POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF GINGER IN

SANKHUWASABHA, NEPAL

PRAGYA POUDEL

AUGUST 2018
POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF GINGER IN
SANKHUWASABHA, NEPAL

PRAGYA POUDEL

RESEARCH REPORT
SUBMITTED TO THE
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY UNIVERSITY
RAMPUR, CHITWAN
NEPAL

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

AUGUST 2018
 This research report entitled “POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
OF GINGER IN SANKHUWASABHA, NEPAL” prepared and submitted by
Ms. PRAGYA POUDEL, under Learning Entrepreneurial Experience Program as an
integral part of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture.

_____________________ _______________
Asst. Prof. Madhav Dhital Benu Prasad Prasai
Major Supervisor Member Supervisor
Date: Date:

Forwarded:

____________________________
Prof. Kalyani Mishra Tripathi, PhD
Assistant Dean (Academic)
Faculty of Agriculture
Agriculture and Forestry University
Date:

Accepted:

___________________
Prof. Jay Prakash Dutta
Dean
Faculty of Agriculture
Agriculture and Forestry University
Date:
DEDICATED TO MY
BELOVED PARENTS
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest acknowledgement, profound gratitude and

indebtedness to all the concerned people, Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization
Project (PM-AMP) and Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU) for their significant
contribution and support during my internship.
First and foremost, I express my heartfelt gratitude and respect to Asst. Prof.
Madhav Dhital, Major Supervisor, for his counsel guidance, sustained encouragement and
constructive comments throughout internship period and manuscript preparation. I feel
much privileged to express my profound sense of gratitude to Advisory Committee
members, Mr. Ravi Lal Sharma, Senior Agriculture Development Officer, Sankhuwasabha
and Mr. Benu Prasad Prasai, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Agricultural Development,
Kathmandu for their valuable suggestions, cooperative attitude, and constructive comments
throughout my research period.
I feel elated to express my sincere appreciation and heartfelt thanks to Mr.
Yogendra Acharya, Scientist (Agri-Economics), Nepal Agricultural Research Council
(NARC), Mr. Raj Kapoor Napit, Fishery Officer, Kathmandu, Mr. Prabin Lama, Planning
Officer, Sankhuwasabha, Mr. Prakash Mani Subedi, Agriculture Officer, FAO/UN, Mr.
Sanjib Pariyar, Agricultural Officer, Suhara Nepal, Mr. Mahendra Bohara, Technical
Assistant, DADO and Mrs. Kamala Bista and entire DADO Sankhuwasabha team for their
supportive guidance, encouragement and supervision throughout the internship period.
I am also very thankful to my friends Bikash Adhikari, Asmita Gautam, Dharti
Poudel, Jenny Shrestha, Asmita Aryal, Rakshya Dhakal, Purnima Baral who always
encouraged me directly or indirectly. Equal acknowledgement goes to my senior Asmita
Gautam, Sallu Nepal, Kesav Ghimire and Richa Neupane for their love and support.
Last but not the least, I owe special honor to my beloved parents Mr. Ram Prasad
Poudel and Mrs. Sangita Poudel, Sisters (Prashansha, Pranita, Ambika, Binita), brother
(Madhav, Shiva, Diwas, Priyash) and other family members who have guided and
motivated me in every step of my life.
Pragya Poudel

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Pag
e
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ix
ACRONYMS x
ABSTRACT xii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background information 1
1.2 Statement of problem 3
1.3 Rationale of study 4
1.4 Objectives of the study 4
1.5 Limitation of the study 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Ginger and quality attributes 6
2.2 Postharvest considerations 7
2.2.1 Harvesting (Harvesting time and harvesting methods) 7
2.2.2 Precooling 7
2.2.3 Trimming 7
2.2.4 Washing/cleaning 7
2.2.5 Curing 7
2.2.6 Sorting and grading 8
2.2.7 Postharvest processing 8
2.2.8 Packaging 8
2.2.9 Storage and transportation 9
2.2.10 Postharvest diseases and disorders 9
2.2.11 Marketing system 9
2.3 An overview on value chain 9
2.4 Status of ginger and its production in Nepal 10
2.5 Status and scope of ginger production in Sankhuwasabha district 11
2.6 Polices and programs related to ginger production 12
3 METHODOLOGY 14
3.1 LEE site and subsector 14
3.2 Sample and sampling technique 14
3.3 Research instruments/design 15
3.3.1 Desk study 15
3.3.2 Household survey 15
3.3.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 15
3.3.4 Key Informant Survey (KIS) 15
3.4 Data and data type 16
3.4.1 Primary data 16
3.4.2 Secondary data 16
3.5 Data analysis techniques 16
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 17

iv
 4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics 17
4.1.1 Population characteristics of the respondents 17
4.1.2 Population status of the respondents 17
4.1.3 Education status of the respondents 18
4.1.4 Source of living among respondents 19
4.1.5 Annual income of the ginger producers from agriculture 19
4.1.6 Farmer’s category in accordance to land size 19
4.1.7 Land holding and utilization 20
4.1.8 Major crops under cultivation 20
4.1.9 Irrigation status of ginger producing household 21
4.2 Crop-specific information 22
4.2.1 Ginger production status 22
4.2.2 Variety of ginger 22
4.2.3 Total cost of ginger 23
4.2.3.1 Production cost of ginger 23
4.2.3.2 Postharvest cost of ginger 23
4.2.4 Source of planting materials for ginger cultivation 24
4.2.4.1 Source of seed 24
4.2.4.2 Source of fertilizers 25
4.2.4.3 Source of manure 26
4.2.5 Ginger farming experience 26
4.2.6 Trend of ginger cultivation 26
4.2.7 Planting season of ginger 27
4.2.8 Burne harvesting of ginger 28
4.2.9 Final harvesting of ginger 29
4.2.9.1 Factors considered during harvest 29
4.2.5.2 Problems during harvesting 30
4.3 Postharvest management practices of ginger 31
4.3.1 Precooling practice of ginger 31
4.3.2 Trimming practice of ginger 31
4.3.3 Cleaning practice of ginger 31
4.3.4 Sorting/grading practice of ginger 32
4.3.5 Processing practice of ginger 33
4.3.6 Packaging of ginger 34
4.5.7 Transportation of ginger 35
4.3.8 Storage practice of ginger 35
4.4 Abundance of diseases/pests after harvesting of ginger 36
4.5 Source of information about postharvest management practices 37
4.6 Problems in postharvest management practices of ginger 38
4.7 Postharvest losses in ginger 38
4.8 Level of satisfaction of ginger growers 39
4.9 Marketing of ginger 40
4.9.1 Mode of selling 40
4.9.2 Price fixation of ginger 40
4.9.3 Market price of ginger 40
4.9.4 Price flow of ginger 41
4.9.5 Marketing problems 42
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 43
5.1 Summary 43

v
5.2 Conclusions 45
LITERATURE CITED 47
APPENDICES 50
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 58

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1 Top ginger producing districts of Eastern Development Region, Nepal 2
2 Nutritional information of ginger 6
3 Production area, production volume and productivity of ginger in Nepal 10
4 Import and export of ginger in Nepal (2068-2071) 11
5 Production area, production volume and productivity of ginger in
Sankhuwasabha district 12
6 Distribution of the respondents by age group and gender 17
7 Population distribution of the sampled household in the study area 18
8 Source of living among respondents in the study area 19
9 Annual income of the respondents from agriculture 19
1 Total land holding and land distribution in the study area
0 20
1 Major crops under cultivation in the study area
1 21
1 Production status of ginger in the study area
2 22
1 Tentative cost of ginger production in the study area
3 24
1 Ginger farming experience of ginger growers in the study area
4 26
1 Trend of ginger cultivation in the study area
5 26
1 Planting season of ginger in the study area
6 28
1 Season for burne harvesting of ginger in the study area
7 29
1 Harvesting season of ginger in the study area
8 29
1 Status of processed products of ginger in the study area
9 34
2 Methods of storage of ginger in the study area
0 35
2 Abundance of diseases/pests after harvesting of ginger in the study area
1 36
2 Solutions of diseases/pests occurrence for ginger in the study area
2 37
2 Source of information about postharvest management practices for ginger
3 grower in the study area 37

vii
2 Type of information ginger producers got in the study area
4 38
2 Problems in postharvest management practices of ginger in the study area
5 38
2 Losses in postharvest management practices of ginger in the study area
6 39
2 Mode of selling of ginger from farm gate in the study area
7 40
2 Actors involved in price fixation of ginger in the study area
8 40
2 Marketing problems of ginger in the study area
9 42

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Pag
e
1 Map showing study area in Sankhuwasabha district 14
2 Education level of the ginger producers in the study area (N=71) 18
3 Farmer's category according to land size in the study area (N=71) 20
4 Irrigation status of ginger producing household in the study area 22
5 Type of ginger cultivated in the study area (N=71) 23
6 Source of seed for ginger cultivation (N=71) 25
7 Source of fertilizer for ginger cultivation (N=20) 25
8 Reason behind increasing ginger cultivation (N=46) 27
9 Reason behind decreasing ginger cultivation (N=14) 27
10 Burne harvesting practice of ginger (N=71) 28
11 Factors considered during harvesting of ginger (N=71) 30
12 Problem during harvesting of ginger (N=71) 30
13 Methods of precooling practice of ginger after harvest (N=59) 31
14 Methods of cleaning practice of ginger after harvest (N=68) 32
15 Status of sorting/grading practice of ginger in the study area (N=53) 32
16 Reason for not performing sorting/grading practice of ginger (N=18) 33
17 Status of processing practice of ginger in the study area (N=71) 33
18 Packaging materials of ginger in the study area (N=71) 34
19 Means of transportation of ginger in the study area (N=71) 35
20 Reason for not storing ginger in the study area (N=32) 36
21 Distribution of ginger growers by satisfaction level (N=71) 39
22 Last five year market price trend of ginger in the study area 41

ix
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Pag
e
1 Questionnaire 50

x
 ACRONYMS

% : Percentage
°C : Degree Celsius
ADS : Agriculture Development Strategy
AEC : Agro Enterprise Centre
ANSAB : Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources
APP : Agriculture Perspective Plan
Asst. Prof. : Assistant Professor
CBS : Central Bureau of Statistics
DADO : District Agriculture Development Office
DOA : Department of Agriculture
EDR : Eastern Development Region
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization
FGD : Focus Group Discussion
g : Gram
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GON : Government of Nepal
GOs : Governmental Organizations
GRP : Gross Regional Product
ha : Hectare
HHs : Households
HIMALI : High Mountain Agribusiness and Livelihood Improvement
HVAP : High Value Agriculture Project
INAGEP : Innovation and Agro-entrepreneurship Program
ITC : International Trade Centre
Kg/ha : Kilogram per Hectare
KIS : Key Informant Survey
KJ : Kilo Joule
KUBK : Kissankalagi UnnatBiu-Bijan Karyakram
mg : Milligram
mm : Millimeter
MoAD : Ministry of Agriculture Development

xi
msl : Meter Above Sea Level
mt : Metric Tones
mt/ha : Metric Tones per Hectare
NARC : National Agriculture Research Council
NEAT : Nepal Economic Agriculture and Trade
NGOs : Non-Governmental Organizations
NGRP : National Ginger Research Program
NRs : Nepalese Rupees
NSCDP : National Spice Crop Development Program
NTIS : Nepal Trade Integration Strategy
PMAMP : Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project
POP : Package of Practices
RH : Relative Humidity
RISMFP : Raising Incomes of Small and Medium Farmers Project
SN : Serial Number
SPSS : Statistical Package of Social Science
US : United States
USAID : United States Agency for International Development
VCDP : Value Chain Development Programme
VDC : Village Development Committee
VDD : Village Development Division

xii
 ABSTRACT

Name: Pragya Poudel Regd. No.: 1-1-267-2013

Semester and year of admission: First, 2014 Degree: B.Sc.Ag.
Major supervisor: Asst. Prof. Madhav Dhital

