Electrostatics

Lorentz Force Law F = qE

ρ(r0 )
Z
1
Coulomb’s Law (Electric Field) E(r) = r̂ d3 r0
4π0 r2
ρ
Gauss’s Law ∇·E=
I  0 Z
1
E · da = ρ dV 0
∂V 0 V

Electric Field is Irrotational ∇×E=0

I
E · d` = 0
C

Electric Scalar Potential E = −∇Φ

ρ(r0 )
Z
1
Φ(r) = d3 r0 + C
4π0 r
σ
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions Eabove − Ebelow = n
0
ρ
Poisson’s Equation ∇2 Φ = −
0
Laplace’s Equation ∇2 Φ = 0
1
Green’s Function G(r, r0 ) = + F (r, r0 )
r
∇0 G = −4πδ( r), ∇0 F = 0
2 2


Dirichlet Boundary Conditions Φ specified

∂V

GD (r, r0 ) =0

r0 ∈∂V
Z I
1 1 ∂GD 0
Φ(r) = ρ(r0 )GD (r, r0 ) d3 r0 − Φ(r0 ) da
4π0 V 4π ∂V ∂n0
∂Φ 
Neumann Boundary Conditions  specified
∂n ∂V
∂GN (r, r0 )  4π
0
=−
∂n S
0
r ∈∂V
Z I I
1 1 ∂Φ 1
Φ(r) = ρ(r )GN (r, r0 ) d3 r0 +
0
0
GN da0 + Φ da
4π0 V 4π ∂V ∂n S ∂V

Work Done Moving a Charge W = q∆Φ

1X
Energy to Assemble Point Charges W = qi Φ(ri ) (omits self-energy)
2 i
Z
1
Energy of a Charge Distribution W = ρ(r)Φ(r) d3 r (includes self-energy)
2
0 1
Electric Energy Density u = |E|2 = ρΦ
2 2
Capacitance Q = CV
1
Capacitor Energy W = CV 2
2
 Solutions to Laplace’s Equation
Laplace’s Equation Potential Notes
X
Φ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = X1 (x1 )X2 (x2 )X3 (x3 )

∂2Φ ∂2Φ ∂2Φ

α,β
α2 + β 2 = γ 2
+ + =0 Boundary conditions quantize α, β, γ
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 X1 (x1 ) = Aα sin αx1 + Bα cos αx1
X2 (x2 ) = Cβ sin βx2 + Dβ cos βx2 α ∝ m ≥ 1, β ∝ n ≥ 1
X3 (x3 ) = Eαβ sinh γx3 + Fαβ cosh γx3

X
Φ(r, φ) = R0 (r)Ψ0 (φ) + Rν (r)Ψν (φ)
ν r → 0 =⇒ b0 , bν = 0
1 ∂2Φ
 
1 ∂ ∂Φ R0 (r) = a0 + b0 ln r Unrestricted φ =⇒ B0 = 0, ν ∈ Z (single-valued Φ)
r + 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ2 Ψ0 (φ) = A0 + B0 φ Restricted φ quantizes ν
Rν (r) = aν rν + bν r−ν ν∝n≥1
Ψν (φ) = Aν cos νφ + Bν sin νφ

X
Φ(r, θ, φ) = Rl (r)Cm Ylm (θ, φ)
l,m
X
Φ(r, θ) = Rl (r)Pl (cos θ)
r → 0 =⇒ Bl = 0
1 ∂2 ∂2Φ
 
1 ∂ ∂Φ 1 l
2
(rΦ) + 2 sin θ + 2 2 =0 r → ∞ =⇒ Al = 0 (unless external field)
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
r
X 4π l ≥ 0, −l ≤ m ≤ l
= Rl (r) Y 0 (θ, φ)
2l + 1 l
l

Rl (r) = Al rl + Bl r−(l+1)

X
Φ(r, φ, z) = R(r)Q(φ)Z(z)
ν,k
r → 0 =⇒ Bν = 0
R(r) = Aν Jν (kr) + Bν Nν (kr) Unrestricted φ =⇒ ν ∈ Z (single-valued Φ)
1 ∂2Φ ∂2Φ
 
