VADODARA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

KOTAMBI

Lab Manual

MACHINE DESIGN AND

Data andINDUSTRIAL DRAFTING
File Structures (DFS)
(III Semester(2141907)
CE/IT)
(Subject Code: 130702)
LABORATORY MANUAL
B.E.II Semester-IV
Mechanical Engineering

Prepared By:
CE/IT Department

PREPARED BY:
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
VADODARA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING, KOTAMBI
 Machine Design And Industrial Drafting (2141907)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS FOR MACHINE DESIGN AND INDUSTRIAL DRAFTING

Sr No. NAME OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Design about Eccentric Loading .

2. Design of Cotter Joint.

3. Design of Knuckle Joint.

4. Application of Different types of Theories of Failure.

5. Design of Levers.

6. Design of shafts.

7. Design of Couplings.

8. Design of joints using Welding, Riveting and Fasteners.

9. Understanding the Concept of Limit, Fit and Tolerances.
10. Different features of Computer Aided Drafting Tools.

11. Modeling of cotter joint using SOLIDWORKS.

12. Modeling of Knuckle joint using SOLIDWORKS.

13. Design of column.

14. Modeling of column using SOLIDWORKS.

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EXPERIMENT-1

AIM:- Design about Eccentric Loading .

INTRODUCTION:-
Centric loading: The load is applied at the centroid of the cross section. The limiting allowable stress is
determined from strength (P/A) or buckling.
Eccentric loading: The load is offset from the centroid of the cross section because of how the beam
load comes into the column. This offset introduces bending along with axial stress. (This can also
happen with continuous beams across a column or wind loading.)

Eccentric Loading
The eccentricity causes bending stresses by a moment of value P x e. Within the elastic range
(linear stresses) we can superposition or add up the normal and bending stresses:

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The resulting stress distribution is still linear. And the n.a. moves (if there is one).The value of e (or
location of P) that causes the stress at an edge to become zero is at the edge of the kern. As long as P
stays within the kern, there will not be any tension stress. If there is bending in two directions (bi-axial
bending), there will be one more bending stress added to the total:

Eccentric Loading Design

Because there are combined stresses, we can’t just compare the axial stress to a limit axial stress or a
bending stress to a limit bending stress. We use a limit called the interaction diagram. The diagram can
be simplified as a straight line from the ratio of axial stress to allowable stress= 1 (no bending) to the
ratio of bending stress to allowable stress = 1 (no axial load).The interaction diagram can be more
sophisticated (represented by a curve instead of a straight line). These type of diagrams take the effect of
the bending moment increasing because the beam deflects. This is called the P-Δ (P-delta) effect.

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QUESTIONS:-
1. What is eccentric load and eccentricity?Explain what is single axis and two axes eccentricity
with neat sketch.
2. A rectangular strut is 150 mm wide and 120 mm thick. It carries a load of 180 kN at an
eccentricity of 10 mm in a plane bisecting the thickness as shown in figure. Find the maximum
and minimum intensities of stress in the section.

180kN

10 mm

150 mm

120 mm

3. A masonry pier of width 4m and thickness 3m,supports a load of 30kN as shown in figure.Find
the stresses developed at each corner of the pier.

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EXPERIMENT-2

AIM:- Design of Cotter Joint.

INTRODUCTION:
A cotter is a flat wedge shaped piece of rectangular cross-section and its width is tapered (either on one
side or both sides) from one end to another for an easy adjustment. The taper varies from 1 in 48 to 1 in
24 and it may be increased up to 1 in 8, if a locking device is provided. The locking device may be a
taper pin or a set screw used on the lower end of the cotter. The cotter is usually made of mild steel or
wrought iron. A cotter joint is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two co-axial rods or
bars which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive forces. It is usually used in connecting a piston
rod to the crosshead of a reciprocating steam engine, a piston rod and its extension as a tail or pump rod,
strap end of connecting rod etc.

THEORY:
Types of Cotter Joints
Following are the three commonly used cotter joints to connect two rods by a cotter :
1. Socket and spigot cotter joint, 2. Sleeve and cotter joint, and 3. Gib and cotter joint.
Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint
In a socket and spigot cotter joint, one end of the rods (say A) is provided with a socket type of end as
shown in Fig. and the other end of the other rod (say B) is inserted into a socket. The end of the rod
which goes into a socket is also called spigot. A rectangular hole is made in the socket and spigot. A
cotter is then driven tightly through a hole in order to make the temporary connection between the two
rods. The load is usually acting axially, but it changes its direction and hence the cotter joint must be
designed to carry both the tensile and compressive loads. The compressive load is taken up by the collar
on the spigot.

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Design of Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint

The socket and spigot cotter joint is shown in Fig.
Let
P = Load carried by the rods,
d = Diameter of the rods,
d1 = Outside diameter of socket,
d2 = Diameter of spigot or inside diameter of socket,
d3 = Outside diameter of spigot collar,
t1 = Thickness of spigot collar,
d4 = Diameter of socket collar,
c = Thickness of socket collar,
b = Mean width of cotter,
t = Thickness of cotter,
l = Length of cotter,
a = Distance from the end of the slot to the end of rod,
t = Permissible tensile stress for the rods material,
τ = Permissible shear stress for the cotter material, and
σc = Permissible crushing stress for the cotter material.