The study entitled “Postharvest management practices of ginger in Sankhuwasabha,

Nepal” was conducted in Chainpur municipality of Sankhuwasabha, Nepal. Among 471
ginger growers, 71 ginger growers of Chainpur municipality (i.e. 15% of the total ginger
growers) were selected randomly as respondents. The research was carried out during
December, 2017-June, 2018 AD. The objective of the study was to assess postharvest
management practices of ginger in Chainpur municipality of Sankhuwasabha district.
Primary data was collected through HHs survey, KIS and FGDs and analysed by using
SPSS, MS-Excel and descriptive statistics. The percentage of the medium farmers was
found to be the highest (73.24%) followed by large farmers (15.49%) and small farmers
(11.27%). It was found that, the average production of ginger was high (466.20 kg/ropani)
but quality of produce was not standardized.Majority of the gingerproducers (70.42%)
grew Bose variety followed by Nase variety (29.58%).Most of the ginger producers
(42.25%) used their stored ginger rhizome for seed in the next season.Out of 59 ginger
producers, 37.29% of ginger producers practiced pecooling operation by spreading ginger
on the floor while other (35.59%)left ginger overnight on field followed by (27.12%)
keeping ginger on shade. Out of 68 ginger producers, 67.47% ofginger producers practiced
cleaning by removable of soil only, followed by 32.35% ofginger producers by washing
the ginger rhizome. Similarly, 74.65% ofginger producers performed sorting/grading
practice of ginger rhizome. Only 22.54% of ginger producers performed processing of
ginger like making sutho, powder and pickles among which sutho (dry ginger) was the
major processed product made out of fresh ginger.Farmers addressed lack of processing
facility as the major postharvest problem followed by lack of storage facility and
abundance of diseases/pests. Market of ginger was insecure and unstable due to price
fluctuation.

_____________________ ____________
Asst. Prof. Madhav Dhital Pragya Poudel
Major supervisor Author

xiii
 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

Nepal is a Himalayan country situated in South Asia with an area of 147,181 square
kilometers, having an elevation ranges from 60 m to 8848 m from the sea level.
Administratively, Nepal has 7 provinces and 77 districts. Sankhuwasabha, a mountain
district under Province No. 1 is located in the latitude of27°06’ to 27°55’ North and the
longitude of 86°58’ to 87°40’ East.The head-quarter of the district is Khandbari
municipality. It borders with Taplejung and Terahathum districts in the east, Solukhumbu
and Bhojpur districts in the west, Dhankuta district in the south and Tibet in the north.It
covers an area of 346,817 ha with total cultivated area of 31,596 ha and total population of
158,742, having 5 municipalities and 5 rural municipalities[ CITATION Dis73 \l 1033 ]. The
district shows topographical variation, the elevation begins from 250 msl to highest point
of Makalu (8,463 msl), the world's fifth highest peak. The climatic variation ranges from
subtropical, mild-temperate, temperate, alpine to mountainous climate. The average
temperature of the district varies from minimum 17.9°C in the winter to maximum 28°C in
the summer; and rainfall varies from minimum 5.40 mm in winter to maximum 302.6 mm
in summer.
Nepal is an agriculture based country, about 65.6% people are involved in
agriculture sector[ CITATION MOA74 \t \l 1033 ] . Agriculture is the backbone of Nepalese
economy with contribution in country's GDP by 28.89% [ CITATION MOA74 \t \l 1033 ] .In
relation to several agricultural produces, there are 700 species in use all over the world,
regarding this Nepal has more than 20 spices in use and half of them are grown in Nepal
too [ CITATION GRP09 \l 1033 ] . Spice crops have significant contribution in raising the
socio-economic condition of the rural people, increasing income and protecting the
environment [ CITATION NSC07 \l 1033 ]. Ginger is one of the most promising high value
agriculture commodity, which has a large production and export potential for Nepal
[ CITATION ITC07 \l 1033 ] . Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is considered as an important crop of
family Zingiberaceae which is traditionally grown from terai up to an altitude of 1600 m in
mid-hills.The valuable portion of ginger is underground rhizome. Ginger can be used in
raw, dried or powdered forms. Also the variety of products can be processed from raw
 2

ginger like pickles, ginger candy, squash, shampoo, soup and so on. Ginger is also popular
in medicinal aspectswhich prevents several diseases like nausea, asthma, cold, indigestion,
cancer etc. having anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties [ CITATION And17 \l
1033 ].
Nepal becomes the 5th largest producer with 271,863 tonnes production[ CITATION
FAO12 \l 1033 ]and5th largest exporter with 20,115 tonnes export quantity in 2016[ CITATION
FAO16 \l 1033 ]. In Nepal the total cultivation area, production volume and productivity of
ginger are 22,649 ha, 279,504 mt and 12.34mt/ha respectively [ CITATION MOA74 \t \l
1033 ]. The Eastern parts of country has high share in terms of area of cultivation,
production volume and productivity for ginger [ CITATION ANS11 \l 1033 ].

Table 1. Top ginger producing districts of Eastern Development Region, Nepal

Districts Area (ha) Production (ton)
Ilam 3,233 45,994
Pachthar 669 8,843
Sunsari 450 4,235
Dhankuta 260 4,933
Taplejung 230 3,600
Terhathum 212 3,277
Sankhuwasabha 112 1,008
Solukhumbu 75 395
Source: [ CITATION MOA15 \l 1033 ]

Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project (PM-AMP) is an assistant

project under Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) with a clear and specific roadmap
for increasing agricultural production and productivity to make the country self-reliant in
agriculture with in a decade. It has envisioned a holistic system of specialized production
by linking commercialization, industrialization, modernization and diversification of
agricultural commodity. PMAMP projecthas formed super zone, zone, block and pockets
in different parts of the country on the basis of area covered by particular commodity. Here
in Sankhuwasabhadistrict, PMAMP has designated about 100 ha area as Block area of
Ginger/Turmericoccupying Chainpur municipality, Pachkhapan municipality and Madi
municipalityof Sankhuwasabha district. Ginger cultivation covers an area of 115 ha,
having total production 977.5 mt and productivity 8.50 mt/ha in Sankhuwasabha district
[ CITATION Dis73 \l 1033 ]. Due to climatic suitability, the potentiality of ginger production
is high in this region. Ginger cultivation serves as valuable source for the upliftment of
 3

rural people.This study mainly focus on postharvest management practices of ginger

starting from harvesting (harvesting time and harvesting methods), precooling, trimming,
washing/cleaning, curing, sorting and grading, packaging, storage and transportation,
postharvest diseases, disorders and pests as well as marketingof ginger in Sankhuwasabha
district.

1.2 Statement of problem

Ginger is the high value agricultural crop grown in mid-hills of Nepal having high
production potential. The production of ginger is high but quality of produce is not
standardized. The quality of ginger do not meet the need of traders and consumers and
standards of export market. There is lack of automated ginger peelers and mechanical
driers creating problem in postharvest quality of ginger[ CITATION GON16 \l 1033 ]. Despite
the proven potential for increased income through processed ginger worldwide, the major
outlet of ginger production here is raw ginger. There is no processing of raw ginger due to
lack of processing techniques and industrialized equipments. People prefer traditional
methods of postharvest handlings from harvesting to marketing. In eastern Nepal,
postharvest handlings like precooling, trimming, grading is yet to be
institutionalized[ CITATION GON16 \l 1033 ] . There is no proper storage facility in the
farmer's home. Due to more preference towards traditional pit storage system, there is high
occurrence of soft rot/rhizome rot diseases in the storage resulting in decay and sprouting
of ginger rhizomes. Market of ginger is insecure and unstable due to price fluctuation.Price
varies according to global production especially the production volume of ginger in India.
In previous years due to blockade of India, gingerrotted in the farmer's fields, store houses
and loaded vehicles that's why farmers take low interest in the cultivation of ginger. As
high value crops like ginger need high input use, high cost of production that could result
in loss, if market price runs through irregularities and instabilities [ CITATION Get11 \l 1033 ].
Generally here it is seen that if the market price is increased this year the production will
be increased next year, such cyclic pattern of price rise and fall is due toless marketing
information regarding demand and supply and time lag on production (Poudel, Regmi,
Thapa, GC, & KC, 2015). The problems like traditional method of postharvest handlings,
lack of technical information, lack of processing facilities, minimum product
diversification and value addition, prevailing diseases in the stores, poor quality of ginger,
inefficient marketing and pricing system are some of the constraints of ginger production.
 4

1.3 Rationale of study

Among many spice crops, Ginger has high potential for production especially in
hilly region of Nepal. In Nepal, particularly in the eastern parts, large number of people are
involved in ginger farming [ CITATION GON16 \l 1033 ]. Analysing the opportunities for
commercialization of ginger in the hilly region of eastern Nepal, PM-AMP project has
been implemented here in Sankhuwasabha and other eastern districts as well. Ginger can
be used in many forms from raw to processed forms like dried ginger, powered form, juice
and many more. There is high demand of ginger in market, so the productivity in the field.
Higher export potentiality makes ginger an effective way for improving economic status of
the rural people. This study is concentrated on improvement of postharvest handlings, to
uplift quality standard of ginger and analysing marketing condition of ginger in
Sankhuwasabha district. Quality improvement of ginger can lead to better marketing
opportunities. Also postharvest processing deals with possibilities of product
diversification and value addition to the ginger like making ginger powder, sutho, pickles,
candy, squash etc.Thus, improving quality of produce, product diversification, decrease in
market margin, accessible market, increase in benefit cost ratio can raise its economic
value by 2-3 folds thus offering a high promise for additional income generation for ginger
growing farmers [ CITATION ANS11 \l 1033 ].

1.4 Objectives of the study

Generalobjectives

 The major objective of the study was toassess postharvest management practices of
ginger in Chainpur municipality of Sankhuwasabha district.

Specific objectives

The specific objectives of the study are:

 5

 To assess the socio-demographic characteristics of ginger farmers in

Chainpur,Sankhuwasabha.

 To find out different methods employed during postharvest handling of ginger.

 To identify the problems faced by the farmers in postharvest management practices
of ginger.
 To estimate the losses in postharvest management practices of ginger.
 To study the marketing opportunities for ginger in Sankhuwasabha district.
 6

1.5 Limitation of the study

PM-AMP has designated 100 ha of area in Sankhuwasabha district as a block area

of ginger/turmeric however, ginger cultivation area is scattered all over the
Sankhuwasabha district. The survey was especially concentrated on block area and pocket
area of ginger in Chainpur municipality so, that might not represent whole district scenario.
Due to short time period, remote geographical condition, lack of transports, low budget it
was difficult to observe the overall situation of ginger production here in Sankhuwasabha.
Working as LEE Intern under DADO, Sankhuwasabha, it was difficult to give fulltime on
research as well as to observe ginger cultivation in every field of farmers. The data was
mainly collected from major ginger grower recalling on their past experience and from
secondary sources. Since the topic was vast, the interview schedule might not include all
the queries for primary data collection.As there was no such research on the commodity
ginger concerning the postharvest management practices in Sankhuwasabha district, the
findings could be beneficial to all the farmers, traders, researchers and concerned
stakeholders leading to improvement of the ginger sector.
 7

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Ginger and quality attributes

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is herbaceous perennial plant of the Zingiberaceae

family which grows annual stem a meter tall bearing narrow green leaves and yellow
flowers. Ginger is likely originated in regions from Indian subcontinent to Southern Asia
[ CITATION Wik17 \l 1033 ]. Ginger rhizome is popularly used as kitchen spices and also as
medicinal folks. Ginger can be used in processed form too like ginger pickles, dry ginger,
powdered ginger, ginger ale, ginger wine, ginger candy etc.

