REPORT

WRITING
D R . K E E RT I J A I N
N I I T U N I V E R S I T Y, N E E M R A N A
OBJECTIVES

• To understand the significance of report writing.

• To understand the different steps and layout of report writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Understanding the significance of report writing.

• Understanding the different steps and layout of report writing
CONTENT

1. Research Report 12. Discussion and conclusion

2. Meaning of Research Report 13. Reference Material
3. Structure of Research Report 14. Types of report
4. Preliminary Section 15. Difficulties or problems in writing a
5. Introduction report
6. Literature Review 16. Preparation of reports
7. Research Methodology 17. Second Draft and third Draft
8. Data collection and Data 18. Characteristics of good report
Analysis 19. Warranties
9. Hazard Alerts 20. Accessories
10. Definitions of terminology
11. Style
RESEARCH REPORT

“Research reports are detailed and

accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to solve
problems or to reveal new knowledge.”
(Busha and Harter, 1988).
 MEANING OF RESEARCH REPORT
• Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in detail and form as to be readily
understood.
• Also ready to accessed by the reader and as to enable him to
verify the validity of the conclusions.
• According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
enough detail. and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
BENFITS RESEARCH REPORT

• It covers disseminations
• It presents the conclusions for the information and knowledge to
others
• It supports to check the validity of the generalizations.
• Also, it encourage others to carry on research on the same or allied
problem.
STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH
REPORT
Generally, a research report, whether it is called
dissertation or thesis
1) The Preliminary i.e. preface pages
2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
1. Title page
2. Certification
3. Candidate Declaration
4. Preface including Acknowledgements
5. Table of Content
6. List of Tables
7. List of figures
8. List of Abbreviation
 INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
 DATA COLLECTION, DATA
ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test

4.3 Inferential analysis

4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
 Correlation analysis
 Hypothesis testing

4.4 Conclusion
 DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
 REFERENCE MATERIAL

The reference material is generally divided as fallows

• 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
• 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
• 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
• 4. Index (if any)
TYPES OF REPORTS

• Technical Report
• Popular Report
TECHNICAL REPORT

The technical report mainly emphasis on

• The methods employed
• Assumptions made in the course of the study
• The detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and support data.
OUTLINE OF TECHNICAL
REPORT
1. Summary of results
2. Nature of the study
3. Methods employed
4. Data
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings
6. Conclusions
7. Bibliography
8. Technical appendices
9. Index
POPULAR REPORT

• The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and

attractiveness.
• Clear writing
• Minimization of technical things like mathematical equations.
• Detail and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
• Attractive Layouts alongwith large print.
• Many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon.
• Emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.
OUTLINES OF A POPULAR
REPORT
1. The findings and their implications
2. Recommendations for action
3. Objective of the study
4. Methods employed
5. Results
6. Technical Appendices
DIFFICULTIES OR PROBLEMS
IN WRITING A REPORT
1) The Problems of Communications
a. Technical terms should be properly explained.
b. Neither too simple nor too difficult expression
c. Level of Knowledge and subject-matter
d. Language and drafting
2) The problem of objectivity .
3) The Problems of expression of bitter truths and
unpleasant facts.
PREPARATION OF REPORTS