QUESTIONS:-
1. Explain the procedure for the design of cotter joint.
2. Define cotter. Why taper is provided on a cotter? What is the purpose of clearance in cotter
joints?
3. It is required to design a cotter joint to connect two steel rods of equal diameter.The permissible
stresses for the rods, spigot end and socket end are σt =96N/mm2 , σc = 134 N/mm2 & τ = 45
N/mm2. For cotter,σt =80 N/mm2 , τ = 40 N/mm2. Each rod is subjected to an axial Tensile
force of 60 KN. Calculate following dimensions:
1. diameter of spigot 2. width & thickness of cotter
3. thickness of socket collar.
4. Design a socket and spigot joint to resist a tensile load of 28 KN. All the parts
of the joint are made from same material with following allowable stresses:
σt=50 N/mm², σc =60 N/mm², τ =35 N/mm² , σb =50 N/mm².

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EXPERIMENT-3

AIM:- Design of Knuckle Joint.

INTRODUCTION:
A knuckle joint is used to connect two rods which are under the action of tensile loads. However, if the
joint is guided, the rods may support a compressive load. A knuckle joint may be readily disconnected
for adjustments or repairs. Its use may be found in the link of a cycle chain, tie rod joint for roof truss,
valve rod joint with eccentric rod, pump rod joint, tension link in bridge structure and lever and rod
connections of various types.

THEORY:

In knuckle joint (the two views of which are shown in Fig.), one end of one of the rods is made into an
eye and the end of the other rod is formed into a fork with an eye in each of the fork leg. The knuckle
pin passes through both the eye hole and the fork holes and may be secured by means of a collar and
taper pin or spilt pin. The knuckle pin may be prevented from rotating in the fork by means of a small
stop, pin, peg or snug. In order to get a better quality of joint, the sides of the fork and eye are machined,
the hole is accurately drilled and pin turned. The material used for the joint may be steel or wrought
iron.

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Dimensions of Various Parts of the Knuckle Joint

The dimensions of various parts of the knuckle joint are fixed by empirical relations as given below.
It may be noted that all the parts should be made of the same material
i.e. mild steel or wrought iron.
If d is the diameter of rod, then diameter of pin,
d1 = d
Outer diameter of eye,
d2 = 2 d
Diameter of knuckle pin head and collar,
d3 = 1.5 d
Thickness of single eye or rod end,
t = 1.25 d
Thickness of fork, t1 = 0.75 d
Thickness of pin head, t2 = 0.5 d
Other dimensions of the joint are shown in Fig.

Let
P = Tensile load acting on the rod,
d = Diameter of the rod,
d1 = Diameter of the pin,
d2 = Outer diameter of eye,
t = Thickness of single eye,
t1 = Thickness of fork.
σt , τ and σc = Permissible stresses for the joint material in tension, shear and
crushing respectively.

QUESTIONS:
1. State the different application of the knuckle joint.
2. Distinguish between the knuckle joint and gib and cotter joint.
3. Design a knuckle joint to connect two circular mild steel rods which are subjected to a
tensile load of 63 kN. The allowable stresses are 80 MPa in tension, 56 Mpa in shear and 80
MPa in crushing.
4. Design a knuckle joint to connect two mild steel bars under a tensile load of 25 kN. The
allowable stresses are 65 MPa in tension, 50 MPa in shear and 83 MPa in crushing. Standard
diameter of solid bars are 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40 mm. Check failure of
knuckle pin in shear, failure of rod end & forked end in tension, shearing and crushing.

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EXPERIMENT-4

AIM:- Application of Different types of Theories of Failure.

INTRODUCTION:-
Every material has certain strength, expressed in terms of stress or strain, beyond which it fractures or
fails to carry the load.
Failure Criterion: A criterion used to hypothesize the failure.
Failure Theory: A Theory behind a failure criterion.
Need of Failure Theories:
(a) To design structural components and calculate margin of safety.
(b) To guide in materials development.
(c) To determine weak and strong directions.
Failure Theories for Isotropic Materials: Strength and stiffness are independent of the direction.
When a machine element is subjected to a system of complex stress system, it is important to predict the
mode of failure so that the design methodology may be based on a particular failure criterion. Theories
of failure are essentially a set of failure criteria developed for the ease of design. In machine design an
element is said to have failed if it ceases to perform its function. There are basically two types of
mechanical failure:
(a) Yielding- This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the machine part unsuitable to
perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile materials.
(b) Fracture- in this case the component tears apart in two or more parts. This mostly occurs in brittle
materials. There is no sharp line of demarcation between ductile and brittle materials. However a rough
guideline is that if percentage elongation is less than 5% then the material may be treated as brittle and if
it is more than 15% then the material is ductile. However, there are many instances when a ductile
material may fail by fracture. This may occur if a material is subjected to
(a) Cyclic loading.
(b) Long term static loading at elevated temperature.
(c) Impact loading.

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(d) Work hardening.

(e) Severe quenching.