1 ∂ ∂Φ Q(φ) = Cν sin νφ + Dν cos νφ
r + 2 + =0 Restricted φ quantizes ν
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ2 ∂z 2 Z(z) = Eν sinh kz + Fν cosh kz Boundary conditions quantize k
R(r) = Aν Iν (kr) + Bν Kν (kr) ν ∝ m ≥ 0, k ∝ xmn , n ≥ 1
Q(φ) = Cν sin νφ + Dν cos νφ
Z(z) = Eν sin kz + Fν cos kz
 Electrostatics of Materials
∞ l
1 X X 4π qlm m
Multipole Expansion Φ(r) = Y (θ, φ)
4π0 2l + 1 rl+1 l
l=0 m=−l
xi xj
 
1 q p·r 1
Φ(r) = + 3 + Qij 5 + . . .
4π0 r r 2 r
Z
Multipole Moments qlm = Ylm ∗ (θ, φ)rl ρ(x)d3 r, ql,−m = (−1)m qlm
∗

Z
Electric Monopole Moment q = ρ(r0 ) d3 r0
Z
Electric Dipole Moment p = r0 ρ(r0 ) d3 r0
Z  
2
Electric Quadrupole Moment Qij = 3x0i x0j − r0 δij ρ(r0 ) d3 r0

Torque on a Physical Electric Dipole τ =p×E

Force on an Electric Dipole F = (p · ∇) E

Energy of an Electric Dipole U = −p · E

1 3(p · r̂) r̂ − p
Electric Dipole Field E( r) =
4π0 r3
1 ∂E j
Energy of a Charge Distribution W = qΦ(0) − p · E(0) − Qij (0) + . . .
6 ∂xi
Bound Charge Density ρb = −∇ · P = ρ − ρf

Bound Surface Charge Density σb = − (Pabove − Pbelow ) · n = σ − σf

Displacement Field D = 0 E + P

Material Gauss’s Law ∇ · D = ρf

I Z
D · da = ρf dV 0
∂V V

Linear Dielectric D = E

 = 0 (1 + χe ) = 0 r

P = 0 χ e E

Material Boundary Conditions Dabove − Dbelow = σn + (Pabove − Pbelow )

 
3
Polarization of a Dielectric Sphere in an External Field P = 0 χ e Eext
χe + 3
Polarizability p = αE
1
Material Electric Energy Density u= E·D (assembly of free charge)
2
1
Energy Density of a Dielectric in an External Field u = − P · Eext
2
 Magnetostatics
Lorentz Force Law F = qv × B
Z
Force on a Current F = J × B dV 0
J(r0 )
Z
µ0
Biot-Savart Law (Magnetic Field) B(r) = × r̂ d3 r0
4π r2
Magnetic Field is Solenoidal ∇·B=0
I
B · da = 0
S

Ampère’s Law ∇ × B = µ0 J
I Z
B · d` = µ0 J · da
∂S S

Magnetic Vector Potential B=∇×A

J(r0 ) 3 0
Z
µ0
A= d r + ∇f
4π r
Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions Babove − Bbelow = µ0 K × n

Coulomb Gauge ∇·A=0

Poisson’s Equation ∇2 A = −µ0 J

Electrodynamics
Ohm’s Law J = σE

V = IR
` 1 `
Resistivity and Conductivity R=ρ =
A σA
Joule Heating Law P = I 2 R = IV
I Z
∂B
Faraday’s Law E · d` = − · da
∂S S ∂t
∂B
∇×E=−
∂t
1X 1X
Energy to Assemble Current Circuits W = Li Ii2 + Mij Ii Ij
2 i 2
i6=j
Z
1
Energy of a Current Distribution W = J(r) · A(r) d3 r
2
1 1
Magnetic Energy Density u= |B|2 = J · A
2µ0 2
dI
Self-Inductance E = −L
dt
Mutual Inductance ΦB = M I
1 2
Inductor Energy W = LI
2
 Magnetostatics in Materials
µ0 m × r
Vector Potential Expansion A(r) = 3
Z4π r
1
Magnetic Dipole Moment m= r0 × J(r0 ) d3 r0
2
m = Ia (plane loop)
e
m= L (orbiting charges)
2M
Torque on a Physical Magnetic Dipole τ =m×B