Table 2. Nutritional information of ginger

Nutrient contents Amount (per 100 g)
Energy 333 KJ
Carbohydrate 17.77g
Sugars 1.7g
Dietary fibers 2g
Fat 0.75g
Protein 1.82g
Vitamins 6.43mg
Minerals 522.169mg
Water 79g
Source: [ CITATION Wik17 \l 1033 ]

The characteristics fragrance and flavour of ginger result from volatile oils that
compose 1-3% of the weight of fresh ginger, primarily consisting of zingerone, shogals
and gingerols.[ CITATION Wik17 \l 1033 ].
According to [ CITATION Lun09 \l 1033 ], "Quality is meeting or exceeding costumer
and consumer expectations". There are several quality attributes in terms of size, shape,
configuration, consistency, colour, aroma, flavour, oil content and nutrients content in
relation to consumers' preference. To make high quality standard, there should be well
postharvest handling as well as no any internal and external disorders and diseases. The
quality attributes rely on composition of food processing, materials used in packing and
 8

packaging, precooling, washing, trimming, grading, storage system and transportation.

Postharvest management practices help to minimize the loss regarding quality of the
produce, playing major role in quality maintenance.
2.2 Postharvest considerations
2.2.1 Harvesting (Harvesting time and harvesting methods)
The harvesting should be done at appropriate time, the maturity of rhizome at
harvest determines it's final use[ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ]. Harvesting can be done manually
by using simple tools or mechanically. Harvesting should be done with care to prevent any
injuries or wounds.

2.2.2 Precooling
Precooling should be done to remove the field and product heat of ginger to
withstand transport better [ CITATION Sha09 \l 1033 ] . Precooling is done by cooling freshly
harvested ginger in the shade under the trees or stakes or by covering with dry leaves.

2.2.3 Trimming
Trimming is about removable of undesired stems, roots and other portions,
diseased, insect pest infected parts which should be cut with the help of a sharp knife to
protect from decay of rhizomes during storage and supply [ CITATION Cha08 \l 1033 ].

2.2.4 Washing/cleaning
Cleaning is an important practice to fetch the best market price in the market which
also helps to improve the quality [ CITATION Cha08 \l 1033 ]. Washing improves the physical
appearance of ginger by removing all the physical contaminations like soil, residual
chemicals, dusts, sticks, insect excreta or any foreign materials from the surface of the
ginger[ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ]. Washing is generally done 2-3 times with clean water, if
available pressure washing is recommended. After the harvest, cleaning is essential to
reduce loss from any kind of microbial contamination, mould growth and decays [ CITATION
Sin13 \l 1033 ]. Thus, mechanical washers, hot air dryers may help to improve postharvest
handling operations or it can also be done manually.

2.2.5 Curing
Curing can be done under natural shade or by air drying. Curing helps to heal
scratched, injured, cut rhizomes wound by keeping ginger under the shade for 3-4 days at a
desirable temperature (22°C to 26°C) (Acharya & KC, 2012). Ginger could be cured by air
 9

drying the rhizomes at ambient temperature (22°C to 26°C) and 70% to 75% relative
humidity for several days to allow the skin of rhizome to thicken and cut surface to heal for
long-term storage[ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ]. The periderm formation is favoured by high
temperature and adequate relative humidity [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ]. Curing will help to
prolong the storage life, decrease weight loss and decay and also check the attack of pests
and spread of diseases.

2.2.6 Sorting and grading

Sorting consists of removable of damaged, diseased, injured parts of rhizome.
Then, the remaining rhizomes are arranged according to their shape and size in order to sell
them in market. General grading is done on the basis of size, shape, colour, freshness,
weight, no. of branches in rhizome and overall performance while sorting is only the
removable of certain parts that are diseased, decayed or unwanted parts of rhizome. The
rhizomes that look fresh, big in size and good pale yellow colour are regarded as high
grade and small, shrinked rhizomes are regarded as low grade [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ].

2.2.7Postharvest processing
Ginger can be processed into several forms like dried ginger, powdered ginger,
ginger juice, ginger essential oils/oleoresins [ CITATION Lex17 \l 1033 ] . These processing of
raw ginger create value addition resulting in more diversified and industrialized products
which create better market.In Nepal, Ginger is traded mainly in raw form. Fresh ginger is
outstanding for flavouring food containing low fiber content but rich in aroma, pungency,
fat and protein [ CITATION Dev09 \l 1033 ]. Dry ginger is obtained by drying fresh ginger
comes in trade for preparation of ground ginger and extraction of oleoresin and oil
[ CITATION Dev09 \l 1033 ] . Ginger pickles processing is simple; no additional additives and
preservatives are needed and are easily consumed in domestic and Indian market [ CITATION
Lex17 \l 1033 ]. Ginger candy is the only commercialized product of ginger in the market
which is made by shocking premature ginger in sugar solution followed by drying
[ CITATION Pou73 \l 1033 ]. Ginger essential oils/oleoresins have many applications in food,
drink, fragrance (natural cosmetics) and herbal/traditional medicines (aromatherapy)
[ CITATION Lex17 \l 1033 ].

2.2.8 Packaging
 10

Adequate packaging is important to reduce postharvest losses of ginger. Packaging

is generally done to preserve the intrinsic quality of spices and to prevent the spoilage due
to microbes and insects infestation[ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ]. Fresh ginger for export is
usually packed in brace boxes (wire balance crates) to ensure maximum ventilation and is
shifting under refrigeration at 13°C [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ]. In case of local and distance
market, fresh and dry ginger is packed in gunny bags (KC, Gautam, & Acharya, 2009).
Ginger of similar size rhizome is generally packed in each market container. The container
should be strong, well ventilated and clean. Ginger rhizomes should be packed in dry
condition in fibre-board carton. The carton should not be over packed or overfilled,
rhizome should be loosely packed too.

2.2.9 Storage and transportation

First of all healthy, undamaged rhizomes are initially selected only these
undamaged healthy ones can be stored for longer duration. The optimal temperature for
storage and transportation is 12°C and the recommended relative humidity is from 70% to
75% for storage. At this temperature and RH the rhizomes will remain in marketable
condition for at least 3 month. If the RH is above 90%, the mould will begin to grow and if
the temperature is above 16°C, sprouting will be stimulated. Ginger stored at 22°C and
70% RH for 3 months will lose about 20% of its initial weight [ CITATION USA04 \l 1033 ].

2.2.10 Postharvest diseases and disorders

Postharvest diseases is generally due to rough harvest and handling practices which
results in injury to skin and flesh of ginger rhizomes [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ] . Holding
ginger at high temperature results in sprouting and high RH results in postharvest
decay[ CITATION USA04 \l 1033 ]. Postharvest losses from diseases are caused by various
fungi. Also diseases like bacterial soft rot is prominent in the field and storage.

2.2.11 Marketing system

Marketing system is the process of taking products from producers and selling them
to consumers through different channels. Marketing involves the series of different
activities and actors like collectors, wholesalers, retailers, consumers. The major local
markets of ginger in Sankhuwasabha are in Khadbari, Chainpur and Pachkhapan
municipality i.e. Khadbari bazaar, Chainpur bazaar, Tumlingtar bazaar, Local Haat bazaar,
 11

Lingling bazaar, Barabishe bazaar, Maadi bazaar etc. The dominance of a single trade
outlet of ginger from Eastern Nepal is Naxalbari, India [ CITATION Mer16 \l 1033 ].

2.3 An overview on value chain

A value chain is a set of activities that a firm operating in a specific industry
performs in order to deliver a valuable product or service for the market. At each stage of
activity, the product or service gain some value. The concept comes through business
management and was first described by Michael Porter in his 1985 best-seller,
"Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance".The value chain
is concentrating on the activities starting from raw materials till the conversion on final
products or services. According to [ CITATION Mic85 \l 1033 ] , the set of activities performed
are categorized in primary activities and secondary activities. The primary activities are
directly related to delivery of product and services, which includes raw materials,
production, processing, packaging, labelling, storage, transport and distribution of the
product directly to the end consumer [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ] . The secondary activities are
not directly related to production but they act as support to the primary activities to create
value of the product or services. It includes basic infrastructure development such as
physical infrastructure, administration, human resources, technology development,
purchasing, procurement and research and development [ CITATION Mic85 \l 1033 ] . The
major actors involved in a value chain are suppliers, producers, traders, wholesalers,
exporters, retailers and consumers [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ].

2.4 Status of ginger and its production in Nepal

In Nepal, Ginger is one of the top most spice crop in terms of area of cultivation
and production volume. The total area under cultivation of ginger is 22,649 ha while the
production volume of ginger is 2,79,504 mt with 12.34mt/ha productivity [ CITATION MOA74
\t \l 1033 ]. In reference to last 5 years data on ginger in Nepal, the area under cultivation
had increased from 19,376 ha to 24,226 ha in 2070. Afterwards, the area under cultivation
had been decreasing from 2070 B.S to 2073 B.S., the area under cultivation was reached to
22,649 ha in 2073 B.S. But the production volume of ginger seemed to be fluctuating in
these past 5 years. In 2073 B.S. the production volume of ginger was highest among all
past 5 years with 2,79,504mt production and 12.34mt/ha productivity.
 12

Table 3. Production area, production volume and productivity of ginger in Nepal

Production year Area under cultivation (ha) Production volume Productivity
(mt) (mt/ha)
2069/70 19,376 2,35,033 12.13
2070/71 24,226 2,76,150 11.40
2071/72 23,826 2,42,547 10.18
2072/73 23,855 2,63,140 11.03
2073/74 22,649 2,79,504 12.34

Source: [ CITATION MOA15 \t \l 1033 ]

Analyzing the last four year trend, in fiscal year 2070/71, Nepal had exported
largest amount of ginger. In fiscal year 2070/71, around 20, 348 metric tons of raw ginger
and 66.25 metric tons of dried ginger are exported from Nepal, trading around NRs. 145
crores of ginger. But in fiscal year 2071/72, the export quantity of ginger was decreased by
3 times than that of fiscal year 2070/71.

