Design and Fabrication of Hybrid Braking System 2018-2019

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF HYBRID BRAKING SYSTEM 2018-2019
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The current problem in the conventional brakes is that the braking torque is not sufficient
for the automobiles that are in production these days and also have consistent wear of brake
pads. The chances of failure are even higher at high speeds. So a hybrid braking system is
developed in order to overcome these problems. It’s called a hybrid braking system because
it is a combination of two braking systems, namely eddy current braking and
electromagnetic braking systems. The mechanism is divided into two main parts which are
listed below.
1.1 Eddy current braking:

Principle: The braking mechanism is governed by Lenz’s law which states that the
direction of the induced current is always such as to oppose the change in magnetic field
that produces it. Eddy currents are induced in the rotor with the help of an electromagnet
and the direction of current is such that it opposes the rotation of the rotor. So that the speed
of the rotor is reduced. This brings an advantage of zero wear since there is no contact
required.
Fig 1.1: Principle of eddy current braking
Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 1

The movement of a metal plate in a magnetic field induces a voltage which in turn creates
eddy currents and metal plate decelerates. The better the conductivity and permeability of
the plate, the stronger the braking force. There is no mechanical contact between the brakes
and hence is wear free and silent and requires minimal maintenance. The braking force is
independent of the coefficient of friction ensuring high efficiency regardless of wheel rail
adhesion for example damp conditions. This means that relatively high braking forces can
be applied which remain almost constant even in high speed Applications. The braking
force can be accurately controlled by regulation of the magnetic field. Intensity of magnetic
field allows the brake to be finely controlled as the magnetic field is created using
electromagnets fed from an external power supply. So, there are obviously significant
potential savings if the use of eddy current brakes can be extended. Eddy current brakes
provide non-contact means to produce braking forces required to decelerate the motion of
a moving object. With the rapid expansion of high speed lines and highways around the
world, there is clearly considerable potential for a wider application of frictionless braking.
Good braking performance is an important guarantee for safe driving. When an automotive
runs at a constant speed on the downhill where slope is greater than 6% or 7% braking
ability of main braking mechanism, and it is hard to meet the requirements of safety driving.
As one of auxiliary braking sets eddy current retarder has been used for heavy duty vehicles
and top-grade buses widely now. Its braking performance has a short response time, a large
brake torque. And in certain conditions the speed of vehicles is maintained within the
specified range. 30 to 80% of braking load can be split by eddy current retarder, and braking
distance and braking time can be decreased by 15 to 19%, meanwhile, brake temperature-
rise decreases from 38 to 50%, so the life of the main braking mechanism can be extended.
Types of eddy current brakes:

1.1.1 Disk eddy current brakes:
Disk electromagnetic brakes are used on vehicles such as trains, and power tools such as
circular saws, to stop the blade quickly when the power is turned off. A disk eddy current
brake consists of a conductive non-ferromagnetic metal disc (rotor) attached to the axle of
the vehicle's wheel, with an electromagnet located with its poles on each side of the disk,
so the magnetic field passes through the disk. The electromagnet allows the braking force
to be varied. When no current is passed through the electromagnet's winding, there is no
braking force. When the driver steps on the brake pedal, current is passed through the

electromagnet windings, creating a magnetic field, The larger the current in the winding,
the larger the eddy currents and the stronger the braking force. Power tool brakes use
permanent magnets, which are moved adjacent to the disk by a linkage when the power is
turned off. The kinetic energy of the vehicle's motion is dissipated in Joule heating by the
eddy currents passing through the disk's resistance, so like conventional friction disk
brakes, the disk becomes hot. Unlike in the linear brake below, the metal of the disk passes
repeatedly through the magnetic field, so disk eddy current brakes get hotter than linear
eddy current brakes.
Fig 1.2 Eddy current braking system in bullet trains (N700 Series Shinkansen)
Japanese Shinkansen trains had employed circular eddy current brake system on trailer cars
since 100 Series Shinkansen. However, N700 Series Shinkansen abandoned eddy current
brakes in favour of regenerative brakes, since 14 of the 16 cars in the trainset used electric
motors. In regenerative brakes, the motor that drives the wheel is used as a generator to
produce electric current, which can be used to charge a battery, so the energy can be used
again.
1.1.2 Linear eddy current brakes:
Linear eddy current brakes are used on some vehicles that ride on rails, such as trains. They
are used on roller coasters, to stop the cars smoothly at the end of the ride. The linear eddy
current brake consists of a magnetic yoke with electrical coils positioned along the rail,
which are being magnetized alternating as south and north magnetic poles. This magnet
does not touch the rail, but is held at a constant small distance from the rail of approximately
7 mm (the eddy current brake should not be confused with another device, the magnetic
brake, in wide use in railways, which exerts its braking force by friction of a brake shoe
with the rail). It works the same as a disk eddy current brake, by inducing closed loops of
eddy current in the conductive rail, which generate counter magnetic fields which oppose
the motion of the train.
Fig 1.3 Eddy current brakes of a roller coaster
The kinetic energy of the moving vehicle is converted to heat by the eddy current flowing
through the electrical resistance of the rail, which leads to a warming of the rail. An
advantage of the linear brake is that since each section of rail passes only once through the
magnetic field of the brake, in contrast to the disk brake in which each section of the disk
passes repeatedly through the brake, the rail doesn't get as hot as a disk, so the linear brake
can dissipate more energy and have a higher power rating than disk brakes. The eddy
current brake does not have any mechanical contact with the rail, and thus no wear, and
creates no noise or odour. The eddy current brake is unusable at low speeds, but can be
used at high speeds both for emergency braking and for regular braking.
The TSI (Technical Specifications for Interoperability) of the EU for trans-European high-
speed rail recommends that all newly built high-speed lines should make the eddy current
brake possible. The first train in commercial circulation to use such a braking system has
been the ICE 3. Modern roller coasters also use this type of braking, but in order to avoid
the risk posed by potential power outages, they utilize permanent magnets instead of