Force on a Magnetic Dipole F = ∇ (m · B)

Energy of a Magnetic Dipole U = −m · B

µ0 3(m · r̂) r̂ − m
Magnetic Dipole Field B( r) =
4π r3
Bound Current Density Jb = ∇ × M = J − Jf

Bound Surface Current Density Kb = − (Mabove − Mbelow ) × n = K − Kf

1
Auxiliary Field H= B−M
µ0
Material Ampère’s Law ∇ × H = Jf
I Z
H · d` = Jf · da0
∂S S

Linear Magnets B = µH

µ = µ0 (1 + χm )

M = χm H

Material Boundary Conditions Habove − Hbelow = K × n − (Mabove − Mbelow )

 
1 3
Magnetization of a Magnetized Sphere in an External Field M= χm Bext
µ0 χm + 3
1
Material Magnetic Energy Density u= B·H (assembly of free currents)
2
1
Energy Density of a Magnet in an External Field u = M · Bext
2
 Maxwell’s Equations and Conservation Laws
∂B
Maxwell’s Equations ∇ · D = ρf ∇×E=−
∂t
∂D
∇·B=0 ∇ × H = Jf +
∂t
Lorentz Force Law F = q (E + v × B)
∂A
Potential Formulation E = −∇Φ −
∂t
B=∇×A
1 ∂Φ
Lorenz Gauge ∇·A+ 2 =0
c ∂t 2
1 ∂
D’Alembertian 2 = ∇ 2 − 2 2
c ∂t
ρ
Wave Equations 2 Φ = −
0
2 A = −µ0 J

Retarded Time |r − r0 (tret )| = c (t − tret )

ρ(r0 , tret ) 3 0
Z
1
Retarded Potentials Φ(r, t) = d r
4π0Z r
µ0 J(r0 , tret ) 3 0
A(r, t) = d r
4π r !
ρ(r0 , tret ) ρ̇(r0 , tret ) J̇(r0 , tret )
Z
1
Jefimenko’s Equations E(r, t) = + − d3 r0
4π0 r2 cr
!
c2 r
J(r0 , tret ) J̇(r0 , tret )
Z
µ0
B(r, t) = + × r̂ d3 r0
4π r2 cr
∂ρ
Continuity Equation +∇·J=0
∂t
d
Mechanical Power Density umech = J · E
dt
1
Electromagnetic Energy Density uem = (E · D + B · H)
2
Poynting Vector S=E×H
∂
Energy Conservation (umech + uem ) + ∇ · S = 0
∂t Z Z I
d 1 d
J · E dV + (E · D + B · H) dV + S · da = 0
dt V 2 dt V ∂V
d
Mechanical Force Density Pmech = f = ρE + J × B
dt
Electromagnetic Momentum Density Pem = µ0 0 S
   
1 1 1
Maxwell’s Stress Tensor Tij = 0 Ei Ej − E 2 δij + Bi Bj − B 2 δij
2 µ0 2
∂
Momentum Conservation (Pmech + Pem ) − ∇ · T = 0
∂t Z I
d
F + 0 µ0 S dV − T · da = 0
dt V ∂V

Angular Momentum `em = r × Pem

 Electromagnetic Waves
√ ω n
Dispersion Relation k= µ ω = = ω
v c
k×E k̂ × E nk̂ × E
Directions B= = =
ω v c