Figure 1 :- Stress strain curve for ductile material

Figure 2 :- Stress strain curve for brittle material

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Different failure theories:

1. Maximum principal stress theory :- According to this, if one of the principal stresses σ1
(maximum principal stress), σ2 (minimum principal stress) or σ3 exceeds the yield stress,
yielding would occur. In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where tensile
and compressive yield stress are nearly of same magnitude σ1 = ± σy or σ2 = ±σy Using this, a
yield surface may be drawn, as shown in figure- 3

Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle. Consider, for example, the
state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel. Here σ1= 2σ2, σ1 being the circumferential or hoop stress
and σ2 the axial stress. As the pressure in the vessel increases the stress follows the dotted line. At a
point (say) a, the stresses are still within the elastic limit but at b, σ1 reaches σy although σ2 is still less
than σy. Yielding will then begin at point b. This theory of yielding has very poor agreement with
experiment. However, the theory has been used successfully for brittle materials.
2. Maximum principal strain theory :- According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum
principal strain just exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple tension or compression.

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If ε1 and ε2 are maximum and minimum principal strains corresponding to σ1 and σ2 in limiting

3. Quadratic or Distortional Energy Theory :- According to this theory yielding would occur when total
distortion energy absorbed per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed
per unit volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and strain energy for volume change
EV can be given as

Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as

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This is an equation of ellipse and the yield surface is shown in figure. This theory agrees very well with
experimental results and is widely used for ductile materials

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QUESTIONS:-
1. Enlist the theories of failures for Brittle Materials.
2. Enlist the theories of failures for Ductile Materials.
3. Determine the maximum and the minimum normal stress for a 75 mm diameter rod, supported
at one end as a cantilever which is subjected to an axial compressive load of 15 KN and a
torsional moment of 1KN-m.
4. Determine the minimum size of a circular hole that can be punched in a M.S. plate, 5 mm
thick and having ultimate shear strength of 300 MPa. Take compressive strength of punch as
360 MPa.

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EXPERIMENT-5

AIM:- Design of the Levers.

INTRODUCTION:

A lever is a rigid rod or bar capable of turning about a fixed point called fulcrum. It is used as a machine
to lift a load by the application of a small effort. The ratio of load lifted to the effort applied is called
mechanical advantage.Sometimes, a lever is merely used to facilitate the application of force in a
desired direction. A lever may be straight or curved and the forces applied on the lever (or by the lever)
may be parallel or inclined to one another.The principle on which the lever works is same as that of
moments.

THEORY:

Consider a straight lever with parallel forces acting in the same plane as shown in Fig 10.1. The points A
and B through which the load and effort is applied are known as load and effort points respectively. F is
the fulcrum about which the lever is capable of turning. The perpendicular
distance between the load point and fulcrum (l1) is knownas load arm and the perpendicular distance
between the effort point and fulcrum (l2) is called effort arm. According to the principle of moments,

i.e. Mechanical advantage,

Figure 1 Stright lever

The ratio of the effort arm to the load arm i.e. l2 / l1 is called leverage

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If a large load is to be lifted by a small effort, then the effort arm should be much greater than
the load arm. In some cases, it may not be possible to provide a lever with large effort arm due to space
limitations. Therefore in order to obtain a great leverage, compound levers may be used. The compound
levers may be made of straight pieces, which may be attached to one another with pin joints. The bell
cranked levers may be used instead of a number of jointed levers. In a compound lever, the leverage is
the product of leverages of various levers.

Application of Levers in Engineering Practice :

The load W and the effort P may be applied to the lever in three different ways as shown in Fig. 2. The
levers shown at (a), (b) and (c) in Fig. 10.2 are called first type, second type and third type of levers
respectively. In the first type of levers, the fulcrum is in between the load and effort. In this case, the
effort arm is greater than load arm, therefore mechanical advantage obtained is more than one. Such type
of levers are commonly found in bell cranked levers used in railway signalling arrangement, rocker arm
in internal combustion engines, handle of a hand pump, hand wheel of a punching press, beam of a
balance, foot lever etc.

Figure 2 Types levers

QUESTIONS:-

1. Why the levers are generally made tapred?

2. What is lever? Explain the principle on which it works.
3. Explain the necessity of providing bosses on the lever at pin locations.
4. State and explain the different functions of levers.
5. Explain lever and leverage.
6. Explain the three basic types of levers with the help of neat sketches and practical examples.

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7. A bell crank lever is to be designed to raise a load of 5KN at the short arm end. The arm lengths
are 150 mm and 500 mm. The permissible stresses for lever and pin materials in shear and
tension are 60 MPa and 90 MPa respectively. The bearing pressure on the pin is to be limited to
12 MPa. Assume the lever cross section as t x 4t and fulcrum pin length as 1.25 times pin
diameter.
8. Design a rocker arm lever having equal arms of 160 mm length inclined at 135 0 for an exhaust
valve of a gas engine subjected to a maximum force of 2500 N at roller end. Consider – I cross
section 6t x 2.5t x t size (where t = thickness of web and flange) for lever. The permissible
stresses for the lever material are 80MPa in tension and design bearing pressure is pin 6 MPa for
pin.