For preparations or drafting of reports three steps are

involved.
1) First Draft:
– Comprehensiveness or fullness of facts.
– Precision or Accuracy of Facts
– Coherence or logic of facts, and
– Movement or transition of facts and ideas.
SECOND DRAFTS
2nd Draft
• The researcher should give the first draft, at this stage, a
shape so that it can be readable, clear and lucid.
• Considerable trimming or editing will have to be done to
make the writing precise, Concise and brief.
• Finally, at the second draft stage, critical evaluation will
have to be made of all that has been written-facts, findings,
conclusions and recommendations.
THIRD (FINAL) DRAFTS
3rd. Draft
• The final stage in drafting is the preparations of final report.
• It concentrates mainly on the finish and final touches, i.e., on
documentation and polish to make the report weighty, authoritative,
convincing and attractive.
• Documentation indicated the references to the sources, other
previous and current work and view, additional data and discussion
and suggested further reading on the specific problem as handled by
the researcher.
• In other words, it indicated the thoroughness of the investigation and
on the other a guide to further work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
REPORT
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
GOOD REPORT &
CONCLUSIONS
• Review of literature
• Treatment of quotations
• Size and Physical Design
• Footnotes
• Use of Abbreviations
• Use of Statistics, Charts and Graphs
• Bibliography, Index & Appendices
• Conclusions: Despite all that has been stated above, one should always
keep in view the fact report-writing is an art which is learnt by practice
and experience.
HAZARD ALERTS

• Stating potential risks, alerts, and safety guidelines are key

components to a hazard alert page.
• A hazard alert is crucial in order that employees are
protected against potential danger.
DEFINITIONS OF
TERMINOLOGY
• Since every company uses different jargon and abbreviations, it is
imperative to define these terms early in the manual.
• You may want to consider defining not only abbreviations but also
acronyms and symbols as well.
• In addition to a definition list at the onset of the manual, a glossary at
the end is an option.
STYLE
• The style of each report varies, but consider
“conciseness, simplicity, and highlighting techniques”
• Remember to be concise.
• You may choose to use graphics to illustrate a point.
• Be aware that using too much data will overwhelm your
reader.
 WARRANTIES
• The warranty not only protects the customer but the
manufacturer as well.
• If a product malfunctions, the warranty will inform the
consumer of his or her rights.
• An important part of the warranty section are company
disclaimers or caveats in addition to the terms of the
warranty.
ACCESSORIES
• The accessory section may feature “additional equipment” that a
customer may purchase to accompany the featured product or
enhance it.
• Theses additional accessories are not essential to the function of
the product.
• Included in the accessory section might be the specifications for
the additional products.
REFERENCES

• Balasubramanian , P., & Baladhandayutham, A. (2011).Research methodology

in library science. (pp. 164-170). New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications.
• Sehgal, R. L. (1998). Statistical techniques for librarians. (pp. 117-130). New
Delhi: Ess Ess Publications.
• Donald R Cooper, Pamela S Schindler, Business Research Methods, Tata
Mc Graw Hill Education Private Limited.
• G.C.Beri, Business Statistics, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Private Limited.
• J.K.Sharma, Fundamentals of Business Statistics, Vikas Publication.
• P.N.Arora, Sumeet Arora, S.Arora, Statistical Methods, S.Chand.
INTERPRETATION
DR KEERTI JAIN

NIIT UNIVERSITY, NEEMRANA

OBJECTIVES

• To understand the concept of interpretation.

• To understand the need of proper interpretation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Understanding the meaning, importance and techniques of

interpretation.
• Understanding the need of proper interpretation.
INTERPRETATION

• This section answers the questions like So what in relation to

the results of the study
• what do the results of the study mean?
• This part is perhaps the most critical aspect of the research
report
• it is often the most difficult to write because it is least
structured
• the section demands perspectiveness and creativity from the
researcher
INTERPRETATION

• After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has

to accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by
report writing.
• This has to be done very carefully, otherwise
misconclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of
doing research may get vitiated.
• It is only through interpretation that the researcher can
expose relations and processes that underlie his findings
INTERPRETATION AND
CONTAINMENT
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION

• Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from

the collected facts after an analytical and or experimental
study.
• It is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
MAJOR TWO ASPECTS OF TASK OF
INTERPRETATION
• Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the
collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
Therefore, It is an effort to establish continuity in research
through linking the results of a given study with those of another.
• Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
understand the results of other research, theory and
hypotheses
Therefore , it establish some explanatory concept
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION

Interpenetration is the device through which the factors that

seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the
course of the study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide
for further researches.
WHY INTERPRETATION?

• Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the

usefulness and utility of research findings lie in proper
interpretation.
• It is being considered a basic component of research
process.
• It is through interpretation that the researcher can well
under- stand the abstract principle that works beneath his
findings.
WHY INTERPRETATION?

• Through this one can link up the findings with those of

other studies, having the same abstract principle, and
thereby can predict about the concrete world of events.
• Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on, this way
the continuity in research can be maintained.
• Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory
concepts that can serve as a guide for future research
studies.
WHY INTERPRETATION?

• it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and

stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
• Researcher can better appreciate only through
interpretation why his findings are what they are and can
make others to under- stand the real significance of his
research findings.
WHY INTERPRETATION?

• The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research

study often results into hypotheses for experimental
research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research.
• Since an exploratory study does not have a hypothesis to
start with, the findings of such a study have to be
interpreted on a post factum basis in which case the
interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’
interpretation.
HOW TO DO INTERPRETATION OF
THE RESULTS
Step1: Tie up the results of the study in both theory and
application by pulling together by following:
a) Conceptual/theoretical framework
b) The review of literature
c) The studies potential significance for application
HOW TO DO INTERPRETATION OF
THE RESULTS
Step 2: Examines, summarize, interpreted and justify the
results then draw inferences consider the following :
a) Conclude or Summarize
This technique enables the reader to get the total picture of
the findings in summarized form, and helps Orient the reader
to the discussion that follows.
HOW TO DO INTERPRETATION OF
THE RESULTS
b) Interpret
Questions on the meaning of the findings, the methodology
the unexpected results and the limitation shortcomings of the
study should be answered and interpreted
HOW TO DO INTERPRETATION OF
THE RESULTS
c) Integrate
this is an attempt to put the pieces together. Often the results
of the study are disapparate and do not seems to “hang
together”. in the discussion , attempt to bring the finding
together to extract meaning and principles
HOW TO DO INTERPRETATION OF
THE RESULTS
d) Theorize
when the study includes a number of related findings, it
occasionally become possible to theorize. So, in this case
i. Integrate your findings into principle
ii. integrate a theory into your findings
iii. use these findings to formulate an original theory

e) Recommend or apply alternatives

 INTERPRETING DATA

• Adding meaning to information by making connections and

comparisons and exploring causes and consequences

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research
 INTERPRETATION – RELEVANCE OF
FINDING

• Does the indicator meet the target?

• How far from the target is it?
• How does it compare (to other time periods, other facilities)?
• Are there any extreme highs and lows in the data?
Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research
INTERPRETATION – POSSIBLE CAUSES?

• Supplement with expert opinion

• Others with knowledge of the program or target population

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research
INTERPRETATION – CONSIDER OTHER
DATA
Use routine service data to clarify questions. For Example:
Calculate nurse-to-client ratio, review commodities data against
client load, etc.
Use other data sources like
• Situation analyses
• Demographic and health surveys
• Performance improvement data

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research
INTERPRETATION – CONDUCT FURTHER
RESEARCH

• Data gap conduct further research

• Methodology depends on questions being asked and resources
available

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

• The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it

requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of
researcher.
• Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and
experience.
• The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from
experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

• Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the

relations which he has found.
• He must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the
underlying processes
• He must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies
under the surface layer of his diversified research findings.
• In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should
be done and concepts be formulated.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

• Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must

be considered while interpreting the final results of
research study,.
• It may prove to be a key factor in understanding the
problem under consideration.
• It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation,
consult someone having insight into the study and who is
frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omissions and errors in logical argumentation.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

• Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and,

thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
• Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only
after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem
to avoid false generalization.
• Researcher must be in no hurry while interpreting results,
for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right
at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
PRECAUTIONS IN
INTERPRETATION
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for
correct interpretation:
• Data should be appropriate
• Good homogenity in data
• Proper analysis
• Avoid errors
KEYWORDS OR PHRASES