Polarization Vectors i · k̂ = 0, i = 1, 2

Interface Boundary Conditions D · n, B · n, E × n, H × n are continuous

Phase factors k · r are equal at boundary

 
ET 2ni ER nt − ni k
Relative Amplitudes at Normal Incidence = , =±
EI nt + ni EI nt + ni ⊥
ET 2 ER α−β cos θt
Plane Polarized Fresnel Equations = , = , α=
EI α+β EI α+β cos θi
ET 2 ER 1 − αβ µi nt
Perpendicular Polarized Fresnel Equations = , = , β=
EI 1 + αβ EI 1 + αβ µt ni
nt
Brewster’s Angle: Reflection Vanishes tan θB =
ni
nt
Total Internal Reflection: Transmission Vanishes sin θC =
ni
N e2 X fj
Frequency Dependence of Dielectric Constant r (ω) = 1 + 2
0 m j ωj − ω 2 − iωγj
N molecules per volume, Z total electrons per molecule,
fj electrons per molecule with damping γj and natural frequency ωj

p ω nω α
Complex Wave Number k= r (ω) = +i
c c 2
N ffree e2
Low-Frequency: Drude Model for Conductivity σ= , ffree electrons per molecule with ωj = 0
m(γfree − iω)
N Ze2 ωP2
High-Frequency: Plasma Frequency r (ω) ≈ 1 − ≡ 1 −
0 mω 2 ω2
ω(k) c
Phase Velocity vp = =
k n(k)
∂ω c
Group Velocity vg = =
∂k n(ω) + ω(dn(ω)/dω)
Z ∞ 0
2 ω Im r (ω)
Kramers-Kronig Relations Re r (ω) = 1 + PV 0 2 − ω2
dω 0
π 0 ω
Z ∞
2 (Re r (ω) − 1)
Im r (ω) = − PV dω 0
π 0 ω0 2 − ω2
1
Time-Averaged Poynting Vector hSi = Re (E × H∗ )
2
hSi 1
Radiation Pressure P = = n0 E02
c 2
 Waveguides
Complex Wave Number k 2 = µω 2 + iµσω
r
2
Skin Depth δ=
µσω
dP 1 µωδ  2
Time-Averaged Power Loss = Re (n · E × H∗ ) = Hk
da 2   4

E
Wave Equation with e±ikz Dependence ∇2t + µω 2 − kz2 =0
B

i
Transverse Field Components Et = (kz ∇t Ez − ωẑ × ∇t Bz )
µω 2 − kz2
i
Bt = (kz ∇t Bz + µωẑ × ∇t Ez )
µω 2 − kz2

Boundary Conditions TM: Bz = 0, E z S = 0
∂Bz 
TE: Ez = 0,  =0
∂n r S
kz kz µ
Wave Impedance TM: Z = =
ω kr
µω k µ
TE: Z = =
kz kz 
ikz
Transverse Fields TM: Et = ± 2 ∇t Ez
kt
ikz
TE: Ht = ± 2 ∇t Hz
kt
1
Tranverse Fields Relation Ht = ± ẑ × Et
Z
Cutoff Frequencies kt 2λ = µω 2 − kz 2λ
ktλ
ωλ = √
µ
√
q
kz λ = µ ω 2 − ωλ2
 2
n2

m mπx nπy
Rectangular Waveguide TM: kt 2mn = π 2 + , Ez = E0 sin sin
a2 b2 a b
 2 2

m n mπx nπy
TE: kt 2mn = π 2 + 2 , Hz = H0 cos cos
a2 b a b
  pπ 2 
pπ 1
Resonant Cavity TM: kz = , p ∈ N, Ez ∝ cos kz x, ωλp 2
= kt 2λ +
d µ d
  pπ 2 
pπ 1
TE: kz = , p ∈ Z+ , Hz ∝ sin kz x, ωλp 2
= kt 2λ +
d µ d
 Radiation
Time Dependence of Sources ρ(r, t) = ρ(r)e−iωt
J(r, t) = J(r)e−iωt

ω 2π 2πc
Wave Number and Wavelength k= ,λ= =
c k ω
Z ik r
µ0 e
Vector Potential A= J(r0 ) d3 r0
implicit exp(−iωt) hereafter
4π r
except in power formulas
1
Electromagnetic Fields H= ∇×A
µ0
iZ0
E= ∇×H
k
r
µ0
Impedance of Free Space Z0 =
0