electromagnets, thus not requiring any power supply, however, without the possibility to
adjust the braking strength as easily as with electromagnets.
1.2 Electromagnetic braking:

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or
stop motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The
original name was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to
"electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation method. Since becoming popular in
the mid-20th century especially in trains and trams, the variety of applications and brake
designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same. Both
electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but
electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use
magnetic force directly.
Principle: This mechanism uses an electromagnet to apply the mechanical torque instead
of mechanical linkages, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc. The electromagnet pulls the brake pad
against the rotating disc. This helps to bring the rotating member to a complete stop which
cannot be achieved by the eddy current brakes.
Fig 1.4: Principle of electromagnetic braking

There are many types of electromagnetic brakes (tooth, multiple disc, hysteresis, magnetic
particle). The most widely used version is the single face design. Electromagnetic brakes
operate electrically but transmit torque mechanically. This is why they used to be referred
to as Electro Mechanical clutches and brakes. Over the years EM became known as
electromagnetic verses electro mechanical referring more about their actuation method
verses physical operation. Since electromagnetic brakes started becoming popular, over
seventy years ago, the variety of applications and brake designs has increased dramatically
but the basic operation of the single face electromagnetic brake still remains the same.
Think of the coil shell as a horseshoe magnet having a north and South Pole. If a piece of
iron contacted both poles a magnetic circuit is created. When power is applied a magnetic
field is created this field (flux) overcomes the air gap between field and the armature. This
magnetic attraction pulls the armature in contact with the brake field face. The friction and
the strength of the magnetic field, is what causes the rotational motion to stop. Almost all
of the torque comes from the magnetic attraction and coefficient of friction between the
steel of the armature and the steel of the rotor or brake field. But for many industrial
clutches or brakes, friction material is used between the poles. The material is mainly used
to help decrease the wear rate. But different types of material can also be used to change
the coefficient of friction for special applications. For example if the brake was required to
have an extended time to stop or slip time, a low coefficient material can be used.
Conversely, if the brake was required to have a slightly higher torque, a high coefficient
friction material could be used.
Copper (sometimes aluminium) magnet wire used to create the coil which is held in the
shell either by a bobbin or by an epoxy / adhesive. For most industrial brakes, friction
material is then placed over the coil and is set between the inner and outer pole. The friction
material is flush with the surface of the brake because you want to have metal to metal
contact between the coil shell and the armature.
Types of electromagnetic brakes:
1.2.1 Single face brake:

A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the input and output
members of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of
all of the power applied brake applications.

1.2.2 Power off brake:

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or
intentionally disconnected. In the past, some companies have referred to these as "fail safe"
brakes. These brakes are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications
include robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor brakes. Brakes are
available in multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs.
Multiple disks can also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter.
There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes. The second is
permanent magnet brakes.
i. Spring type:
When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a pressure plate,
squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This
frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.
ii. Permanent magnet type:
A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a standard power applied
electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses permanent
magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged, the permanent
magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can in turn attract the armature to the brake
housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate
magnetic field that cancels out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets.
Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them.
They are typically required to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or when
power is not available in a machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high
torque for their size, but also require a constant current control to offset the permanent
magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a constant current control, they can
use a simple rectifier, but are larger in diameter or would need stacked friction disks to
increase the torque.
Applications
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking

component. Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element
is pressed by magnetic force to the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track
brakes, where the braking element is mechanically pressed on the rail. Electric motors in
industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes. Recent design
innovations have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications.
In this application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires
up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator to
provide regenerative braking.
1.3 Significances: The following are the significances,