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EXPERIMENT-6

AIM:- Design of shafts.

INTRODUCTION:
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to another. The
power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the resultant torque (or twisting moment) set
up within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to various machines linked up to the shaft. In
order to transfer the power from one shaft to another, the various members such as pulleys, gears etc.,
are mounted on it. These members along with the forces exerted upon them causes the shaft to bending.
In other words, we may say that a shaft is used for the transmission of torque and bending moment. The
various members are mounted on the shaft by means of keys or splines.

THEORY:
Material Used for Shafts
The material used for shafts should have the following properties :
1. It should have high strength.
2. It should have good machinability.
3. It should have low notch sensitivity factor.
4. It should have good heat treatment properties.
5. It should have high wear resistant properties.
Types of Shafts
The following two types of shafts are important from the subject point of view :
1. Transmission shafts. These shafts transmit power between the source and the machines
absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all factory shafts are transmission
shafts. Since these shafts carry machine parts such as pulleys, gears etc., therefore they are subjected
to bending in addition to twisting.
2. Machine shafts. These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is
an example of machine shaft.
Standard Sizes of Transmission Shafts
The standard sizes of transmission shafts are :
25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps; 60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps ; 110 mm to 140 mm
with 15 mm steps ; and 140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps.
The standard length of the shafts are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.

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Stresses in Shafts
The following stresses are induced in the shafts :
1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (i.e. due to torsional load).
2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon machine elements
like gears, pulleys etc. as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

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QUESTIONS:-
1. What is ASME code for shaft design?
2. State & Explain the various criteria on which shaft are designed?
3. State and explain the failures of shafts stating the reasons.
4. Explain the design of shaft based on strength and rigidity as per A.S.M.E. code.
5. State the difference between shaft, axle and spindle.
6. How are the hollow shafts are beneficial over the solid shafts?
7. Explain functions and classification of shaft.
8. Design a shaft to transmit power from an electric motor to a lathe head stock through a pulley by
means of a belt drive. The pulley weighs 200N and is located at 300mm from the centre of the
bearing. The diameter of the pulley is 200mm and the maximum power transmitted is 1KW at
120RPM. The angle of lap of the belt is 180 degree and coefficient of friction between the belt
andthe pulley is 0.3. The shock and fatigue factors for bending and twisting are 1.5 and 2.0
respectively. The allowable shear stress in the shaft may be takenas 35MPa.
9. Find the diameter of a solid shaft to transmit 30kw at 230rpm.The shear stress is 50MPa.If a
hollow shaft is to be used in place of solid shaft ,find the inside and outside diameter when the
ratio of inside to outside diameter is 6:8.

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EXPERIMENT-7

AIM:- Design of couplings.

INTRODUCTION:-
Couplings are used to connect two shafts for torque transmission in varied applications. It may be to
connect two units such as a motor and a generator or it may be to form a long line shaft by connecting
shafts of standard lengths say 6-8m by couplings. Coupling may be rigid or they may provide flexibility
and compensate for misalignment. They may also reduce shock loading and vibration. A wide variety of
commercial shaft couplings are available ranging from a simple keyed coupling to one which requires a
complex design procedure using gears or fluid drives etc. However there are two main types of
couplings: Rigid couplings Flexible couplings Rigid couplings are used for shafts having no
misalignment while the flexible couplings can absorb some amount of misalignment in the shafts to be
connected.
Types and uses of shaft couplings:-
1. Rigid couplings Since these couplings cannot absorb any misalignment the shafts to be connected by
a rigid coupling must have good lateral and angular alignment. The types of misalignments are shown
schematically in figure

Figure 1:- Shafts misalignments

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Types of rigid couplings:-

1. Flange coupling
2. Ring compression type couplings
3. Sleeve coupling with taper pins
4. Sleeve coupling
5. Clamp coupling
Flexible coupling As discussed earlier these couplings can accommodate some misalignment and
impact. A large variety of flexible couplings are available commercially and principal features of only a
few will be discussed here.
Types of rigid couplings:-
1. Oldham coupling
2. Universal couplings
3. Pin type flexible couplings

QUESTIONS:-

1. Explain Classification of coupling.

2. Design a protective type C.I.flange coupling for a steel shaft transmitting 15KW at 200rpm and
having an allowable shear stress of 40N/mm2 .The working stress in the bolts should not exceed
30N/mm2.Assume that the same material is used for shaft and key and that of crushing stress is
twice the value of its shear stress .The maximum torque is 25% greater than the full load torque.
The shear stress for C.I. is 14N/mm2.
3. Design and draw a rigid type cast iron flange coupling for a steel shaft transmitting 15 KW at
200 rpm and having an allowable shear stress of 40 KN/mm². The maximum torque is 25%
greater than the full load torque. The working stress in the bolt should not exceed 30 KN/mm².
Assume that the same material is used for shaft and key and that the crushing stress is twice the
value of its shear stress. The shear stress for cast iron is 14 kN/mm².

4. Differentiate between flexible coupling and rigid coupling? State the different applications of
coupling.

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EXPERIMENT-8

AIM:- Design of joints using Welding, Riveting and Fasteners.