Zones Near Zone: d  r  λ, eik r → 1

Intermediate Zone: dr∼λ
Radiation Zone: dλr

∂V(r)
Radiation Zone Approximations r → r − r̂ · r0 , ∇ × V(r) → r̂
∂r
µ0 eikr
Z
0
Radiation Zone Vector Potential A= J(r0 )e−ikr̂·r d3 r0
4π r
dP 1
1
Power Distribution = Re r2 r̂ · E × H∗ = Z0 r2 |H|2
dΩ 2 2
Z Z
A Useful Integration by Parts J(r0 ) d3 r0 = − r0 (∇0 · J(r0 )) d3 r0

iµ0 ω eikr
Electric Dipole Radiation AED = − p
4π r
ck 2 eikr
HED = (r̂ × p)
4π r

EED = Z0 HED × r̂

dP c2 Z 0 k 4 2 c2 Z 0 k 4 2 2
= |(r̂ × p) × r̂| = |p| sin θ
dΩ 32π 2 32π 2
iµ0 k eikr
 
1
Magnetic Dipole Radiation AMD = 1− (r̂ × m)
4π r ikr
m EMD
Replace p with , HED with − , EED with Z0 HMD
c Z0
Z0 k 2 eikr
   Z 
1 1 2
Electric Quadrupole Radiation AEQ = − 1− Q · r̂ + r̂ r0 ρ(r0 ) d3 r0
8π r ikr 3
3 ikr
ik ick e
HEQ = r̂ × A = − r̂ × (Q · r̂)
µ0 24π r

EEQ = Z0 HEQ × r̂

dP c2 Z0 k 6 2
= |[r̂ × (Q · r̂)] × r̂|
dΩ 1152π 2
c2 Z 0 k 6 X
P = |Qij |2
1440π i,j
 Scattering and Diffraction
dσ dPout /dΩ in direction n with polarization 
Differential Cross Section =
dΩ dPin /dσ in direction n0 with polarization 0
dσ k4 
 ∗ ∗ m 2
Dipole Scattering by Small Scatterers (n, , n0 , 0 ) = · p + (n ×  ) ·
dΩ (4π0 E0 )2 c
 

Unpolarized Cross Sections Compute all 4 dot products; sum the squares and divide by 2

1
Electric Dipole: |∗ · 0 |2 → (1 + cos2 θ)
2
 2
 ∗ 1 ∗ 5
Both Dipoles:  · 0 − (n ×  ) · (n0 × 0 ) → (1 + cos2 θ) − cos θ


2 8
X 2
Collection of Identical Scatterers F (kn0 − kn) = F (q) =  eiq·rj 
 
j
dσ/dΩ is single scatterer cross section times structure factor,
where rj is the position of the jth scatterer

Thomson (Electron) Scattering Harmonic oscillator with E driving force gives p

ik eikd ik(x2 +y2 )/2d

Z
Fraunhofer Diffraction Ψ(x, y) = e Ψ(u, v)e−ik(xu+yv)/d du dv
2π d S
d the distance from aperture to screen, Ψ(u, v) the aperture

Diffraction Pattern Intensity I = |Ψ(x, y)|2

Moving Point Charges

 
1 q 1
Liénard-Wiechert Potentials (SI) Φ(r, t) =
4π0 r 1 − r̂ · β ret
 
µ0 qv 1
A(r, t) =
4π  r 1 − r̂ · β ret n o
1  r̂ × ( r̂ − β) × β̇ 
 
r̂ − β
" #
q 
Fields of a Moving Point Charge (SI) E(r, t) = +
γ 2 (1 − r̂ · β) r2 (1 − r̂ · β) r