 Eddy current brakes satisfy all the energy requirements of braking without the use
of friction. They have better heat dissipation capability to avoid problems that
friction brakes faces times.
 The fabricated braking system is be able to slow down the setup without any
contact at higher speeds, because that’s when there is maximum wear, heat due to
friction and maximum chances of failure.
 The braking torque can be controlled very accurately just by varying the voltage
across the coils.
 They can also be used as a supplementary retardation equipment in addition to the
regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
 The electromagnetic brakes are efficient in stopping the rotor completely in case
of emergencies.
 No leakage of Oil, as they are not used in the mechanism.
1.4 Limitations: The following are the limitations,

 The installation of an electromagnetic brake is very difficult if there is not enough
space between the gearbox and rear axle.
 The braking system is much heavier compared to the conventional brakes.
 Extra source of power is required to supply current to Electromagnets, which adds
up unnecessary weight in regular IC engine vehicles.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The current development in eddy current brakes is taking place mainly in bullet trains and
not much is focused on automobiles. Even the few systems which use eddy current brakes,
use it as a secondary brakes along with conventional hydraulic brakes. The current research
is mainly focused on reducing the size of the system and fulfil its power requirements.
Electromagnetic braking systems are also being used in trains, Electric motors in industrial
and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes. Recent design innovations
have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications. In this
application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires up to
speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator to provide
regenerative braking.
2.1 Present art of work:

 In this literature paper, G.L. Anantha Krishna, K.M. Sathish Kumar has conducted
an investigation on eddy current braking mechanisms. They have observed that
changing magnetic field will induce eddy currents in the conductor. These currents
will dissipate energy in the conductor and generate drag force. It is found that
Aluminum is the best material as conductor compared to Copper and Zinc. Also, it
is found that the larger thickness of disc, more number of turns of electromagnet
and higher electrical conductivity of conductor influences the generation of greater
braking torque. Permanent magnet eddy current brake uses Neodymium – Iron –
Boron (NdFeB) magnets. The analysis of Permanent magnet eddy current shows
that the parallel magnetized eddy current topology has the superior braking torque
capability. In electrically controlled eddy current braking mechanism subjected to
time varying fields in different wave forms, the triangular wave field application
resulted in highest braking torque. Electromagnetic brakes were found to interfere
with the signaling and train control mechanism. Permanent magnet eddy current
brakes are a simple and reliable alternative to mechanical or electromagnetic brakes
in transportation applications. Greater the speed greater is the eddy current braking
efficiency. Hence, author intends to work on the development and investigation of

permanent magnet eddy Current braking mechanism. We are going to use this
concept in the high speed retardation through eddy currents.[1]
 In this literature paper Liu Chengye, and Shen Jianming have studied the design
technologies of eddy current retarder, In this paper, key technologies of eddy
current retarder, such as braking torque, working volt and current, magnetic circuit,
material of rotor plate and iron, heat dissipation performance of rotor plate, match
between eddy current retarded and automobile, and effect of temperature rise on its
braking performance were presented and discussed in detail. Meanwhile, advantage
and disadvantage of eddy current retarder were analyzed. Auxiliary brake sets had
been widely used for heavy duty trucks and advanced buses. They played a role of
split-flow braking load of main brake mechanism. As one of auxiliary brake sets
eddy current retarder had good braking performance and braking stability, and it is
automotive and maintain constant speed by its continual braking. [2]
 In this literature paper E. Galardi, E. Meli, D. Nocciolini, L. Pugi & A. Rindi have
done a survey on efficient models of magnetic braking mechanisms of railway
vehicles and observed that in modern railway vehicles, the use of Magnetic Braking
Mechanisms is continuously increasing, because they are characterized by high
braking performances and low Energy consumptions. Hence, the study and the
accurate modelling of Magnetic Braking Mechanisms is a very important issue,
because they significantly affect the Dynamics of vehicle and electrical supply
circuit. Usually, the performances of Magnetic Braking Mechanisms are evaluated
on test-rigs in order to reduce times and Costs of testing phases. For this reason, the
authors focus on the development of a complete 3D model of Magnetic Brake
Mechanism test-rig (built in COMSOL), including all the electromagnetic, circuital
and mechanical parts. These parts are often studied separately in the literature;
however, a combined analysis is crucial to correctly describe the behavior of the
whole mechanism. The proposed model is highly modular (to describe different
Magnetic Brake Mechanism test-rig layouts characterized by a different number of
magnetic polar expansions) and aims at obtaining a compromise between accuracy
and numerical efficiency. Subsequently, a second simplified lumped parameter
model derived from the complete one and built in MATLAB is developed, to further
reduce the computational load without decreasing the results accuracy. In this