INTRODUCTION:-
Threaded fasteners are grouped in to the category of temporary or non –permanent joints as they can be
removed without actually damaging the whole screwed joint. Whereas the riveted joints are grouped in
to the category of permanent joints as they can not be disassembled without damaging the rivet
body.The following section discusses about the different types of screwed and riveted joints and
important failure modes being important from the subject point of view.
THREADED JOINTS:-
Thread Standards and Definitions  The terminology of screw threads is illustrated in the figure.
Pitch (p): the distance between adjacent threads measured parallel to thread axis. Major diameter (D):
the largest diameter of the screw thread. Minor diameter (D1): also called “root diameter”, is the
smallest diameter of the screw thread. Mean diameter (D2 ): also called “pitch diameter”, the average
diameter of the screw thread (considering the theoretical full height of the threads). Lead (l): the distance
a nut moves parallel to the screw axis when it rotates one full turn.

Figure 1 :- Terminology of screwed joint

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For a single thread screw the lead is same as the pitch. For multiple thread screws (two or more threads
run beside each other) the lead equals the pitch multiplied by the number of threads. All threads are
usually right-handed unless otherwise is indicated. Tensile tests showed that a threaded rod has a tensile
strength equal to that of an unthreaded rod having diameter equal to the average of the pitch diameter
and minor diameter of the threaded rod.
Bolts are standardized and there are two standards: Metric (ISO) and American (Unified). In both
standards the thread angle is 60 degree.
Metric (ISO): There are two standard profiles M and MJ where both have a similar geometry but the
MJ has a rounded fillet at the root and a larger minor diameter and therefore it has a better fatigue
strength. Metric bolts are specified by the major diameter and the pitch (both in mm). Example: M10 x
1.5(10 mm major diameter and 1.5 mm pitch). Note that there is Coarse-pitch and Fine-pitch (more
threads) where the fine-pitch has better tensile strength.

Figure 2 :- M profile
American (Unified):
There are two standard profiles UN and UNR where the UNR has a filleted root and thus better fatigue
strength. Unified threads are specified by the major diameter (in inch) and the number of threads per
inch (N). As an example 0.25-20 UNC

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EVALUATION OF LOADING CONDITIONS FOR SCREWED JOINTS:-

The screwed joints are evaluated for the internal as well as stresses generated due to external loads.The
stresses generated are generally of tensile and shear in nature.
RIVETED JOINTS:-
Rivets and Riveting: A Rivet is a short cylindrical rod having a head and a tapered tail. The main body
of the rivet is called shank (see figure 10.1.1). According to Indian standard specifications rivet heads
are of various types. Rivets heads for general purposes are specified by Indian standards IS: 2155-1982
(below 12 mm diameter) and IS: 1929-1982 (from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter). Rivet heads used for
boiler works are specified by IS: 1928-1978.

Figure 3:-Rivets and its parts

Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a rivet. Adequate
mechanical force is applied to make the joint strong and leak proof. Smooth holes are drilled (or
punched and reamed) in two plates to be joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then, the head by
means of a backing up bar as shown in figure 1, necessary force is applied at the tail end with a die until
the tail deforms plastically to the required shape. Depending upon whether the rivet is initially heated or
not, the riveting operation can be of two types: (a) cold riveting riveting is done at ambient temperature
and (b) hot riveting rivets are initially heated before applying force. After riveting is done, the joint is

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heat-treated by quenching and tempering. In order to ensure leak-proofness of the joints, when it is
required, additional operation like caulking is done .
Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a rivet. Adequate mechanical force is
applied to make the joint strong and leak proof. Smooth holes are drilled (or punched and reamed) in two
plates to be joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then, the head by means of a backing up bar as shown in
figure 4, necessary force is applied at the tail end with a die until the tail deforms plastically to the required
shape. Depending upon whether the rivet is initially heated or not, the riveting operation can be of two types:
(a) cold riveting riveting is done at ambient temperature and (b) hot riveting rivets are initially heated before
applying force. After riveting is done, the joint is heat-treated by quenching and tempering. In order to ensure
leak-proofness of the joints, when it is required, additional operation like caulking is done .

Figure 4:-Riveting operation

Types of riveted joints and joint efficiency:
Riveted joints are mainly of two types
1. Lap joints :- The plates that are to be joined are brought face to face such that an overlap exists, as
shown in figure 5. Rivets are inserted on the overlapping portion. Single or multiple rows of rivets
are used to give strength to the joint. Depending upon the number of rows the riveted joints may be
classified as single riveted lap joint, double or triple riveted lap joint etc.

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Figure 5:- Lap Joint

2. Butt joints :- In this type of joint, the plates are brought to each other without forming any overlap.
Riveted joints are formed between each of the plates and one or two cover plates. Depending upon the
number of cover plates the butt joints may be single strap or double strap butt joints.