Table 4. Import and export of ginger in Nepal (2068-2071)

Fiscal year Export quantity Crores Import quantity Crore Export profit/loss
(B.S.) (tons) (tons) s (Crore)
2068/69 13,238 28 4,273 1.7 26
2069/70 23,941 51 3,752 18 33
2070/71 62,843 133 24,040 74 59
2071/72 20,415 45 2,299 19 26
Source: [ CITATION Pou73 \l 1033 ]

Out of the total ginger production half of them are exported to India. Remaining
ginger are used for domestic purposes. Major transaction occurs from Kathmandu and
major market hubs of ginger in Nepal are Birtamod, Dharan, Biratnagar, Hetauda, Birgunj,
Butwal, Bhairawa, Tulsipur, Dhangadi, Mahendranagar and Kathmandu [ CITATION
ANS11 \l 1033 ]. The collection centres of ginger in Eastern Nepal are Kechana, Dhulabari,
Taganduba, Kolbung, Mangalabare, Hile, Pakhribas, Jhapa, Ilam, Dhankuta which are
operated by individual traders. From the collection centre most of all gingers are traded to
India in Naxalbari [ CITATION ANS11 \l 1033 ]. In the case of Nepal, most of the ginger are
 13

traded in raw form. They are not even washed, trimmed, cleaned, graded properly. The
quality of ginger is very poor due to improper postharvest handling practices.

2.5Status and scope of ginger production in Sankhuwasabha district

Sankhuwasabha is considered as one of the remotedistrict of Nepal due to it's hilly

topography. PMAMP project has developed the block area of ginger and turmeric here in
Sankhuwasabha after recognizing the potentiality of ginger/turmeric production. In
Sankhuwasabha, the total area under ginger cultivation is 115 ha and the total production
volume of ginger is 977.5 Mt with 8.50 Mt/ha productivity [ CITATION Dis73 \l 1033 ].
 14

Table5. Production area, production volume and productivity of ginger in Sankhuwasabha

district
Production Area under Production Productivity(mt/ha)
year cultivation(ha) volume(mt)
2068 80 640 8.0
2069 83 688.9 8.3
2070 84 705.6 8.4
2071 102 867 8.5
2072 115 977.5 8.50
Source: [ CITATION Dis73 \l 1033 ]

Ginger cultivation provides the great opportunities for local farmers for their
socioeconomic development. Despite this, the ginger farming do not flourish due to lack of
quality input supplies, faulty method of cultivation practices, subsistence level of
cultivation, no postharvest processing, lack of marketing facilities, less price and so on.
There is huge scope for production of ginger in this district and potentiality for adaption of
postharvest practices like proper harvesting,cleaning, grading, packaging, storage,
marketing of raw and processed ginger and off-season sales of ginger. This study deals
with improvement of quality of ginger by adoption of proper postharvest management
practices and establishing well marketing channels of ginger for upliftment of rural farmers
and increment in flow of foreign currency.

2.6 Polices and programs related to ginger production

The Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP) has as overall goal of accelerating the
agricultural growth from three percent in the first half of 1990's to five percent during the
20 year plan period.
The Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS, 2015-2035) has been implemented to
increase agriculture production and productivity through agriculture modernization, crop
diversification and commercialization of agricultural commodities.
Trade policy 2009 has prioritized ginger and kept under high potential export items group.
It has also planned programs for the commercialization of ginger farming.
 15

Government of Nepal (GON) has launched Nepal Trade Integration Strategy

(NTIS) on June, 2010 with the objectives of strengthening trade negotiations, technical
capacity of domestic non-tariff barrier and other business institutions, export capacity and
GON’s capacity to coordinate and manage Trade-Related Technical Assistance and Aid for
Trade. This strategy prioritized 18 regions emphasizing their export potentiality. In
relation, 7 commodities (Cardamom, Ginger, Honey, Blackgram, Tea, Noodles, Medicinal
plants and Aromatic oil) from agriculture region are identified for export [ CITATION
Pou73 \l 1033 ].
National Spice Crop Development Program (NSCDP) under Department
ofAgriculture has programs to give compensation to Agricultural Co-operatives, Farmers
Groups and Entrepreneurs for processing of spices.
National Ginger Research Program under Nepal Agriculture Research Centre
(NARC) has the mandate to conduct research works on ginger. It has launched some
varieties of ginger (Kapurkot-1, Kapurkot-2).
The Agro Enterprise Centre (AEC) in coordination with Government of Nepal have
launched different programs such as HVAP, RISMFP, HIMALI, and KUBK and so on.
The AEC has revised its vision and mission of developing sustainable and competitive
agri-enterprise.
The flagship program of ADS include Value Chain Development Program (VCDP)
and Innovation and Agro-entrepreneurship Program (INAGEP). Commercial Agriculture
Production Centre (BLOCK) is established under PMAMP with the mission of
development and increment of farmers’ income by increasing crop production and
productivity, agriculture infrastructure development, agriculture mechanization and
processing centre.
 16

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 LEE site and subsector

Chainpur municipality of Sankhuwasabha district was selected as study area under
block area of Ginger/Turmericas per PMAMP guidelines. PMAMP implementation units
as Block area under 'Shree Siddhakali Block Bikas Samiti' and Pocket area under 'Shree
Manakamana Besar/Aduwa Utpadan Krishi Samuha'in Chainpur municipality are the
major area for ginger production. Within this area, Ward no 3(Sidhakali), Ward no 5(Thati
ghau), Ward no 6(Dagi ghau), Ward no 9(Trishuli), Ward no 10(Baneshwore) and Ward no
11(Kharang) of Chainpur municipality were taken under major priority for the survey.

Bhotkhola GP

Makalu GP

Silichong GP

Chichila GP
Sabhapokhari GP

Khandbari NP

Panchakhapan NP

Chainpur NP

Madi NP

Dharmadevi NP

Figure 1. Map showing study area in Sankhuwasabha district

3.2 Sample and sampling technique

According to [ CITATION Dis73 \l 1033 ], About 476 households, 296 households
from block program under 'Shree Siddhakali Block Bikas Samiti' and 180 households from
pocket program under 'Shree Manakamana Besar/Aduwa Utpadan Krishi Samuha' are
involved in ginger cultivation in Chainpur municipality of Sankhuwasabha district. The
average of 15% households was selected randomly for the study from each block (44
samples) and pocket (27 samples) programs as the representative of the whole population.
 17

All together, 71 samples from pocket and block programswere selected randomly for the
survey to get the information regarding postharvest management practices of ginger in
Chainpur municipality of Sankhuwasabha district.

3.3 Research instruments/design

3.3.1 Desk study

Desk study was carried out to search the background information about the process
of ginger production, postharvest and marketing. The used materials were dado profile,
annual reports, books, articles, official statistical data and so on. The use of existing
materials helped to gain the information of postharvest factors, problems in postharvest
management practices of ginger, opportunities in ginger farming and so on. Some of the
study materials were reports about quality attributes, quality requirement of the consumers,
ginger value chain analysis, post-harvest handling technologies, marketing problems and
so on.

3.3.2 Household survey

Household survey was useful in collecting primary data from the interview
schedule. The survey was carried out on randomly selected farmers from Chainpur
municipality of Sankhuwasabha district. The interview schedule mainly focused on
production, postharvest management practices, opportunities and constraint in postharvest
of ginger, marketing opportunities, farmers received services and so on.

3.3.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

FGDs were conducted with leader farmers, representatives of farmer groups of
'Shree Siddhakali Block Bikas Samiti' and 'Shree Manakamana Besar/Aduwa Utpadan
Krishi Samuha' along with DADO staffs in Block and pocket unit of ginger in Chainpur
municipality. FGDs were useful in cross-checking of primary data collected from the
interview schedule. Additional information on current situation of ginger cultivation
practices, constraints in ginger farming and aspects for further improvement of ginger
growers were also discussed in FGDs.

3.3.4Key Informant Survey (KIS)

KIS was carried out with the leader farmers, members of village development
committee, DADO staffs and ginger traders of Sankhuwasabha district. The survey
 18

wasuseful for collecting several information regarding the study and verification of
primary data collected from household survey.

3.4 Data and data type

3.4.1 Primary data
Primary data was collected through household survey with the help of semi-
structured interview schedule. The collected data was crosschecked by triangulating via
KIS and FGDs.

3.4.2 Secondary data

The secondary information was obtained through reviewing different publications
like annual reports, articles, journals mainly produced by Department of Agriculture
(DOA), Ministry of Agriculture Development (MoAD), Central Bureau of Statistics
(CBS), Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), District Agriculture Development
Office (DADO) of Sankhuwasabha, National Ginger Research Program (NGRP),
UNNATI Nepal and so on.

3.5 Data analysis techniques

The information collected from the field and survey was encoded into the computer
for analysis. Data entry and analysis was done by using computer software packages like
the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and Microsoft excel.
 19

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section represents the findings of the household survey, KIS and FGDs about
population characteristics and postharvest considerations of ginger producers in Chainpur
municipality, Sankhuwasabha.

4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics

The socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents include population
characteristics like population status, age, gender, family size, education level, income
source, annual income and land holdings of the respondents.

4.1.1 Population characteristics of the respondents

The age of the respondent was classified into three categories i.e. (i) <33 years of
age, (ii) 33-61 years of age and (iii) >61 years of age. The study has revealed that majority
of the respondents in the study area were between the age group 33-61 years (69.01%)
followed by <33 years (11.49%) and >61 years (11.49%). The mean age of the respondents
was found 47 years old. Overall, the population of male respondents (71.83%) was higher
than that of female (28.17%)in all age groups (Table 6).

Table 6. Distribution of the respondents by age group and gender

Gender of the respondents

Age group of respondents Total (N=71)
Male Female
<33 years of age 6 (8.45%) 5 (7.04%) 11 (15.49%)
33-61 years of age 38 (53.52%) 11 (15.49%) 49 (69.01%)
>61 years of age 7 (9.86%) 4 (5.63%) 11 (15.49%)
Total 51 (71.83%) 20 (28.17%) 71 (100.00%)

*Mean 47 years and S.D 14 years

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.2 Population status of the respondents

The total population of 71 respondent was found to be 439 with average family
member of 6.19. The study showed that the average male and female in the family member
 20

were 3.08 and 3.09 respectively (Table 7). Females were in higher proportion than males in
Nepal Census 2016 [ CITATION CBS16 \l 1033 ].

Table 7. Population distribution of the sampled householdin the study area

Description Minimum Maximum Sum Mean
Number of male 1 9 219 3.08
Number of female 0 9 220 3.09
Family number 1 15 439 6.19

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.3 Education status of the respondents

The education status of the respondent was categorized into five levels i.e. illiterate,
primary level, lower secondary level, secondary level and higher studies. Illiterate referred
to those who can neither read nor write where as other groups referred to literate. Primary
level referred to those who have attained formal education up to class five, Lower
secondary level meant up to District Level Examination (DLE) and secondary level meant
up to School Leaving Certificate (SLC). Next group is higher studies which includes all
who has completed 10+2 and higher education. According to the study, 27 respondents
(38.03%) were found to have secondary level education, followed by 19 respondents
(26.76%) had done higher studies and 14 respondents (19.72%) had primary level
education. Out of all, 6 (8.45%) respondents were illiterate (Figure 2). Altogether, literate
seemed to have higher population than illiterate that can be utilized as an important tool for
commercialization of ginger which was found similar in Nepal Census 2016 [ CITATION
CBS16 \l 1033 ].
 21

8%

27%

20%
Illiterate
Primary level education
Lower secondary level education
Secondary level education
Higher Studies
7%

38%

Figure 2. Education level of the ginger producers in the study area (N=71)
 22

4.1.4 Source of living among respondents

According to the study, 53 respondents (74.6%) were dependent on agriculture for

their livelihood, followed by services and foreign employment (Table 8). Agriculture is the
major source of livelihood in Nepal involving 65.6% of total population [ CITATION
MOA74 \l 1033 ].