Work, both the models have been developed and validated in collaboration Ferrovie
dello Stato and compared with other simplified models present in the literature.[3]
 In this literature paper Lionginas Liudvinavičius & Leonas Povilas Lingaitis(2007)
have studied the electrodynamic braking in high speed rail transport. The paper
considers electrodynamic braking of trains, which is of particular importance for
high-speed railway transport from theoretical and technical perspectives. Braking
methods used for high-speed trains should ensure Compatibility and redundancy of
braking mechanisms. They include a mechanical method (based on adding
frictional disks to wheelsets), as well as magnetic braking, which is being currently
implemented and based on eddy currents,Etc. High-speed trains have AC/DC
engines, for which the principles of electric braking can be applied. Electrodynamic
braking is of particular importance for high-speed transport using linear motors and
developing the speed of400–500 km/h. These traction rolling stocks will not have
commonly used trucks. The tests in this area are being conducted in Japan and
Germany now. The paper suggests some theoretical and practical solutions to these
problems. Schematic diagrams of the locomotive braking and ways of controlling
the braking force by varying electric circuit parameters are presented. The authors
suggested contact-free regulation of braking rheostat resistor for controlling braking
force in rheostatic braking. A schematic diagram of harmonizing electrified
railways and power mechanism’s upgrading aimed at ensuring power regeneration
is also presented.[4]
 In this literature paper Ren He, Et. All have studied the brake performance and
analysis of ABS for eddy current and electrohydraulic hybrid brake mechanism.
This paper introduces an eddy current and electro-hydraulic hybrid brake
mechanism to solve problems such as wear, thermal failure, and slow response of
traditional vehicle brake mechanism. Mathematical model was built to calculate the
torque of the eddy current brake mechanism and hydraulic brake mechanism and
analyze the braking force distribution between two types of brake mechanisms. A
fuzzy controller on personal computer based on LabVIEW and Mat lab was
designed and a set of hardware in the loop mechanism was constructed to validate
and analyze the performance of the hybrid brake mechanism. Through lots of
experiments on dry and wet asphalt roads, the hybrid brake mechanism achieves
perfect performance on the experimental bench, the hybrid mechanism reduces

abrasion and temperature of the brake disk, response speed is enhanced obviously,
fuzzy controller keeps high utilization coefficient due to the optimal slip ratio
regulation, and the total brake time has a smaller decrease than traditional hydraulic
brake mechanism.[5]
 In this literature paper Ashish Ranjan, Et. All have studied design and control of
electromagnetic clutch actuation mechanism for automated manual transmission.
There is a growing interest towards Automatic Transmission in India as it provides
better comfort and drivability. But the high cost of this mechanism is limiting itself
to be successful in the Indian markets. Due to this, Automated Manual Transmission
(AMT) is considered which provides a better solution towards automation as it
enhances the drivability and fuel consumption characteristics of a manual
transmission at lower costs. However, torque lag and comfort are major issues with
AMT which can be addressed by reducing the shift time. In this paper we describe
an Electromagnetic Linear Clutch Actuator as a replacement to current
electrohydraulic and electromechanical actuator. A control mechanism for the
actuator is presented and a clutch engagement strategy is also implemented which
reduces the engagement time to 0.78 seconds while reducing jerk and torque lag.
The actuator and control mechanism is simulated on a MATLAB Simulink and
agreeable results have been obtained.[6]
 In this literature paper M.Z.Baharom1, Et. All have braking torque analysis on
electromagnetic braking study using eddy Current for Brake Disc of Al6061 and
Al7075. . Two different series of Aluminium which are Al6061 and Al7075 has
been studied as the brake disc material for this electromagnetic braking system
using eddy current. Both series been studied experimentally by varying a few
parameters such as current induced to the electromagnet, air-gap, brake disc
thickness, number of turns and voltage supplied for the DC motor. PULSE analyzer
been used to capture the speed (rpm) and time (s). This paper also addressed the
calculation for the braking torque that been generated during the process by using
previous study equation. From this research, it can be concluded that thicker disc
performs better with electromagnetic braking and smaller air-gap produced high
braking torque in order to stop the disc rotation. Besides that Al6061 have greater
performance than Al7075 for electromagnetic braking purposes as the brake disc
material. [7]
2.2 Research gap:

 Eddy current braking is suitable for reducing wear and chances of failure is less at
very high speeds as it is contactless.
 Thicker the aluminum disc, more will be the braking torque.
 Increasing the magnetic flux passing through the rotor can increase the braking
torque.
 The magnetic flux in the electromagnets is directly proportional to the square of
current passing through the coils.
 The braking torque decreases as the distance between the electromagnets increases
as they are inversely proportional to each other. So the electromagnets are supposed
to be placed close to the rotor as much as possible.
 Although the brakes are only effective at high speeds.
 The brakes cannot bring the rotor to complete stop.
 Use of brake pads in electromagnetic brakes can help achieve the desired coefficient
of friction based on the application.
 On the other hand electromagnetic braking is very effective and powerful.
 Increase in magnetic flux can increase the pulling force of brake pads and hence
increasing the braking torque.
 If both the braking mechanisms are used together, then it could bring a revolution
in the braking mechanisms over the disadvantages of the brakes which are used
currently.
2.3 Objectives:
 To fabricate a hybrid of eddy current braking and electromagnetic braking
mechanisms as a replacement for hydraulic braking mechanism that could
potentially be used in high speed vehicles.
 To make a safer and more accurate braking system than the conventional brakes.
 To provide an alternate braking system which can be used in high speed vehicles
and trains.
 To reduce the overall brake wear.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Basically, this project was to fabricate a combination of eddy current and electromagnetic
braking mechanism as a secondary measure for the hydraulic braking mechanism.
Methodology flow chart
DESIGNING THE FRAME FOR THE WHOLE SETUP
SELECTION OF ALUMINUM DISC
SELECTION OF ELECTROMAGNETS
SELECTION OF SHAFT AND MOTOR BASED ON CALCULATION
SELECTION OF BRAKE DISC
SELECTION OF SUPPORTING COMPONENTS
DEVELOPING THE MODEL AND TESTING
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Fig 4.1 Flow chart for fabrication of hybrid braking sytem
3.1 Designing the frame for the whole setup:

Based on the predicted size of different components a rectangular metal frame is
designed and welded. The weights of the components are also taken into account. The
width and height should be enough to incorporate an aluminium disc of diameter 200
to 250mm and also have some clearance to incorporate the electromagnets. The length
of the frame should be enough to accommodate a shaft with all the components resting

on it and also a coupling connected to a motor. The length predicted came around
600mm. So a stainless steel frame of dimensions 600*500*200mm is welded.
3.2 Selection of aluminum disc:

Based on the literature survey we have found that the best material for eddy current
braking is aluminium as it has low resistance and high permeability so it allows
magnetic field to pass through easily. Also that eddy current generation increases as we
increase the thickness of the disc and the disc should have enough surface area to allow
the magnetic flux to pass through it. So based on the required criteria and also
availability in the market a square plate of 260*260*20mm is selected. Now this plate
is machined on a 4jaw chuck lathe to produce an aluminium disc of 255mm diameter
and thickness 20mm.
3.3 Selection of electromagnets:

Electromagnets require high accuracy and precision in winding and also a good core
material of right shape it can be very difficult to make electromagnet from scratch. So
a microwave oven transformer is selected to make electromagnets. A microwave oven
transformer has 3 windings. Primary and secondary windings are the main and in the
middle there is another winding for third output. We need only the primary winding as
it has thicker coils and can carry high current. So the other two windings are removed
manually and primary is kept back in the core. Now this will act as an electromagnet
once current is passed through the coils. The electromagnet has enamel coated
aluminium wire of gauge 21 and has 250 turns. The coil can carry a max current of 16
ampere.
3.4 Selection of shaft and motor:

The motor is selected based on the power requirements to rotate the shaft and the disc
at different speeds. A 1/8hp of single phase induction motor is selected which has a
speed range of 0 to 5000rpm. The shaft is selected based on the calculations of torsional
force during power transmission. The shafts length must be enough to accommodate
the other components. So a shaft of diameter 10mm and length 450mm is selected.
3.5 Selection of brake disc:

A brake disc is usually made up of cast iron as its compressive strength is high and
good heat dissipation. But due to design issues a pre manufactured brake disc cannot
be selected. So a mild steel plate of dimensions 200*200*4mm is selected as it can be

machined easily. This plate is made into a disc of diameter 200mm and thickness 4mm
with help of gas cutting. This plate can be hardened by heating and quenching.
3.6 Selection of supporting components:

The supporting components includes
Bearing blocks: based on diameter of shaft 2 bearing blocks are chosen to support the
shaft.
Coupling: A bush type coupling is made with one end having hole of 10mm and other
end with 8mm hole. The shaft and the motor are connected through these couplings.
They are tightened with the help of screws.
Brake pads: Since there is no specific requirement for brake pads. Pre manufactured
ceramic brake pads are selected.
Support plates: These are mild steel plates to help in engagement and disengagement
of brake pads on the disc.
Partially threaded bolts: These are present to act as guideways for the support plates.
Springs: These are meant to provide the restoring force to disengage the brake pads.
Nuts and bolts: These are of different shapes and sizes to fix motor, bearing blocks etc.
on the frame.
3.7 Developing the model and testing:

All the components are taken and assembled on the frame step by step
 The aluminum disc is fixed on the shaft with help of a key. The brake disc is fixed on
the shaft with a coupling and tightened with screws.
 The shaft is fixed in the bearings and placed on the frame.
 The motor is coupled with the shaft with the help of coupling and motor is fixed to the
frame with the help of nuts and bolts.
 The brake pads are assembled on the electromagnets.
 The electromagnets are attached to the frame at required positions.
 The necessary wirings are done and controller is connected.
The braking system is complete and ready for testing. Further conclusions can be drawn
from the test results.