Figure 6:-Butt joint with single and double cover

Important terms used in riveted joints :

Few parameters, which are required to specify arrangement of rivets in a riveted joint are as follows:
a) Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single row. (usual
symbol p)

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b) Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple riveted joint.
(usual symbol tp or bp)
c) Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of zigzag riveted
joint. (usual symbol dp)

d) Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to the nearest edge
of the plate. (usual symbol m)

Figure 7:- Terminologies in riveted joints

EVALUATION OF FAILURE MODES FOR RIVETED JOINTS:-

Joints are evaluated for failure modes such as:-
1. Tearing of plates at an edge
2. Tearing of plate across the rowsof rivets
3. Shearing of rivets.
4. Crushing failure.

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QUESTIONS:-
1. What are different types of screw threads? Explain with neat sketch.
2. Explain in brief different types of screwed fasteners.
3. How are screw threads designated.
4. What is riveting? Explain different methods of riveting.
5. What are the types of riveted joints?Explain what is single riveted and double riveted joints.
6. Define the following terms:-
a. Pitch
b. Back pitch
c. Diagonal pitch
d. Margin
7. What is caulking and fullering?
8. Explain different modes of failure of riveted joint.
9. A double riveted double cover butt joint is made of 12mm thick plates. The rivet diameter and
pitch are 20mm and 65mm respectively. Find the efficiency of the joint if,ϭy=100MPa,
ϭu=120MPa,τ=75N/mm2
10. A plate 60mm wide and 80mm thick. It is welded with another plate by means of single
transverse and double parallel fillet welds. Find the length of each parallel fillets if allowable
tensile and shear stress in the weld material are 80 and60Mpa respectively.

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EXPERIMENT-9

AIM:- Understanding the Concept of Limit, Fit and Tolerances.

INTRODUCTION :-The ISO System of Limits and Fits (referred to as the ISO system) is covered in
national standards throughout the world, as shown by the following list:
1. Global -ISO 286
2. USA ANSI B4.2
3. Japan JIS B0401
4. Germany DIN 7160//61
5. France NF E 02-100-122
6. UK BSI 4500
7. Italy UNI 6388
8. Australia AS 1654
DEFINITIONS :- The most important terms relating to limits and fits are as shown in Fig. 1. The terms
are defined below.
A. Basic size — the size to which limits or deviations are assigned. The basic size is the same for
both members of a fit. It is designated by the number 40 in 40H7.
B. Deviation — the algebraic difference between a size and the corresponding basic size
C. Upper deviation — the algebraical difference between the maximum limit of size and the
corresponding basic size
D. Lower deviation — the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and the
corresponding basic size
E. Fundamental deviation — the one of the two deviations closest to the basic size. It is designated
by the letter H in 40H7
F. Tolerance — the difference between the maximum and minimum size limits on a part
G. Tolerance zone — a zone representing the tolerance and its position in relation to the basic size

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H. International tolerance grade (IT) — a group of tolerances which vary depending on the basic
size, but which provide the same relative level of accuracy within a given grade. It is designated
by the number 7 in 40H7 (IT7).
I. Hole basis — the system of fits where the minimum hole size is basic. The fundamental
deviation for a hole basis system is “H”.
J. Shaft basis — the system of fits where the maximum shaft size is basic. The fundamental
deviation for a shaft basis system is “h”.
K. Clearance fit — the relationship between assembled parts when clearance occurs under all
tolerance conditions
L. Interference fit — the relationship between assembled parts when interference occurs under all
tolerance conditions
M. Transition fit— the relationship between assembled parts when either a clearance or interference
fit can result depending on the tolerance conditions of the mating parts.

Fig. 1:-Basic definitions

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DESCRIPTION OF TOLERANCE DESIGNATION

An “International Tolerance grade” establishes the magnitude of the tolerance zone or the amount of
part size variation allowed for internal and external dimensions alike. Tolerances are expressed in “grade
number,” which are consistent with International Tolerance grades identified by the prefix IT, i.e.,
“IT6,” “IT11,” etc. A smaller grade number provides a smaller tolerance zone.
A fundamental deviation establishes the position of the tolerance zone with respect to the basic size
Fundamental deviations are expressed by “tolerance position letters.” Capital letters are used for internal
dimensions, and lower case or small letters are used for external dimensions.
Symbols:-
By combining the IT grade number and the tolerance position letter, the tolerance symbol is established
which identifies the actual maximum and minimum limits of the part. The toleranced sizes are thus
defined by the basic size of the part followed by a symbol composed of a letter and a number.

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Figure2:-Tolerance designation

A fit is indicated by the basic size common to both components, followed by a symbol corresponding to
each component, the internal part symbol preceding the external part symbol.
BILATERAL TOLERANCE SYSTEM
The ISO system of limits and fits has a full range of bilateral (two-sided) tolerances designated js and
JS. The two symmetrical deviations are ± IT/2 (one half of the International Tolerances grade).
UNILATERAL TOLERANCE SYSTEM
The ISO system of limits and fits, with all its possible combinations, includes two unilateral (one-sided)
tolerancing methods that are in common use. One tolerancing practice is based on a nominal hole (H,
hole basis), the other on a nominal shaft (h, shaft basis). The ISO system has been in use in Germany for
over 60 years, and standards for selected fits have influenced the European market for metric standard
material sizes, measuring tools, couplings, collars, bearings, etc.
HOLE-BASIS OR SHAFT-BASIS FITS
The nominal H, hole-basis fit and h, shaft-basis fit tolerancing systems are both used, depending on each
specific application. The hole-basis system is used with stepped shaft designs. Standard gages for
checking the hole-basis fits cost less than those required for checking shaft-basis fits. In designs where a
uniform-diameter shaft is used it is advantageous to employ the shaft basis system. For example, in the
case of driving shafts, a single shaft may have to accommodate a variety of accessories such as
couplings, bearings, collars, etc. Steel products toleranced to the shaft-basis system are supplied in a
number of steel