4π0 3 c 3
ret ret

1
B(r, t) = [ r̂ × E(r, t)]ret
c
2 q2 2
Larmor Formula (G) P = |a|
3c2 c
2 1 q2 dpµ dpµ 2 q2 6 h 2
  i
P =− = γ β̇ − (β × β̇)2
3 (mc)2 c dτ dτ 3 c
µ0 q 2 2
Larmor Formula (SI) P = |a|
6π c
µ0 c2 1 q 2 dpµ dpµ µ0 c2 q 2 6 h 2
  i
P =− = γ β̇ − (β × β̇)2
6π (mc)2 c dτ dτ 6π c
µ0 q 2
Abraham-Lorentz Reaction Force (SI) F= ȧ
6π c
2 1 q2 2 2 2 2 e2 c 4 4
Synchrotron Radiation (G) P = 2 2
γ ω |p| = β γ
3c m c 3 R2
1
Cherenkov Radiation cos θc =
nβ
 Special Relativity
Minkowski Metric gij = diag(1, −1, −1, −1)

4-Position xµ = (t, x)

xµ xµ = s2

Lorentz Boost t0 = γ(t − β · x)

γ−1
x0 = x + (β · x) β − γβt
β2
0
uk + v
Velocity Addition uk =
1 + u0 · v
u0⊥
u⊥ =
γv (1 + u0 · v)
dxµ
4-Velocity ηµ = = γv (1, v)
dτ
ηµ η µ = 1

4-Momentum pµ = (E, p) = mη µ = γv m(1, v)

pµ pµ = E 2 − |p|2 = m2

4-Current J µ = (ρ, J)

∂µ J µ = 0

4-Potential Aµ = (Φ, A)

Lorenz Gauge ∂µ Aµ = 0

Wave Equation ∂µ ∂ µ Aν = 4πJ ν

Field Strength Tensor F µν = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ

 
0 −ET 
F =



k
E −ijk B

Covariant Field Strength Tensor Fµν : E → −E

1 µναβ
Dual Field Strength Tensor F µν =  Fαβ : E → B, B → −E
2
Maxwell’s Equations ∂µ F µν = 4πJ ν

∂µ F µν = 0
dpµ
Lorentz Force and Power = qF µν ην
dτ
γ2
Field Transformations E0 = γ (E + β × B) − β(β · E)
γ+1
2
γ
B0 = γ (B − β × E) − β(β · B)
γ+1
 Mathematics
∞ l
1 1 X r<
Expansion of = P (cos θ)
r r l=0 r> l l+1

∞ X l l
1 X 1 r<
= 4π Y ∗ (θ0 , φ0 )Ylm (θ, φ)
l+1 lm
r l=0 m=−l
2l + 1 r>
Z ∞
1
Fourier Transform: x ∈ R F (k) = √ F (x)e−ikx dx
2π −∞
Z ∞
1 0
ei(k−k )x dx = δ(k − k 0 )
2π −∞

Orthogonal Expansions
∞    
X 2πmx 2πmx
Fourier Series: x ∈ (−a/2, a/2) F (x) = A0 + Am cos + Bm sin
m=1
a a
  r Z a/2 r   
Am 2 2 cos 2πmx
= F (x) dx
Bm a −a/2 a sin a
Z a/2 r    r  
2πm0 x

2 cos 2πmx 2 cos
dx = δmm0
−a/2 a sin a a sin a
X∞
Legendre Polynomials: x ∈ [−1, 1] F (x) = Al Pl (x)
l=0
Z
2l + 1
Al = F (x)Pl (x) dx
2
Z 1
2
Pl (x)Pl0 (x) dx = δll0
−1 2l +1
1
P0 (x) = 1, P1 (x) = x, P2 (x) = (3x2 − 1)
2
∞
X  r
Bessel Functions: r ∈ [0, a] F (r) = Aνn Jν xνn
n=1
a
Z a
2  r
Aνn = 2 2 F (r)rJν xνn dr
a Jν+1 (xνn ) 0 a
Z a
√  r√  r a2
rJν xνn rJν xνn0 dr = Jν+1 (xνn )2 δnn0
0 a a 2