Table 8. Source of living among respondents in the study area

Major occupation Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)
Agriculture 53 74.65
Business 4 5.63
Services 9 12.68
Foreign Employment 5 7.04

Total 71 100.00

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.5 Annual income of the ginger producers from agriculture

The total annual income of the respondents were categorized by using mean and
standard deviation into three levels i.e. low (below NRs. 63,000), medium (NRs. 63,000-
Rs. 1,63,000) and High (above Rs. 1,63,000). Out of 71 respondents, 45 respondents
(63.38%) earned between NRs. 63,000-NRs. 1,63,000, followed by 14 respondents
(19.72%) earned below NRs. 63,000 and 12 respondents (16.90%) earned above NRs.
1,63,000 annually from agriculture (Table 9).

Table 9. Annual income of the respondents from agriculture

 23

Annual income from agriculture Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)

Low (Below NRs. 63,000) 14 19.72

Medium (Between NRs. 63,000-NRs.

45 63.38
1,63,000)

High (Above NRs. 1,63,000) 12 16.90

Total 71 100.00

*Mean NRs. 1,13,000 and S.D NRs. 50,000

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.6 Farmer’s category in accordance to land size

Farmers were categorized as small, medium and large in accordance to the

landholding by using mean and SD. Farmers with landholding <8 ropani were categorized
as small farmers, with 8-51 ropani as medium farmers and with >51 ropani as large
farmers. The percentage of the medium farmers was found to be the highest (73.24%)
followed by large farmers (15.49%) and small farmers (11.27%) among the total sampled
households (Figure 3).

11%
15%

Small farmers
Medium farmers
Large farmers

73%
 24

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 3. Farmer's category according to land size in the study area (N=71)

4.1.7Land holding and utilization

According to the study, the average land holding size of the overall sample was
28.75 Ropani having Bari comparatively higher than Khet and Kharbari and Forest (Table
10).

Table 10. Total land holding and land distribution in the study area
Land Type (Ropani) Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Bari 1 55 17.11 13.88
Khet 0 30 10.24 8.26
Kharbari and Forest 0 30 1.48 4.86
Total Land 3 80 28.75 19.70

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.8Major crops under cultivation

The detailed rank of the various crops along with the index value and frequency of
the respondents is presented in the Table 11. All 71 respondents were asked to rank the
major crops cultivated in the study area listed in the interview schedule. According to the
calculated index, major crop under cultivation was maizefollowed by paddy, ginger,
fingermillet and cardamomwhich is contradictory to the data from the District Profile of
Sankhuwasabha, 2015/16 where paddy has lead production in Sankhuwasabha [ CITATION
Dis73 \l 1033 ].

Table 2. Major crops under cultivation in the study area

Frequency Index Rank
Crops
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Maize 39 26 6 0 0 0.8930 I
Paddy 37 24 10 0 0 0.8760 II
Ginger 0 2 28 26 15 0.4479 III
Fingermillet 1 11 15 5 39 0.4028 IV
 25

Cardamom 5 4 4 3 55 0.3211 V

Where, P denotes the priority level of the producers. The weightage ranging from
the 1 to 5 was provided to each of the listed crops. Then, the frequency of respondents was
counted according to the ranking order provided by them to each of the crop. The sum of
the obtained frequency and weightage was then divided by the total respondents and
maximum weightage number which gave the index value. The crops were ranked in
accordance to the obtained index value.

4.1.9Irrigation status of ginger producing household

According to the study,39 households (54.93%) depended on rainfall for irrigation

followed by 29 households (40.85%) depended on kholso, kulo and rest 3households
(4.23%) had irrigation facility from tapwater (Figure 4)which is in accordance to the data
of [ CITATION Agr17 \l 1033 ] , where out of 2.7 million hectares of agricultural land in
Nepal, only 1.3 million ha have irrigation facilities. In case of ginger farming which is
mainly done in Pakho bari, farmers entirely depends on rainfall for irrigation [ CITATION
Sin13 \l 1033 ].

60%
54.93%

50%
40.85%
40%
Percentage (%)

30%

20%

10%
4.23%

0%
Rainfed Partially irrigated Irrigated
Irrigation status of households

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 4. Irrigation status of ginger producing household in the study area

4.2 Crop-specific information

4.2.1 Ginger production status
 26

Among 71 households interviewed, the total ginger cultivated land was found to be
122 ropani with the total production of 19.7 tons of ginger. According to [ CITATION Dis73 \l
1033 ], the area of ginger in Sankhuwasabha was found to be 2300 Ropani with production
of 977.5 tons of ginger. The details about production status of ginger are presentated in the
table below (Table 12).

Table 3. Production status of ginger in the study area

Description Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Ginger cultivated area (Ropani) 1.00 7.00 1.66 1.30
Ginger production per Ropani(kg) 300 900 466.20 133.03
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.2Variety of ginger

According to the study, there was two types of local varieties popular in the study
area i.e. Nase having high fibre content and Bose having low fibre content. Majority of the
growers, 50 households (70.42%) was found growing bose variety followed by 21
households (29.58%) growing nase variety of ginger (Figure5). Bose variety was grown
more extensively than nase variety of ginger as observed in Western Nepal [ CITATION Sin13
\l 1033 ]. Since there are other varieties like Kapurkot Aduwa-1 and Kapurkot Aduwa-2
released by Ginger Research Program, Salyan which were not introduced in the study area
yet[ CITATION DAD73 \l 1033 ].

Bose
30%
Nase

70%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

 27

Figure 5. Type of ginger cultivated in the study area (N=71)

4.2.3 Total cost of ginger

4.2.3.1 Production cost of ginger

Inputs required for ginger production include seed, organic manure, fertilizers,
labours and so on.Average cost of ginger production per ropani was found to be
NRs.11101.16. According to the study, human labour covered highest input share
(33.94%) with NRs.3767.61 average cost per ropani. Similarly, chemical fertilizers, seed
and organic manure had comprised 23.27%, 21.87% and 20.92% input share respectively
(Table 13). The cost of production of ginger is higher than the cost of production of cereals
and vegetables. The reason for high cost incurred in producing ginger is the use of seed
rhizomes in bulk, higher dose of compost and labor intensive agronomical operations
[ CITATION AEC05 \l 1033 ].

4.2.3.2 Postharvest cost of ginger

Average cost of postharvest handling of ginger was found to be NRs.20118.64 per

quintal which included processing, transportation, treatment, sorting and grading, storage
and packaging cost. During postharvest handling of ginger, processing practices of ginger
required highest cost of all i.e. 86.98% of total postharvest cost with NRs. 17,500 average
cost per quintal. Similarly, transportation practice, treatment practice, sorting and grading
practice, storage practice and packaging practices shared 3.82%, 3.31%, 2.42%, 2.17% and
1.30% of total postharvest cost respectively (Table 13).

Table 4. Tentative cost of ginger production in the study area

Production cost
Items of cost Mean (NRs. Ropani-1) Percentage of the total cost
Organic manure 2322.54 20.92%
Seed 2427.68 21.87%
Chemical fertilizers 2583.33 23.27%
Human labours 3767.61 33.94%
Total 11101.16 100.00%
\

Postharvest cost
Items of cost Mean (NRs. Quintal-1) Percentage of the total cost
 28

Packaging practice 260.56 1.30%

Storage practice 436.11 2.17%
Sorting and grading practice 487.41 2.42%
Treatment practice 666.67 3.31%
Transportation practice 767.89 3.82%
Processing practice 17500.00 86.98%
Total 20118.64 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.4 Source of planting materials for ginger cultivation

4.2.4.1 Source of seed

Majority of the households i.e. 30 households (42.25%) used their stored ginger
rhizome for seed to produce ginger which was similar in Western Nepal [ CITATION Sin13 \l
1033 ]. Rest of others, bought their seed from neighbours followed by DADO, Agrovet,
Co-operatives and NGOs/INGOs.
4%
8%

6%

self
42%
neighbours
DADO
15% co-operatives
agrovet
NGOs/INGOs

24%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure6. Source of seed for ginger cultivation (N=71)

4.2.4.2 Source of fertilizers

Only few ginger grower used fertilizer for production of ginger. According to the
study, 17 households (85%) bought the fertilizers from their near co-operatives while 2
households and 1 household bought the fertilizers from DADO and agrovets respectively
(Figure 7).
 29

5% 10%

DADO
co-operative
agrovet

85%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure7. Source of fertilizer for ginger cultivation (N=20)

4.2.4.3 Source of manure

According to the study, almost all the farmers used their own farmyard manure for
production of ginger.

4.2.5 Ginger farming experience

Farming experience is one of the indicator of new technologies adoption. From the
study, it was found that majority i.e. 37 farmers (52.11%) have been cultivating ginger
from more than 3 years (Table 14).

Table 5. Ginger farming experience of ginger growers in the study area

 30

Ginger farming experience Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)

This year 6 8.45

1 year 8 11.27

2 years 6 8.45

3 years 14 19.72

More than 3 years 37 52.11

Total 71 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.6 Trend of ginger cultivation

As PM-AMP has implemented the block program here in the Sankhuwasabha

district, the trend of ginger cultivation seemed to be increasing. Among 71 households, it
was found that the trend of ginger cultivation had increased in 64.79 % households;19.72%
households had decreased their cultivation and 15.49% households had constant cultivation
over years which was similar to the information in [ CITATION Mer16 \l 1033 ].

Table 6. Trend of ginger cultivation in the study area

Trend of ginger cultivation Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)
Increasing 46 64.79
Decreasing 14 19.72
Constant 11 15.49
Total 71 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018
 31

Out of 46 farmers, 19 farmers (41.30%) were increasing the ginger cultivation due
to availability of input supplies while rest followed the increasing trend due to high
production, more profit and less threat of natural enemies respectively.

45%
41.30%
40%
35% 32.61%
30%
Percentage (%)

25%
20% 17.39%
15%
10% 8.70%

5%
0%
availability of input supplies more profit high production both b and c
Reason behind increasing ginger cultivation

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 8. Reason behind increasing ginger cultivation (N=46)

Similarly, out of 14 farmers, 6 farmers (42.86%) were decreasing the ginger

cultivation practice due to low price and unstable market.

50%
45% 42.86%
40%
35.71%
35%
Percentage (%)

30%
25%
20%
14.29%
15%
10% 7.14%
5%
0%
unavailability of input supplies low price unstable market both b and c
Reason for decreasing ginger cultivation

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 9. Reason behind decreasing ginger cultivation (N=14)

4.2.7 Planting season of ginger

 32

From the study, it was concluded that out of 71 ginger growers, 47 ginger growers
(66.20%) planted the ginger rhizome in Baisakh. Similarly, 19 ginger growers (26.76%)
planted ginger rhizome in Chaitra while rest planted in Falgun (Table 16) . Ginger is planted
from Falgun to Baisakh depending on soil moisture present in field [ CITATION DAD73 \l 1033 ].

Table 7. Planting season of ginger in the study area

Planting season Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)
Falgun 5 7.04
Chaitra 19 26.76
Baisakh 47 66.20
Total 71 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.8 Burne harvesting of ginger

According to the study, out of 71 ginger growers, 49 ginger growers (69.01%)

harvested the mother rhizome during the course of ginger cultivation (Figure 10). Out of
49 brune harvester, 25 ginger growers (51.02%) harvested the mother rhizome in
Bhadra/Asoj while 18 ginger growers (36.73%) harvested in Shrawan/Bhadra and rest 6
ginger growers (12.24%) harvested in Asoj/Kartik (Table 17). Generally, burne harvesting
is done after 4 months of plantation of ginger rhizomes [ CITATION Pou73 \l 1033 ].