CHAPTER 4
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BRAKING
SYSTEM
The braking system can be manufacturing can be done by first designing the components,
then selection of components and then assembling the parts. The designing includes mainly
calculations while selection of components includes availability in market and
affordability. The assembly can be done systematically based on convenience.
4.1 Design:
4.1.1 Eddy current braking system:-
Radius of Aluminium disc: r = 255mm
Air Gap: g = 2mm
No of turns in electromagnet: n = 200mm
Distance between centre of disc and centre of pole: R = 60mm
Pole area: S = 3600mm2
Conductivity of aluminium: σ = 3.7*107 S/m
Current: I = 12amp
Permeability of air: µ = 12.568*10-7
The Magnetic flux density can be expressed in the form of,
B = µ*n*i/g ............................................................................................................... 4.1
B =1.508 T
Angular Velocity: θ = 1000rpm
While the current density, J that been induced at Centre of the pole as
J = σ (Rθ* B).............................................................................................................4.2
J = 5.579 * 107 A/m2
The braking torque can be expressed in the form of
Tb = σR2sdθ(µn/g)2I2 ............................................................................................... 4.3
Tb = 363Nm
4.1.2 Calculation of shaft:-
Diameter of shaft: D= (1.33*106*P/N)1/3 ................................................................ 4.4
Power of motor: P = 1/8 HP
Speed of rotation: N = 1000rpm
D= 7.4mm = 10mm
4.1.3 Coupling: - bush type coupling selected = 10mm
4.1.4 Motor Calculation:-
Power P = 1/8 hp
Speed N = 1000rpm
Torque,
T = (9548.8*P)/N ...................................................................................................... 4.5
T= 1.19 Nm
4.1.5 Electromagnetic braking system:-
Max force due to electromagnets F = 1960N
Perpendicular distance b/w axis and point of force l = 0.08m
Coefficient of friction µ = 0.42
Torque,
T = F*l*µ .................................................................................................................. 4.6
T = 65.856Nm
Now the above torque is only due to one brake pad, for both brake pads it will be two
times. Therefore,
Braking torque = 131 N/m
4.1.6 Spring Calculations:-
Mass m = 0.1 kg
Acceleration g = 9.8 m/s-2
Force,
F = m*g
F = 0.98 N
Displacement x = 40mm = 0.04m
Stiffness
k = F/x
k = 24.5 N/m
4.2 Fabrication:
4.2.1 Selection of components
i. Frame: This is a cast iron rectangular frame. The whole setup is going to rest on
the frame.

 Dimensions: 600*500*200mm
Fig 4.1: Frame
ii. Electric Motor: An Electric motor is an electrical device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors
operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic field and
winding currents to generate force within the motor. Electric motors may be
classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of
motion output, and so on.
 Power: 1/8hp
 Speed: 0 to 5000rpm
Fig 4.2: Motor

iii. Shaft: The shaft is going to act like the axle an which the braking system is fixed.
 Diameter: 10mm
 Length: 400mm
Fig 4.3: Shaft

iv. Bearing blocks: A pillow block is a pedestal used to provide support for a rotating shaft
with the help of compatible bearings & various accessories. Housing material for a pillow
block is typically made of cast iron or cast steel. These are meant to hold the shaft at
the ends and reduce friction.
 Internal Diameter: 10mm
Fig 4.4: Bearing blocks

v. Coupling: A coupling is a device used to join two shafts together at their ends for the
purpose of transmitting power. The purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating
equipment while allowing some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. This is
a bush type coupling used to connect the shaft and the motor.
Fig 4.5: Coupling

vi. Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic
fields produced by an electric current .The magnetic field disappears when the
current is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into a
coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in
the hole in the center of the coil. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic
core.
Fig 4.6: Electromagnet

vii. Aluminium disc: This is a disc made up of aluminium. The eddy currents are
produced in this disc due to change in magnetic field which helps to reduce the
speed.
 Diameter: 255mm
 Thickness: 20mm
Fig 4.7: Aluminium disc

viii. Brake disc: This is a cast iron brake disc for the electromagnetic braking system.
It helps to completely stop the shaft rotation.
Fig 4.8: Brake disc

ix. Brake pads: The brake pads are fixed on the second electromagnet. They help in
the electromagnetic braking by making contact with brake disc.

Fig 4.9: Brake pads

x. Controller: This is basically voltage and current regulator used to control the speed
of motor.
Fig 4.10: Controller

xi. Support plates: These are mild steel plates of dimension 12.5*8*2mm. There are
four such plates. These plates are attached to the electromagnets and also to the
brake pads. There are four 6.5mm holes at the corners.
Fig 4.11: Support plates

xii. Partial threaded bolts: There are 8 partially threaded bolts which act as guide to
the support plates.

 Length: 100mm
 Thread: M6
Fig 4.12: Partially threaded bolts

xiii. Springs: There are eight compression springs which are passed over the partially
threaded bolts. These springs help in disengagement of the brakes when the
electromagnets are desensitized by removing currents.
 OD: 11mm
 Length: 80mm
Fig 4.13: Spring
4.2.2 Assembly:
 The bearing blocks along with the shaft having the aluminum disc and brake
disc is fixed on the frame with help of bolts and nuts.
 The aluminum disc should be as close as possible to the primary
electromagnet.
 The coupling is attached to the free end of the shaft.
 The motor is connected to the other end of the coupling.
 The alignment of the shaft, coupling and the motor should be in a straight line,
otherwise it will lead to vibrations.