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QUESTIONS:-
1. What are the types of tolerances. How are tolerances designated?
2. Define the following terms:-
a. Limits
b. Fits
c. Upper deviation
d. Fundamental deviation
3. What are types of geometrical tolerances?
4. What is fit. Give classification of fits.
5. Explain hole basis and shaft basis system.
6. Explain machining symbols with all parameters.
7. In a hub and pin assembly, the lower and upper limits on the inner diameter of the hub are 40
mm and 40.021mm respectively, while the lower and upper limits on the diameter of the pin are
40.028mm and 40.041mm respectively.Determine
a. tolerance on hub diameter.
b. tolerance on pin diameter.
c. the allowance.
State the type of fit of the assembly.

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EXPERIMENT- 10

AIM: Different features of Computer Aided Drafting Tools.

 Overview Of CAD Software

Starting around the mid 1970s, as computer aided design systems began to provide more capability than
just an ability to reproduce manual drafting with electronic drafting, the cost benefit for companies to
switch to CAD became apparent. The benefit of CAD systems over manual drafting are the capabilities
one often takes for granted from computer systems today; automated generation of Bill of Material, auto
layout in integrated circuits, interference checking, and many others. Eventually CAD provided the
designer with the ability to perform engineering calculations. During this transition, calculations were
still performed either by hand or by those individuals that could run computer programs. CAD was a
revolutionary change in the engineering industry, where draftsmen, designers and engineering roles
begin to merge. It did not eliminate departments, as much as it merged departments and empowered
draftsman, designers and engineers. CAD is just another example of the pervasive effect computers were
beginning to have on industry. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-
based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently
allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even
from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling, in
which case it may be marketed as CAD.
CAD technology is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types
of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures
(hospitals and factories).
CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components,
but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products,
through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of
components. It can also be used to design objects. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer
advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product

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designs. 4D BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule
related information for project management.
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies,
with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD
enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving
time on their drawings.
 Introduction

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to aid in the creation, modification,

analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer,
improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a
database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or
other manufacturing operations.
Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in designing electronic systems is known
as electronic design automation, or EDA. In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design
automation (MDA) or computer-aided design (CAD), which includes the process of creating
a technical drawing with the use of computer software.
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of
traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed
objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the
manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information,
such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.
CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and
solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive,
shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more.
CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and
technical manuals, often called DCC digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of
computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques
unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a
major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and
software), and discrete differential geometry.

 Uses
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Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many
ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question.
CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the Product Lifecycle
Management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated
modules or stand-alone products, such as:

 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) machines
 Photo realistic rendering and Motion Simulation.
 Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation
of Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are
superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like, where
the proposed facilities are allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies
are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD.
CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history,
features, parameterization, and high level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back
into the model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole model. Parameters
and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and other properties of the different modeling
elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as
tensile strength, yield strength, electrical or electro-magnetic properties. Also its stress, strain, timingor
how the element gets affected in certain temperatures, etc.

2D/3D Modeling

 Art of Illusion
 Blender
 FreeCAD
 BRL-CAD
 OpenSCAD
 ImplicitCAD
 pythonOCC
 CADEMIA (open source community edition no longer maintained

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 OpenCASCADE (very powerful CAD library which serves as base for applications, e.g.
FreeCAD)

2D Modeling

 LibreCAD
 QCad
 Features Of The Cad Software
1. Extruded Boss/Base.
2. Extruded Cut.
3. Revolved Boss/Base.
4. Revolved Cut.
5. Swept Boss/Base.
6. Loft Boss/Base.
7. Shell.
8. Mirror.
9. Fillet/Chamfer.
10. Patern.

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EXPERIMENT-11

AIM: Modeling of cotter joint using SOLIDWORKS.

1. Prepare a 3D model of all parts of cotter joint which is designed in experiment number 3 and
prepare the assembly in SOLID WORKS software and attach printout of the modeling file.

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EXPERIMENT- 12

AIM: Modeling of Knuckle joint using SOLIDWORKS.

2. Prepare a 3D model of all parts of Knuckle joint which is designed in experiment number 4
and prepare the assembly in SOLID WORKS software and attach printout of the modeling
file.

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EXPERIMENT-13

AIM:- Design of column.

INTRODUCTION:-

In the design of columns, cross-sectional area is selected such that

1. allowable stress is not exceeded
P
   all
A
2. deformation falls within specifications
PL
   spec
AE
When a structure ( subjected usually to compression ) undergoes visibly large displacements transverse
to the load then it is said to   buckle. Buckling is an instability of equilibrium.

