of untreated areas, and genetic factors such as number of resistance
mechanisms, resistance frequency and intensity, and resistance stability. Management factors that influence
resistance development include how materials are applied, how often they are used, how long they persist in the
field, treatment thresholds, and strategies for using available pesticides. Resistance management efforts study
specific pest-pesticide interactions and focus on practical strategies that growers can implement.

Pest management is practical and works in concert with pesticide-use strategies to lessen resistance selection by
facilitating prudent, as-needed pesticide use. Pesticide-use strategies work best when implemented as a new
pesticide comes into commerce. Pesticide manufacturers, IPM scientists, and growers have come to recognize
that using resistance management from the beginning works best. Collecting baseline susceptibilities, defining
probable resistance problems beforehand, and proposing pesticide-use strategies to forestall resistance
development are the province of manufacturers and IPM scientists. Biologically and economically sound
resistance management plans offered pre-sale give growers the best hope for managing resistance. Pesticide-use
strategies are often grouped as follows: (1) management by moderation, (2) rotation and mixtures, and (3)
saturation.

Moderation means limiting the use of a pesticide. Moderation is employed in concert with IPM practices, such as
using treatment thresholds, spraying only specific pest generations or growth stages, maintaining unsprayed wild
host reservoirs to act as refuges for genetically susceptible individuals, and using pesticides with shorter residual
or lower toxicity to important beneficial populations, etc. Moderation should be used to the fullest extent that will
provide commercially acceptable control.

Rotation, and in some cases mixtures, are the bulwarks of pesticide-use strategies since an individual pest is less
likely to be resistant to two or more differing classes of toxins. In theory, most individual pests resistant to one
pesticide will be killed when exposed to a different class of toxin. Rotations depend on having effective, labeled
materials with different modes of action. Material cost is a key practical consideration that favors rotation.
Mixtures of fungicides have been used successfully to combat disease resistance, although cost lessens the
attractiveness of this approach. Mixtures of insecticides and miticides have typically performed poorly. Rotation
is seen as the desired approach for insecticides, miticides, and some fungicides.

Saturation, the use of higher pesticide rates to control resistant individuals, is the least attractive resistance
management approach, although it has been used to manage resistance to DMI fungicides. Saturation is generally a
last resort, when there are no other effective, labeled alternatives. In this scenario, higher rates will often provide
control for a time, although at greater cost. Synergists, chemicals that increase the toxicity of pesticides, have
sometimes been effective in boosting the efficacy of resistance-prone pesticides. As with simple rate increases,
saturation with synergists typically provides only short-term benefits.

Insecticide Resistance Management Strategies

In the Southeastern United States, the tufted apple bud moth, codling moth, rosy apple aphid, and European red
mite have developed resistance to one or more pesticides. Although codling moth and mite resistance are not
widespread in the Southeast, problems in other parts of the U.S. indicate the importance of employing sound
miticide use patterns to prevent resistance development in this region.

Tufted Apple Bud Moth

The tufted apple bud moth has developed resistance to organophosphate insecticides, most notably Guthion and
Imidan. However, Intrepid, SpinTor, Avaunt, and Danitol are effective alternatives. Along with Bacillus
thuringiensis products, these products provide growers with a diversity of options with different modes of action
to manage TABM.

The recommended strategy is this: Do not use the same insecticide (or insecticides with the same mode of action)
for more than two consecutive generations. For example, if Intrepid is used to control the first and second
generation of TABM in year one, then Avaunt, SpinTor, Danitol or B. thuringiensis should be used against the first
generation the following year. Probably the most effective strategy is to use a different insecticide against each
generation per season; i.e., if Intrepid is used against the first generation, then Avaunt or SpinTor should be used
against the second generation. When selecting an insecticide, one should consider other insects that also may need
to be controlled.

Rosy Apple Aphid

The rosy apple aphid has developed widespread resistance to Lorsban, and control failures with Thiodan, Asana,
Ambush, Diazinon, and Dimethoate have become more common in recent years. Resistance has not been observed
to the pyrethroid Danitol or the neonicotinoid insecticides Actara, Assail, Calypso and Provado. However, all the
neonicotinoids have a similar mode of action and should be considered the same material for rotation purposes.

The two best opportunities to control rosy apple aphid on apple are 1) tight cluster to pink and 2) petal fall. Do not
apply any insecticide more than once during this time frame, and if possible do not use the insecticide used for
rosy aphid control more than once during the period when rosy apple aphids may occur in apple orchards (through
the third or fourth cover spray).