80%
69.01%
70%

60%
Percentage (%)

50%

40%
30.99%
30%

20%

10%

0%
yes no
Burne harvesting of ginger
Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 10. Burne harvesting practice of ginger (N=71)

33
 34

Table 8. Season for burne harvesting of ginger in the study area

Season for burneharvesting Frequency (N=49) Percentage (%)

Shrawan/Bhadra 18 36.73

Bhadra/Asoj 25 51.02

Asoj/Kartik 6 12.24

Total 49 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.9 Final harvesting of ginger

Out of 71 ginger growers, 40 ginger growers (56.34%) harvested the ginger in

Magh/Falgun, 20 ginger growers (28.17%) harvested the ginger in Mangsir/Poush while
rest 11 ginger growers (15.49%) harvested the ginger in Poush/Magh (Table 18). Final
harvesting of ginger is generally done after 6-9 months of plantation of ginger [ CITATION
Pou73 \l 1033 ].

Table 9. Harvesting season of ginger in the study area

Season of harvest Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)

Mangsir/Poush 20 28.17

Poush/Magh 11 15.49

Magh/Falgun 40 56.34

Total 71 100.00
 35

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.9.1 Factors considered during harvest

Present figure shows that out of 71 ginger growers, 56 ginger growers (78.87%)
considered maturity of ginger as major factor during harvesting which is found similar in
data [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ] . The reason behind harvesting at mature stage of the rhizome
is that it will be less subjected to deccay along with increased fibre content, reduced
moisture content altogether incresing the storability. Also 13 ginger growers (18.31%)
harvested ginger when they got higher demand in market to fence higher price. Rest of the
ginger growers (2.82%) harvested ginger when they felt the need for household
consumption (Figure 11).

3%

18%

maturity of ginger
market demand
household consumption

79%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 11. Factors considered during harvesting of ginger (N=71)

4.2.5.2 Problems during harvesting

The result showed out of 71 ginger growers, 45 ginger growers (63.04%) had
problem regarding dried land and unfeasibility of tillage operation. The reason behind
dried land and unfeasibiliy of tillage operation is due to low soil moisture content in the
field. While other ginger growers said labour shortage and unavailability of harvesting
materials were the problems during harvesting of the ginger (Figure 12).
 36

70%
63.38%
60%

50%

40%

30%
Percentage (%)

20% 14.08% 14.08%

8.45%
10%

0%

Problems during harvesting

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 12. Problem during harvesting of ginger (N=71)

4.3 Postharvest management practices of ginger

4.3.1 Precooling practice of ginger

Out of 71 ginger poducers, 59 ginger producers practice precooling practice during

postharvest handling of ginger. Out of 59 ginger producers, 22 ginger producers (37.29%)
practiced pecooling operation by spreading ginger on the floor. While other ginger
producers practiced precooling operation by keeping ginger overnight on field followed by
keeping ginger on shade (Figure 13).

40% 37.29%
35.59%
35%

30% 27.12%
Percentage (%)

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%
Overnight on field Keep on shade Spreading on the floor
Methods of precooling practice for ginger
 37

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 13. Methods of precooling practice of ginger after harvest (N=59)

4.3.2 Trimming practice of ginger

Almost all the ginger producers performed trimming practice of ginger manually.
Mechanization in the postharvest handling of ginger was the major need in the study area.

4.3.3 Cleaning practice of ginger

According to the study, 68 respondents performed the cleaning practice after

harvesting the ginger. Out of 68 respondents, 46 farmers (67.65%) performed cleaning
practice by removable of soil only, followed by 22 farmers (32.35%) performed cleaning
practice by washing the ginger rhizome(Figure 14). In Eatern Regions of Nepal,
processing any forms of ginger (even simple washing) is yet to be institutionalized
[ CITATION GON16 \l 1033 ].

32%

Removable of soil
Washing in water

68%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 14. Methods of cleaning practice of ginger after harvest (N=68)

4.3.4 Sorting/grading practice of ginger

Ginger producers had no proper knowledge regarding grading practice of ginger.

The major basis of grading practice for ginger was in accordance to the quality of ginger
rhizomes.From the study it was found that out of 71 respondents, 53 respondents (74.65%)
 38

performed sorting/grading practice while remaining 18 respondents (23.35%) did not

perform sorting/grading practice after harvesting the ginger. Out of 53 respondents, 29
farmers (54.72%) performed sorting/grading practice by removing the diseased, decayed
ones and arranging them on the basis of shape and size too while 24 farmers (45.28%)
removed the diseased, decayed ones only (Figure 15).

Sorting
Sorting and Grading
45%

55%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 15. Status of sorting/grading practice of ginger in the study area (N=53)

There were also 18 farmers who were not performing sorting/grading practice after
harvesting the ginger. The reason behind not performing sorting/grading practice 12
farmers (66.67%) said that there was no such market demand for sorting/grading practice
while remaining 6 farmers (33.33%) said that it was time consuming (Figure 16).

33%

not on market demand

time consuming

67%
 39

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 4. Reason for not performing sorting/grading practice of ginger (N=18)

4.3.5 Processing practice of ginger

According to the study, out of 71 ginger producers, only 16 ginger producers

(22.54%) performed processing of ginger like making sutho, powder and pickles. Majority
i.e. 55 ginger producers (77.46%) did not perform any processing of ginger after harvest
because they lack the infrastructure and proper technical knowledge about the processing
of the ginger (Figure 17).
90%

80% 77.46%

70%
P e rc e n t a g e (% )

60%

50%

40%

30%
22.54%
20%

10%

0%
Yes No
Processing practice of ginger

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 5. Status of processing practice of ginger in the study area (N=71)

According to the study, only 16 ginger producers (22.54%) processed ginger into
different forms like sutho, powder and pickles. Sutho (dry ginger) is the major processed
product madeout of fresh ginger[ CITATION NEA13 \l 1033 ]. Majority of farmers made sutho
followed by ginger powder and ginger pickle. Average 68.75 kg ginger was used to make
sutho (dried ginger) while 19.89 kg and 9.67 kg average ginger was used to make ginger
powder and ginger pickle respectively (Table 19).

Table 10. Status of processed products of ginger in the study area

 40

Forms of processing Frequency (N=16) Mean of ginger volume used (kg)

Sutho 9 68.75

Powder 4 19.89

Pickles 3 9.67

Total 16 98.31
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.3.6 Packaging of ginger

Adequate Packaging is important to reduce postharvest losses but in the study area
there was no specialized way of packaging. According to the respondents, 45 ginger
producers (63.38%) used local bags while rest (36.62%) used doko for packaging of ginger
(Figure 18).
70%
63.38%
60%

50%
P e rc e n ta g e (% )

40% 36.62%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Doko Jute sac
Means of packaging of ginger

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 6. Packaging materials of ginger in the study area (N=71)

 41

4.5.7 Transportation of ginger

Farmers usually transported their produce to the haat bazaar or to local traders.
According to the respondents, majority of farmers (67.61%) transported ginger manually
while others (32.39%) transported ginger by vehicles (Figure 19).

80%

70% 67.61%

60%
Percentage (%)

50%

40%
32.39%
30%

20%

10%

0%
Manually By vehicles
Means of transportation for ginger
Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 7. Means of transportation of ginger in the study area (N=71)

4.3.8Storage practice of ginger

According to the study, out of 71 respondents, 39 farmersstored ginger rhizomes

for seed in next season. Out of 39 farmers, 32 farmers (82.05%) stored ginger rhizomes in
soil pit using local techniques followed by 4 farmers (10.26%) practiced in-situ storage
(harvesting ginger whenever needed and the left ones on the farm were used as seeds for
the next season) while rest 3 farmers (7.69%) practiced storage by spreading ginger
rhizome in dry floor (Table 20). In Western Nepal, storing of ginger seeds was carried out
by using local techniques in soil pits [ CITATION Sin13 \l 1033 ].

Table 20. Methods of storage of ginger in the study area

Methods of storage Frequency (N=39) Percentage (%)
Pit storage 32 82.05
Spread on floor 3 7.69
 42

In-situ storage 4 10.26

Total 39 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018

Among other 32 farmers, 56.25% farmers did not store ginger rhizome for seed due
to lack of storage facility while rest of the farmers (43.75%) said rapid decay of ginger in
soil pits during pit storage was the reason behind not storing the ginger rhizome for seed
(Figure 20).

lack of storage facility

44%
rapid decay

56%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 8. Reason for not storing ginger in the study area (N=32)

4.4 Abundance of diseases/pests after harvesting of ginger

From the study it had found that out of 71 ginger producers, 41 ginger producers
faced diseases/pests problems after harvesting of ginger. Out of 41 ginger producers,
16ginger producers (39.02%) faced the problem of postharvest diseases and insects/pests,
followed by 3 ginger producers faced the problem regarding decay of rhizome (Table 21).

Table 11. Abundance of diseases/pests after harvesting of ginger in the study area
Postharvest problems Frequency (N=41) Percentage (%)
Diseases 14 34.15
Insects/Pests 8 19.51
Both 16 39.02
Decay 3 7.32
Total 41 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018
 43

In the study area, out of 41 ginger producers, 38 ginger producers solved their
respective problems. In context, 15 ginger producers (39.47%) sold their product
immediately in aim to avoid any postharvest losses, followed by 14 ginger producers
(36.84%) employed sorting practice for diseased, decayed rhizomes while rest used
botanical pesticides to avoid diseases/pests problems (Table 22).

Table 12. Solutions of diseases/pests occurrence for ginger in the study area
Solutions of postharvest problem Frequency (N=38) Percentage (%)
Immediate sell 15 39.47
Sorting practice 14 36.84
Botanical pesticides 9 23.68
Total 38 100.00

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.5Source of information about postharvest management practices

According to the study, out of 71 respondents, 37 respondents were getting

information regarding ginger production, postharvest handlings and marketing of ginger.
Out of 37 respondents, 32 ginger producers (86.49%) got information from DADO while 3
ginger producers (8.12%) got information from fellow producers and rest 2 ginger
producers (5.41%) got information from NGOs/INGOs (Table 23).

Table 13. Source of information about postharvest management practices for ginger grower
in the study area
Source of information Frequency (N=37) Percentage (%)
DADO 32 86.49
Fellow producers 3 8.12
NGOs/INGOs 2 5.41
Total 37 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2018

In relation to this, 30ginger producers (81.08%) got technical information regarding

ginger production, postharvest handling while 3 ginger producers (8.12%) got market
 44

information of ginger, rest of the ginger producers (10.81%) got both technical and market
information of ginger (Table 24).
 45

Table 14. Type of information ginger producers got in the study area
Type of information Frequency (N=37) Percentage (%)
Technical information 30 81.08
Market information 3 8.12
Technical and market information 4 10.81
Total 37 100.00

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.6 Problems in postharvest management practices of ginger

Different postharvest problems were listed with priority number according to the
perception level of farmers. Indexing techniques was used for ranking the postharvest
problems in the study area. According to the ranking given by ginger producers, lack of
processing facility was the foremost problem in the study site (Table 25).