 The allen key screws on the coupling are tightened after checking alignment.
 The partially threaded bolts are inserted in the movable support plates of the
electromagnets along with the springs.
 The plates are now attached to the fixed support plates with help of nuts.
 The brake disc is now adjusted on the shaft to ensure proper engagement of
brake pads to it.
 The controller is connected to the motor and input wires are connected to the
electromagnets.
Fig 4.14: Fabricated braking system.

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Eddy current brakes: The below diagram shows the actual setup of the
eddy current braking system.
Aluminium disc
Shaft Electromagnet
Fig 5.1: Working of eddy current braking system
It consists of an electromagnet and an aluminium disc. The disc is fixed on the shaft with
the help of a key. The shaft is connected to the motor and supported by bearings. The
electromagnet can be connected to a variable voltage supply.
When the current is passed through the electromagnet it induces eddy current in the
aluminium disc by the principle of electromagnetic induction. These eddy currents are in
the form of whirls. The eddy currents will have their own magnetic field and based on their
direction whether clockwise or anticlockwise, their polarity can be determined.
And their polarity is always such that it tries to oppose the motion, according to Lenz’s law.
This retards the rotor (aluminium disc) from very high speed to low speed. But after
slowing down the disc the torque is not enough to stop the disc rotation. At this point the
secondary brakes can be employed.

Fig 5.2: Polarity of induced eddy current based on current direction
5.2 Electromagnetic brakes: The below figure shows the actual setup of the
electromagnetic system used.
Springs
Support plates
Electromagnet
Brake pads
Partially
threaded bolts
Brake disc
Fig 5.3: Working of electromagnetic braking system
The above system consists of an electromagnet, rigidly attached to frame. There are two
support plates, one of which is welded to the electromagnet and another one is free to move
on four partially threaded bolts. There are springs present on the bolts to retract the movable

plate. There is a brake pad attached to the movable plate with help of an L-shaped linkage.
There is a brake disc attached on the shaft with help of Allen key screws.
When current is passed through the electromagnets it attracts the movable plate and engages
the brake pads on the brake disc. Due to the friction the brake disc retards. Based on the
amount of current flowing through the coils, the magnetic force can be varied. The current
can be changed through a variable voltage supply.
When the current is removed from the coil, the springs push the movable plate back to its
initial position and hence disengaging the brake pads. This system is only used during
emergencies, which is when a sudden stop is needed.
5.3 Testing procedure:

 To test the braking system both the braking systems are tested with Help of auto
transformer. Initially only the eddy current brakes are tested.
Auto Transformer: An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound
on a laminated core. An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but differ
in the way the primary and secondary winding are interrelated. A part of the winding is
common to both primary and secondary sides. On load condition, a part of the load current
is obtained directly from the supply and the remaining part is obtained by transformer
action. An Auto transformer works as a voltage regulator.
 Now an ammeter is connected in series with the coils and the transformer.
Ammeter: An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure
the current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name.
Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range,
are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. They can accurately measure the
current for a supplied voltage. The range is 0 to 10 A.
 The shaft is rotated at 1000rpm, with help of the motor and controller.
 The speed can be measured with the help of a digital tachometer.
 Now the system is tested by providing currents to the electromagnets and the stopping
time is recorded for different currents and the values are tabulated.

Fig 5.4: Eddy current brake testing
5.4 Results:
CURRENT(A) VOLTAGE(V) STOPPING TIME(s)
1 10 18
2 14 15
3 19 15
4 23 14
5 28 13
6 31 12
7 35 11
8 40 9
9 46 7
10 53 6
Table 5.1: Tabular column for results.
The secondary brakes are tested similarly by applying current to both the electromagnets
through auto transformers and the current is measured. It is found that AC mains supply of
current is enough to stop the disc immediately.
The auto transformer is rated only up to 10 ampere so beyond that it may cause heating and
circuits might burn. That is why the braking system cannot be tested beyond 10A. But the
wires used in the coils are rated for 16A.
Conclusions drawn from results
1. The fabricated braking system is be able to slow down the setup without any contact
at higher speeds, because that’s when there is maximum wear, heat due to friction and
maximum chances of failure.