European Red Mite

Avoiding unnecessary miticide applications is the most effective strategy for minimizing the potential for
resistance development. A delayed dormant oil application is highly recommended to suppress overwintering
populations of European red mite and to improve the potential for biological control to maintain mite populations
below damaging levels. On ‘Delicious’ cultivars, which are susceptible to alternaria blotch and where preventive
control or low threshold levels are recommended for control of European red mite, there is a high potential for the
development of resistant populations. To reduce this potential, in addition to a delayed dormant oil application,
only one of the following options should be used in a given year, and the same option should not be used in two
consecutive years.

Preventive Strategies Curative Strategies

Resistance Management Strategies for Plant Pathogens

Resistance of plant pathogens to pesticides has become widespread over the past 25 years as site-specific
(systemic) chemicals have been developed and used on many crops and against many pathogens. The broad
spectrum protectants (such as captan and mancozeb) that were used previously had multiple sites of activity in the
target pathogens, greatly reducing the likelihood of resistance development.

Resistance has become a problem in the United States in only three pathogens that affect apples during the growing
season: Venturia inaequalis, cause of apple scab; Erwinia amylovora, cause of fire blight; and Pseudomonas
syringae pv. papulans, cause of blister spot. Resistance of V. inaequalis to dodine (Syllit, initially sold as
Cyprex) was first reported from New York in 1969. It has subsequently been reported from several states in the
Northeast and Midwest but has not been found in orchards in the Southeast. Resistance of V. inaequalis to the
benzimidazole fungicides [benomyl (Benlate) and thiophanate methyl (Topsin M)] was reported shortly after their
introduction in 1971 and became widespread in the eastern U.S., including the Southeast, in the mid-1970s. As a
consequence they are no longer recommended for apple scab control in the Southeast. The ergosterol biosynthesis
inhibiting fungicides [fenarimol (Rubigan), myclobutanil (Nova), triflumazole (Procure)] were first introduced in
the late 1980s, and reduced sensitivity of V. inaequalis has been reported from a few orchards in the Northeast
and Midwest but is not widespread. Resistance of the fire blight bacterium, Erwinia amylovora, to streptomycin
(Agri-mycin 17, Streptrol) is widespread in several states but has not been reported in the Southeast. Resistance of
P. syringae pv. papulans has been confirmed from an orchard in Tennessee.

To avoid resistance development, minimize the use of fungicides and bactericides that are likely to develop
resistance. Additionally, combine site-specific fungicides with protectant fungicides that have broad spectrum
activity. Limit dodine applications to two to three per year. In areas where dodine resistance first became a
problem, it was often used 10 to 12 times throughout the growing season. Similarly limit streptomycin use for fire
blight control to two to four times a year. Make applications only during times favorable for infection. These
periods are characterized by open blossoms, dew or rainfall greater than 0.01 inch, an average daily temperature of
60º F or greater, and the accumulation of at least 198 degree-hours greater than 65º F since the first blossoms
opened. Use the ergosterol biosynthesis inhibiting fungicides only in combination with broad spectrum
protectants, such as captan or EBDC fungicides. Avoid post-symptom applications of site-specific fungicides,
such as dodine and the DMI fungicides, because this sets up an ideal situation for selection of resistant strains.
Good orchard sanitation practices to maintain pathogen populations at low levels is also an important component
of a resistance management program.

Managing Weeds and Preventing the Development of

Although weed resistance to herbicides is not discussed as often as resistance in insects and pathogens, cases of
weed resistance to herbicides do exist. For example, pigweed and goosegrass are resistant to dinitroanaline
herbicides (Prowl and Surflan) and Johnsongrass are resistance to carboxylase herbicides (Fusilade DX).
Resistance may not be detected for several years because these resistant weeds produce seed, and then subsequent
generations must establish. Two factors that contribute to the development of herbicide-resistant weeds are
applying herbicides multiple times during the year and using herbicides that have the same mechanism of control
for several consecutive growing seasons.

Because apples are a perennial crop and have limited herbicide options, techniques like crop rotation and
mechanical cultivation to prevent resistance in annual crops are not feasible. However, some of the following
strategies can help prevent resistance from developing.

1. Use herbicides ONLY when necessary.

2. Rotate herbicides with different modes of action. For example, do not use simazine (Princep, Simazine)
continuously. Consider other preemergence broadleaf herbicides. Also avoid making more than two
applications of the same herbicide in the same year.

3. Scout orchards regularly to identify weeds. Respond quickly to changes in weed population by controlling
weeds before they spread through the entire orchard.

4. Use nonselective postemergence herbicides in your weed management program.