Table 15. Problems in postharvest management practices of ginger in the study area

Problems Index Rank

Lack of processing facility 0.6814 I

Lack of storage facility 0.6714 II

Abundance of postharvest diseases/pests 0.6482 III

Harvesting problems 0.6163 IV

Lack of packaging materials 0.5438 V

Lack of cleaning facility 0.4508 VI

Lack of technical information 0.4137 VII

Source: Field Survey, 2018

 46

4.7 Postharvest losses in ginger

Postharvest losses in ginger occur at several stages of postharvest handlings like
sorting/grading, storage, transportation and so on. For farmers, maximum loss occurred
during storage (44.91%) followed by sorting/grading loss (42.71%) and transportation loss
(12.37%). For traders, maximum loss occurred during sorting/grading practice (37.24%)
followed by storage (36.32%) and transportation loss (26.44%). The data is represented in
Table 26 below.
 47

Table 16. Losses in postharvest management practices of ginger in the study area
Postharvest practices Mean loss (kg Quintal-1) Percentage (%)
Farmers field
Transportation practice 1.35 12.37%
Storage practice 4.90 44.91%
Sorting/Grading practice 4.66 42.71%
Total 12.45 100.00%
Traders level
Transportation practice 1.15 26.44%
Storage practice 1.58 37.24%
Sorting/Grading practice 1.62 36.32%
Total 4.35 100.00%

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.8 Level of satisfaction of ginger growers

According to the study, Majority i.e. 69.01% farmers were satisfied from ginger
farming (Figure 21). Ginger farming gives high profit in low production cost which was
the reason behind satisfaction of ginger producers. In case of ginger farming there was less
occurrence of diseases and insects/pests with minimum threat of enemies like monkey in
the study area.
80%
69.01%
70%

60%
P e rc e n ta g e (% )

50%

40%

30%
16.90%
20%
8.45%
10% 4.23%
1.41%
0%
strongly satisfied satisfied neutral dissatisfied strongly dissatisfied
Level of satisfaction

Source: Field Survey, 2018

Figure 21. Distribution of ginger growers by satisfaction level (N=71)

48
 49

4.9 Marketing of ginger

4.9.1 Mode of selling

According to the study, majority of farmers (60.56%) sold their produce directly to
the consumers in the local market followed by 36.62% of farmers sold their produce to the
local traders (Table 27).

Table 17. Mode of selling of ginger from farmgate in the study area
Mode of selling Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)
Directly to consumer 43 60.56
Local traders 28 39.44
Total 71 100.00

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.9.2 Price fixation of ginger

According to the respondents, most of the farmers (71.83%) were getting price
fixation from the traders while other used to set their own price. In some cases, cooperative
also played an important role in dictating price of ginger (Table 28).

Table 18. Actors involved in price fixation of ginger in the study area
Major actors Frequency (N=71) Percentage (%)
Traders 51 71.83
Lacks knowledge 11 15.49
Self-assumption 7 9.86
Co-operative 2 2.82
Total 71 100.00

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.9.3 Market price of ginger

In the study area, market of ginger was unstable and the price was fluctuating too.
In the Figure 22, it was observed that the mean selling price of ginger peaked
 50

(NRs.61.8/kg) during 2070 then the meanprice of ginger started decreasing till 2073
(NRs.37.1/kg) and in 2074 the mean price of ginger had slightly increased to NRs.40.4/kg
for farm gate.

70.0 Mean selling price (farmgate)

62.0
60.0 54.5
Selling price of ginger (NRs.)

50.0 45.7
40.4
40.0 37.5

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
2070 2071 2072 2073 2074
Year
Source: Field Survey, 2018
Figure 22. Last five year market price trend of ginger in the study area

4.9.4 Price flow of ginger

Price flows through market channel. Marketing channel is the medium through
which produce of farmers is taken to the consumers. In the study site, two type of
marketing channels were popular.
Channel 1:

Farmers NRs.40.4/kg Consumers

-1
40.440.4/kgkg

Channel 2:

Farmers Traders NRs.78/kg Consumers

NRs.40.4/kg
40.440.4/kgkg-1 40.440.4/kgkg-1

Source: Field Survey, 2018

According to the study, 50% of farmers sold their produce directly to the
consumers while other farmers sold their produce to the local traders.
Market Margin = Traders price – Farmgate price
 51

= NRs. 78 - NRs. 40.4

= NRs. 37.6
Therefore, the market margin of raw ginger in the study area was found to be NRs.
37.6 per kg.
4.9.5 Marketing problems

In the study site, farmers were facing major problems due to unstable market. So,
for the study different marketing problems were listed and respondents were asked to rank
the individual problem in their perception. According to the farmers, unstable market was
the major problem, followed by low market price, transportation problem and quality issue.
Nepal Economic Forum also considered fluctuating market price due to unstable market as
major problem in ginger cultivation [ CITATION Nep17 \l 1033 ].

Table 19. Marketing problems of ginger in the study area

Priority level
Problems Index Rank
P1 P2 P3
Unstable market 49 13 9 0.8528 I
Low market price 13 43 15 0.6525 II
Transportation problem 15 17 39 0.5506 III
0.418
Quality issue 1 17 53 IV
5

Source: Field Survey, 2018

 52

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary

The study was conducted in Chainpur municipality of the Sankhuwasabha district

selected as the block for ginger/turmeric production by PM-AMP project. The 71 ginger
producers from Chainpur municipality were selected randomly for the purpose of the
study. The data for the study process was collected through the interview schedules
conducted among the 71 respondents. The research study was conducted in the duration of
6 months from Poush, 2074-Jestha, 2075 (December, 2017-June, 2017).
The total population of the surveyed households was 439 in which female members
were higher than male members. However, among the 71 respondents the number of male
was found to be higher. The majority of the interviewed ginger producers were between
the age group 33-61 years old. The mean age of respondents was 47 years old. The
education level of the ginger producers revealed that 38.03% of the ginger producers had
studied up to secondary level and only 8.45% of ginger producers were illiterate. Most of
the respondents were dependent on agriculture for their livelihood followed by services
and foreign employment. The average annual income of the respondent from agriculture
was found to be NRs. 1,13,000 while majority of respondents earned between the range of
NRs. 63,000 - NRs, 1,63,000 annually.
The average landholding size of the ginger producing households was 28.75 ropani
majorly occupied by bari followed by khet and kharbari where 54.93% of the household
was found to follow rain-fed type of farming. The major crop grown in this area was maize
followed by paddy, ginger, finger millet and cardamom. The total ginger cultivated land
was found to be 1.66 ropani with the total production of 466.20kg/ropani among the
interviewed ginger producing households. The local variety of ginger; Nase and Bose was
found to be popularly cultivated by the ginger producers of which Bose was found to be
cultivated extensively by producers.
Average cost of ginger production per ropani was found to be NRs.11101.16 along
with the major inputs like seed rhizome, chemical fertilizer, organic manure and human
labour. Average cost of postharvest handling of ginger was found to be NRs.20118.64 per
quintal along with the major postharvest handling practices like processing, transportation,
treatment, sorting, grading, storage and packaging.
 53

The major source of seed in the study area was their own stored rhizome while
fertilizers was mostly distributed by co-operatives. The study showed that majority i.e. 37
farmers (52.11%) have been cultivating ginger from more than 3 years. The trend of ginger
cultivation here in Sankhuwasabha was increasing due to availability of input supplies
followed by high production, more profit along with less threat of natural enemies. Most of
the ginger growers had planted the ginger rhizome in Baisakh in the study area. Likewise,
69.01% of the respondents were found harvesting mother rhizomes (bruni) during the
course of ginger cultivation in the month of Bhadra/Asoj. Similarly, baby rhizome was
mostly harvested in the month of Magh/Falgun considering maturity of rhizomes as the
major factor during harvesting. During harvesting of ginger rhizomes, majority of farmers
addressed dried land and unfeasibility of tillage operation as major problem in the study
area. From the study, it was found that 59 ginger producers practiced pre-cooling practices
after harvesting the ginger by spreading the rhizomes on the floor. Trimming of unwanted
parts of ginger rhizomes was mostly done manually. Similarly, 68 ginger producers
performed the cleaning practice after harvesting the ginger by removable of soil only.
From the study, it was found that 53 ginger producers performed sorting/grading practice
by removing the diseased, decayed ones and arranging them on the basis of shape and size
too while other 18 respondents found that sorting/grading practice was time consuming.
Out of 71 ginger producers, only 16 ginger producers performed any processing of ginger
like making sutho, powder and pickles. In terms of packaging practice of ginger, majority
used local bags (jute sacks) as the major material for packaging. Majority of farmers
(67.61%) transported their produce to the haat bazaar or to local traders manually while
others (32.39%) transported ginger by vehicles. Out of 71 respondents, 39 farmers
(54.93%) stored ginger rhizomes for seed mostly in pit while others 32 farmers did not
store ginger rhizome for seed due to lack of storage facility. From the indexing technique,
we concluded that lack of processing facility was the major postharvest problem of ginger
in the study area followed by lack of storage facility. Postharvest losses in ginger occur at
several stages of postharvest handlings like sorting/grading, storage, transportation and so
on. For farmers, maximum loss occurred during storage while for traders maximum loss
occurred during sorting/grading. According to the study, 37 respondents were getting
information regarding ginger production, postharvest handlings and marketing of ginger
mostly from DADO. Majority of farmers i.e. 69.01% farmers were satisfied from ginger
farming due to high profit margin in low production cost for ginger farming.
 54

According to the study, majority of farmers (60.56%) sold their produce directly to
the consumers in the local market followed by 36.62% of farmers sold their produce to the
local traders. Similarly, most of the farmers (71.83%) were getting price fixation from the
traders while other used to set their own price.The mean selling price of ginger was
NRs.40.4/kg for farm gate in 2074 and the market margin of ginger was NRs. 37.6/kg.
According to the study, 50% of farmers sold their produce directly to the consumers while
other farmers sold their produce to the local traders. In the study site, farmers are facing
major problems due to unstable market followed by low market price, transportation
problem and quality issue.