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Buckling and bending are similar in that they both involve bending moments. In bending these moments
are substantially independent of the resulting deflections. In buckling the moments and deflections are
mutually inter-dependent - so moments, deflections and stresses are not proportional to loads.
If buckling deflections become too large then the structure fails - this is a geometric consideration,
completely divorced from any material strength consideration.
Structural members which carry compressive loads may be divided into two broad categories depending
on their relative lengths and cross-sectional dimensions.
Columns:
Short, thick members are generally termed columns and these usually fail by crushing when the yield
stress of the material in compression is exceeded.
Struts:
Long, slender columns are generally termed as struts, they fail by buckling some time before the yield
stress in compression is reached. The buckling occurs owing to one the following reasons.
(a). the strut may not be perfectly straight initially.
(b). the load may not be applied exactly along the axis of the Strut.
(c). one part of the material may yield in compression more readily than others owing to some lack of
uniformity in the material properties through out the strut.
In all the problems considered so far we have assumed that the deformation to be both progressive with
increasing load and simple in form i.e. we assumed that a member in simple tension or compression
becomes progressively longer or shorter but remains straight. Under some circumstances however, our
assumptions of progressive and simple deformation may no longer hold good and the member become
unstable. The term strut and column are widely used, often interchangeably in the context of buckling of
slender members.
At values of load below the buckling load a strut will be in stable equilibrium where the displacement
caused by any lateral disturbance will be totally recovered when the disturbance is removed. At the
buckling load the strut is said to be in a state of neutral equilibrium, and theoretically it should than be
possible to gently deflect the strut into a simple sine wave provided that the amplitude of wave is kept
small.
Theoretically, it is possible for struts to achieve a condition of unstable equilibrium with loads exceeding
the buckling load, any slight lateral disturbance then causing failure by buckling, this condition is never

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achieved in practice under static load conditions. Buckling occurs immediately at the point where the
buckling load is reached, owing to the reasons stated earlier.
The resistance of any member to bending is determined by its flexural rigidity EI and is The quantity I
may be written as I = Ak2,
Where I = area of moment of inertia
A = area of the cross-section
k = radius of gyration.
The load per unit area which the member can withstand is therefore related to k. There will be two
principal moments of inertia, if the least of these is taken then the ratio

Is called the slenderness ratio. It's numerical value indicates whether the member falls into the class of
columns or struts.
Euler's Theory : The struts which fail by buckling can be analyzed by Euler's theory.
Limitations of Euler's Theory :
              In practice the ideal conditions are never [ i.e. the strut is initially straight and the end load
being applied axially through centroid] reached. There is always some eccentricity and initial curvature
present. These factors needs to be accommodated in the required formula's.
              It is realized that, due to the above mentioned imperfections the strut will suffer a deflection
which increases with load and consequently a bending moment is introduced which causes failure before
the Euler's load is reached. Infact failure is by stress rather than by buckling and the deviation from the
Euler value is more marked as the slenderness-ratio l/k is reduced. For values of l/k < 120 approx, the
error in applying the Euler theory is too great to allow of its use. The stress to cause buckling from the
Euler formula for the pin ended strut is

A plot of se versus l / k ratio is shown by the curve ABC.

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Allowing for the imperfections of loading and strut, actual values at failure must lie within and below
line CBD.
Other formulae have therefore been derived to attempt to obtain closer agreement between the actual
failing load and the predicted value in this particular range of slenderness ratio i.e.l/k=40 to l/k=100.
(a) Straight – line formulae :
The permissible load is given by the formulae

 Where the value of index ‘n' depends on the material used and the end conditions.
(b) Johnson parabolic formulae : The Johnson parabolic formulae is defined as

 where the value of index ‘b' depends on the end conditions.

(c) Rankine Gordon Formulae :

Where   Pe = Euler crippling load

 Pc = Crushing load or Yield point load in Compression
PR = Actual load to cause failure or Rankine load
Since the Rankine formulae is a combination of the Euler and crushing load for a strut.

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For a very short strut Pe is very large hence 1/ P ewould be large so that 1/ P ecan be neglected.
Thus PR = Pc , for very large struts, P e is very small so 1/ P e would be large and 1/ P ccan be neglected
,hence PR = Pe
The Rankine formulae is therefore valid for extreme values of 1/k.It is also found to be fairly accurate
for the intermediate values in the range under consideration. 

QUESTIONS:-
1. What is compression failure and buckling failure? Difference between compression failure and
buckling failure.
2. What are the different approaches adopted in determining the critical load? Explain in brief
Euler’s theory stating its assumptions.
3. Explain in brief Johnson’s formula for columns.
4. Explain in brief Rankine’s formula for columns.
5. A plain carbon steel (Syc=400 N/mm2 and E=210 GPa) bar of length 1m and rectangular cross-
section 20mm x 40mm is to be used as a column to support an axial load. One end of column is
hinged while other end is fixed. If the required factor of safety is 4, determine the safe
compressive load the column can support. Which of the two formulae Euler’s or Johnson’s will
you use.

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EXPERIMENT-14

AIM:- Modeling of column using SOLIDWORKS.

3. Prepare a 3D model of column which is designed in experiment number 13 in SOLID

WORKS software and attach printout of the modeling file.

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