2. The system can perform better under required power supply.

3. The electromagnetic brakes are efficient in stopping the rotor completely in case of
emergencies.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE AND WORK

6.1 Conclusion:
The current development in the automobile industries shows a constant increase in the
average speed of running vehicles but there’s not much development in the safety and
efficiency of brakes. Because there’s not much that can be improved in conventional
hydraulic brakes.
The hybrid braking system can be an answer to all this. Since eddy current braking systems
have proven to be more efficient and are used in bullet trains, so if it can be made compact
and power requirements are fulfilled then they can be used in other transport systems. The
current development of electric vehicles can certainly fulfil the power requirements as they
have huge batteries. And also that they have more space compared to IC engine vehicles
due to fewer components.
This braking system might also open a whole new area for development of ABS as the
braking torque can be controlled very accurately by changing the current in electromagnets.
And there is no need for any external components like pumps and valves used in Anti-lock
braking system of hydraulic brakes.
6.2 Future scope:

This project is a small step to emphasize that there can be a better braking system than the
conventional brakes in terms of efficiency and safety.
 The braking system is very heavy so future work needs to be done in reducing its
weight.
 The braking system takes a lot of space to make it commercial it should be made as
compact as possible.
 The power requirements of the braking system is very high. So it can only be
implemented in electric cars and trains.
 This braking system can be implemented in F1 racing cars as they don’t stop
immediately and just need small retardations at regular intervals.

 The braking torque of the secondary braking system is quite low compared to
conventional brakes. So more work is needed to make it more efficient.
 These braking system can have future in Anti-lock braking systems as the braking
torque can be controlled very accurately.

REFERENCES
1. Liu Chengye, and Shen Jianming , Design Technologies of Eddy Current Retarder
Used in an Automobile, School of Mechanical & Automotive Engineering, Jiangsu
Teachers University Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 251 (2013) pp 134-
138.[1]
2. G.L.Anantha Krishna1, K.M.Sathish Kumar, Investigation on Eddy Current

Braking Mechanisms , BMS Institute of Technology(2014), ISSN: 1662-7482,
Vols. 592-594, pp 1089-1093[2]
3. Ren He, 1 Xuejun Liu, and Cunxiang Liu Brake Performance Analysis of ABS for
Eddy Current and Electrohydraulic Hybrid Brake Mechanism, Hindawi Publishing
Corporation. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Volume 2013, Article ID
979384, 11 pages.[3]
4. E. Galardi, E. Meli, D. Nocciolini, L. Pugi & A. Rindi, Development of efficient

models of Magnetic Braking Mechanisms of railway vehicles, International Journal
of Rail Transportation (2015), Vol. 3, No. 2, 97–118[4]
5. Rhythm Dhoot, Sanket Gaikar, Design & Theoretical Study of Electromagnetic

Braking Mechanism IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-
JMCE), Volume 13, Issue 6 Ver. VI (Nov. - Dec. 2016).[5]
6. Ashish Ranjan, S Prasanth, Design and Control of Electromagnetic clutch actuation

mechanism for automated manual transmission, IOP Conf. Series: Materials
Science and Engineering 263 (2017).[6]
7. Krunal Prajapati, Rahul Vibhandik, ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING

MECHANISM, International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering
(IJSRE) Vol. 1 (3), March, 2017.[7]

PUBLICATION:
1. Aman Vishwakarma, Madhusudana CK, Alfred VK, Badal Dey, Brain Lara,
“Design and fabrication of hybrid braking system”, International conference on
Advance research in mechanical Engineerting (ICARME-2019), MVJCE-
Bangalore, 29-30 April 2019

Design and Fabrication of Hybrid Braking System 2018-2019

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DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF HYBRID BRAKING SYSTEM 2018-2019

1.1 Eddy current braking:

Fig 1.1: Principle of eddy current braking

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 1

Types of eddy current brakes:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 2

Fig 1.3 Eddy current brakes of a roller coaster

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 4

1.2 Electromagnetic braking:

Fig 1.4: Principle of electromagnetic braking

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 5

Types of electromagnetic brakes:

1.2.1 Single face brake:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 6

1.2.2 Power off brake:

ii. Permanent magnet type:

In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking

1.3 Significances: The following are the significances,

1.4 Limitations: The following are the limitations,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 8

2.1 Present art of work:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 9

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 10

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 11

2.2 Research gap:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 13

Methodology flow chart

DESIGNING THE FRAME FOR THE WHOLE SETUP

SELECTION OF ALUMINUM DISC

SELECTION OF SHAFT AND MOTOR BASED ON CALCULATION

SELECTION OF BRAKE DISC

SELECTION OF SUPPORTING COMPONENTS

DEVELOPING THE MODEL AND TESTING

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Fig 4.1 Flow chart for fabrication of hybrid braking sytem

3.1 Designing the frame for the whole setup:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 14

3.2 Selection of aluminum disc:

3.3 Selection of electromagnets:

3.4 Selection of shaft and motor:

3.5 Selection of brake disc:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 15

3.6 Selection of supporting components:

3.7 Developing the model and testing:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 16

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 18

Fig 4.1: Frame

Fig 4.2: Motor

Fig 4.3: Shaft

Fig 4.4: Bearing blocks

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 20

Fig 4.5: Coupling

Fig 4.6: Electromagnet

Fig 4.7: Aluminium disc

Fig 4.8: Brake disc

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 22

Fig 4.9: Brake pads

Fig 4.10: Controller

Fig 4.11: Support plates