5.2 Conclusions

Ginger is a prioritized crop by the PM-AMP under Sankhuwasabha district. The

geographical and climatic suitability for ginger in Sankhuwasabha district makes ginger
cultivation best option as commercial crop. There is high demand for ginger in the
international market as well as high potential for product diversification like sutho,
powder, candy and value addition. However in context of Sankhuwasabha district the
production of ginger was high but quality of produce was not standardized. Despite the
proven potential for increased income through processed ginger worldwide, the major
outlet of ginger production here was raw ginger. People preferred traditional methods of
postharvest handling which was not yet institutionalized. Farmers addressed lack of
processing facility as the major postharvest problem followed by lack of storage facility
and abundance of diseases/pests. Market of ginger was insecure and unstable due to price
fluctuation. So, this embarks an opportunities to motivate the farmers towards ginger
cultivation by solving the issues regarding ginger production especially postharvest
management practices and marketing.
Based on above conclusions following suggestions are recommended:
 Awareness should be created about appropriate use of postharvest technique to
improve the quality of ginger.
 Concerned stakeholders should provide trainings and technical services to farmers
regarding postharvest management practices of ginger.
 Governmental organizations should develop physical facilities and infrastructures
for washing, storage and processing of raw ginger.
 55

 Exposure of farmers to national and international market can awake them about
increased income from processed products.
 Government should intervene in formulating proper market policy and controlling
price fluctuation of ginger.
 Further research regarding adoption of postharvest management practices could be
beneficial.
 56

LITERATURE CITED

Acharya, B., & Kc, G. (2012). Sustainable ginger production, Protective storage and
Dried ginger processing technology. Kapurkot, Salyan, Nepal: Nepal Agriculture
Research Council, National Ginger Research Program.
AEC/FNNCI. (2005). A Study Report on Trade Competitiveness of Off-Season Vegetables
Ginger in Selected Districts in Western Development Region of Nepal. Kathmandu,
Nepal.
Agriculture in Nepal. (2017). Retrieved 2017, from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Agriculture_in_Nepal
AICC. (2018). Krishi Dairy. Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur: Ministry of Agriculture, Land
Management and Co-operatives.
Andrews, R. (2017). All About Ginger. Retrieved from Precision Nutrition: Website
www.precisionnutrition.com
ANSAB/NEAT. (2011). Value chain/market analysis of ginger sub-sector in Nepal.
CBS. (2016). Statistical Year Book. Kathmandu, Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistis.
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DADO. (2015/016). DADO Profile Book. Shankhuwashaba, Nepal: DADO.
DADO. (2073). Ginger Cultivation. Sankhuwasabha: DADO.
Devkota, S., Ghimire, S. R., Kim, S.-Y., & Shin, D.-H. (2009). Production Status and
Export Analysis of Ginger in Nepal. The Korean Society of International
Agriculture.
FAOSTAT. (2016). Countries by Commodity. Top export of ginger-2016. Retrieved
August 2018, from FAOSTAT: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_
by_commodity_exports
FAOSTAT. (2016). Countries by Commodity. Top producer of ginger-2016. Retrieved
August 2018, from FAOSTAT: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_
by_commodity
Geta, E., & Kifle, A. (2011). Producton, processing and marketing of ginger in Southern
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 57

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Kc, G., Gautam, J., & Acharya, B. (2009). Ginger and Turmeric production, Improved
Technology. Kapurkot, Salyan, Nepal: Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Ginger
Research Program.
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Nepal German Trade Promotion Programme .
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managerial principles and practices. The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic
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Kathmandu, Nepal.
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National Spice Crop Development Program.
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Sharma, B. (2009). Diseases and ginger and their management.
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Singh, H. B. (2013). An assessment of pre and post harvest factors affecting quality of
ginger in the export chain: A case of Salyan district and Nepalgunj city, Mid-
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 59

APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Questionnaire
Postharvest Management Practices of Ginger in Sankhuwasabha, Nepal
My name is Pragya Poudel. I am from the Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur,
Chitwan, Nepal. I am student of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture. The purpose of this
questionnaires survey is to assess current postharvest situation in your locality. For this
purpose of the research, I am going to ask you some question related to research topic.
Please feel free to information and I promise you it is for research purpose only and
responses will be kept completely confidential. Thank you.

Interview Schedule

Respondent no:……….. Date:…………………….

Name of HH head: Age: Sex:
Name of the respondent: Age: Sex:
Address: Chainpur Municipality
Ward No:
Settlement name:
Contact No:
Family size: M= F=
Education level:
a.Illeterate b.Primary level c.Lower secondary level d.Secondary level
e.Higher studies (please specify)
1.What is your major source of living?
a. Agriculture b. Business and Agriculture c. Services and Agriculture

d. Foreign employment and Agriculture e. Other (please specify)

2. Annual income from agriculture……………….

3.Total land holding:……………………Ropani

Type of land Total land (Ropani)

a. Bari
b. Khet
c. Kharbari and forest
d. Others (please specify)
 60

4. Can you enlist major crops grown in your land? Rank them on the basis of priority with
cultivation area.

Crops Rank Cultivation area (Ropani)

a. Maize

b. Finger millet

c. Potato

d. Buckwheat

e. Paddy

f. Cardamom

g. Ginger

h. Vegetables

i. Fruits

j.Rapeseed

k.Grasses

l.Wheat

5. What kind of framing is practiced in terms of irrigation?

a.Rainfed b.Partially irrigated c.Irrigated
6. Total land holding size of ginger: ………………… Ropani
7. Which variety of ginger did you grew?
a.Nase b.Bose c.Kapurkot-1 d.Hybrid e.Others (please specify)
8. What is the source of your planting materials?
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Seed: a.Self b.Neighbours c.DADO d.Co-operatives e.Agrovet

f.NGOs/INGOs
Fertilizers: a.Self b.Neighbours c.DADO d.Co-operatives e.Agrovet
f.NGOs/INGOs
Manures: a.Self b.Neighbours c.DADO d.Co-operatives e.Agrovet
f.NGOs/INGOs
9. How much is the tentative production cost of ginger in 1 Ropani of land? (NRs.)
Commodities Amount Cost(NRs. Per unit) Total cost(NRs.)
Seed cost(kg)
Manure and fertilizer cost
 Organic manure(Doko)
 Chemical fertilizers(kg)
Labour cost(No.)
Seed treatment(g)/
Fungicides(g)/
pesticides cost(g)
Others cost
10. What is the tentative production of ginger per ropani? ……………. Quintals

11. From how long have you been practicing ginger cultivation?

a.This year b.1 year ago c.2 years ago d.3 years age e.More than 3 years ago

12.Is ginger cultivation

a.Increasing b.Decreasing c.Constant

If increasing, what is the reason behind it?

a. Availability of input supplies b.More profit

c.High production d.Others(please specify)

If decreasing, what is the reason behind it?

a.Unavailability of input supplies b.Low price c.Unstable market

d.Low production e.Both b and c f.Others(please specify)

13. When do you plant the rhizomes?

a.Falgun b.Chaitra c.Baisakh

14. Do you practice the Burne Harvesting of ginger?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

If Yes, when do you harvest the Burne?

a.Shrawan/Bhadra b.Bhadra/Asoj c.Asoj/Kartik

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15. How do you determine harvest time of ginger?

a.Maturity of ginger b.Market demand c.Others (please specify)

16. How do you harvest the ginger?

a.Manually b.Mechanically c.Others (please specify)

17. How many times do you harvest the ginger?

a.1 b.2 c.3 d.More than 3

When do you harvest your ginger for the first time?

a.Mangsir/Poush b.Poush/Magh c.Magh/Falgun

If harvesting times is 2 or more, when do you harvest your ginger for the last time?

a.Magh/Falgun b.Falgun/Chaitra c.Chaitra/Baisakh

18. Is there any problems during harvesting?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

If yes, what are the problems during harvesting?

a.Dried land and unfeasibility of tillage operations b.Labour shortage

c.Unavailability of harvesting materials d.Other(please specify)
19. Do you practice the precooling operation?
a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )
If yes, how do you cool your ginger after harvest?
a. Overnight on field b.Keep on shade c.Spreading on the floor d. Others(please specify)
20. Do you trim your ginger?
a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )
If yes, how do you trim the ginger?
a.Manually b.Mechanically c.Both d.Others (please specify)
21. Do you clean your ginger?
a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )
If yes, how do you clean the ginger?
a.Removable of soil only b.Washing in waterc.Both a and b d.Others (please specify)
22. Do you practice the sorting/grading of ginger?
a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )
If yes, on what activities do you perform while sorting/grading of ginger?
a.Remove the diseased, decayed one b.Arrange on the basis of shape and size
c.Both a and b ` d.Other(please specify)
If no, why ?
a.Not on market demand b.Time consuming c.Other(please specify)
 63

23. Do you perform any kind of processing?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )
If yes, what are the different forms of processing you perform?

S. N. Forms of processing Cost per kg (Rs.) Volume of ginger used (kg)

a. Sutho

b. Powder

c. Pickles

d. Candy

e. Others

24. What type of ginger has high demand in the market?

a.Fresh Ginger b.Dried Ginger c.Processed Ginger d.Others(please specify)

25. Are you storing your ginger rhizomes as seeds?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

If yes, how are you storing ginger rhizomes as seeds?

a.Pit storage b.Store house c.Insitu storage

d.Spread on floor f.Others (please specify)

If no, why you are not storing ginger rhizomes as seeds?

a.Lack of storage facilities b.Diseases and Pests c.Rapid decay d.Other(please specify)

26. Is there any problem of diseases/pests after harvesting the ginger?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

if yes, what kinds of problems?

a.Diseases b.Insects/pests c.Both d.Deccay

And How do you solve the problems?

 64

a.Immediate sell b.Use of chemicals c.Sorting practice d.Botanical

pesticides

27. Did you get any informations on ginger production, processing and marketing?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

If yes, from where?

a. Traders b.Otherproducers c. Co-operatives d.DADO e.NGOs/INGOs

f.Agrovetsg.PMAMP h.Others (please specify)

What kind of information do you get from your sources of informations?

a. Technical information b. Market information c. Both d.Others (please specify)

28. To whom do you sell your product?

a.Directly to consumer b.Local traders c.Processers d.Collectors/Exporters

If you sell your ginger directly to the consumers, then where do you sell it?

a.Local Market b.Dharan c.Biratnagar d.Other(please specify)

29. How do you transport your ginger to collection centres/traders?

a.Manually b.By animals c.By vehicles d.Others (please specify)

30. How do you pack your ginger for supply?

a.Doko,without packaging b.Local bags c.Cartons d.Others (please specify)

31. What was the selling price per kg of ginger?

Year Selling price/kg

2074
2073
2072
2071
2070

32.Who sets the price of the ginger?

a.Government office b.Traders c.Don't know d.Self assumption e.Cooperatives

f.Other(please specify)

33. Are you satisfied with the received price?

a.Strongly satisfied b.Satisfied c.Dissatisfied d.Strongly dissatisfied e.Neutral

 65

34. What are the channels of marketing?

a. Farmers Consumers

b. Farmers Collector Wholesalers Retailers Consumers

c. Farmers Traders Consumers

34. Please tell me what are the major problems in postharvest of Ginger and please rank
individual one out of 3. 3=High, 2=Medium, 1=Low
Postharvest problems

S.N Problems Rank

.

a. Lack of technical information regarding postharvest

management

b. Lack of processing facility

c. Lack of storage facility

d. Abundance of postharvest diseases/pests

e. Harvesting problems

f. Lack of packaging materials

g. Lack of sorting/grading facility

h. Lack of precooling facility

i. Lack of cleaning facility

j. Others (if any)

 66

Marketing problems

Problems Rank
Unstable market
Low market price
Transportation problem
Quality issue
35. Total cost in postharvest handling and marketing: (NRs. for one Quintal)

Sorting,Grading
Processing
Packaging
Transportation
Storage
Treatment (if any)
36. Loses during postharvest handling and marketing. (How many Kgs in one quintal)

Sorting and Grading

Transportation
Storage
Thank you very much for your cooperation!
 67

SOME GLIMPSES OF RESEARCH

 68

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The author, Ms. Pragya Poudel was born on 29 th June 1996 A.D. in Hetauda,
Makwanpur, Nepal, as the elder daughter of Mr. Ram Prasad Poudel and Mrs. Sangita
Poudel. She had completed her School Leaving Certificate (SLC) with distinction in 2011
A.D. from Adhunik Rastriya MA.VI. Hetauda and higher secondary degree in science
(10+2) with distinction in 2013 A.D. from Makwanpur Multiple Campus, Hetauda, Nepal.
She has joined Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Nepal for the
Bachelor's degree in Agriculture Science (B.Sc.Ag.) 4 years program in 2014 A.D. The
author got an opportunity to pursue internship under Learning for Entrepreneurial
Experience (LEE) program through AFU and Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization
Project (PM-AMP) under Government of Nepal in Ginger Block at District Agriculture
Development Office, Sankhuwasabha, Nepal.

Author