In deducing interpretation from a statistical analysis the

following keywords or phrases may be useful:
1. Table ________presents the ….
2. Table ________indicates the …..
3. As reflected in the table , there was ….
4. As observed, there was indeed …..
5. Delving deeper into figures……
KEYWORDS OR PHRASES

6. The illustrative graph above/below show that…..

7. In explaining the results, it can be stated that ….
8. Is significantly related to …..
9. Is found to be determinant of…..
10 Registered positive correlation with ….
11. Is revealed to influence ….
12. Have significant relationship with ….
KEYWORDS OR PHRASES

13. It discovered to a factor of …..

14. In relation with the results of …………………, it may be
constructed that …
15. And in viewing In this sense, it can be stated that ….
16. the result establishes the fact that …..
17. The findings suggest that …..
18. With this result, the researcher deveploved an impression
that ………………
SUMMARY

• Use the right graph for the right data

• Tables – can display a large amount of data
• Graphs/charts – visual, easier to detect patterns
• Label the components of your graphic

• Interpreting data adds meaning by making connections and comparisons to program

• Service data are good at tracking progress & identifying concerns – do not show
causality
• Research reports are detailed and accurate accounts of the conduct of disciplined
studies accomplished to solve problems or to reveal new knowledge
• Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of the evidence and the
findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and accessed by the
reader and as to enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
SUMMARY

• According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to Convey to

interested persons the whole result of study in sufficient detail and to
enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine himself the
validity of the conclusions.
• Report: A report is a planned, organized, factual presentation of
information prepared for a specific purpose and for a specific audience.
• Formal Report: A formal report is prepared for a decision-making
audience and typically requires in-depth investigation and team
collaboration.
• Informal Report: An informational report presents the facts but does not
analyze the informal
REFERENCES

• Balasubramanian , P., & Baladhandayutham, A. (2011).Research methodology in

library science. (pp. 164-170). New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications.
• Sehgal, R. L. (1998). Statistical techniques for librarians. (pp. 117-130). New
Delhi: Ess Ess Publications.
• Donald R Cooper, Pamela S Schindler, Business Research Methods, Tata Mc
Graw Hill Education Private Limited.
• G.C.Beri, Business Statistics, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Private Limited.
• J.K.Sharma, Fundamentals of Business Statistics, Vikas Publication.
• P.N.Arora, Sumeet Arora, S.Arora, Statistical Methods, S.Chand.
Multivariate Analysis
Techniques
DR. KEERTI JAIN
NIIT UNIVERSITY NEEMRANA
Introduction

All statistical techniques which simultaneously analyse more than two variables on a sample of
observations can b categorized as multivariate techniques.

Multi variate analysis is collection of methods for analysing data in which a number of observations are
available for each object.

These techniques are being applied in many fields such as economics, sociology, psychology,
agriculture, anthropology, biology and medicine.

These techniques are used when the variables concerning research studies of these fields are supposed
to be correlated with each other and rigorous probabilistic models cannot be appropriately used.

Application of multivariate techniques in practice have been accelerated in modern times because of the
advent of high speed electronic computers.
Characteristics and Applications

Multivariate techniques are largely empirical and deal with the reality

The posses the ability to analysis complex data. Multivariate

techniques represent a collection of massive data in simplified way.

It also helps in various types of decision making.

Types of Multivariate Techniques
• Dependent Methods: They are used when data containing both dependent and
independent variables. This includes techniques like multiple regression
analysis, multiple discriminant analysis, multivariate analysis of variance and
canonical analysis.
• Interdependent Methods: They are used when data contains several variables
without dependency relationship. This includes techniques like factor analysis,
cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling or MDS and latent structure analysis
Classification of Multivariate Techniques
 All
multivariate
Methods

Are some
variables
dependent?

Yes
No

Dependent Interdependent
Methods Methods
 Dependent
Methods

How many
variables
dependent?

One Several

Is it Are they
Metric? Metric?

Yes No Yes No

Multiple Multivariate
Multiple Canonical
discriminant Analysis of
Regression Analysis
Analysis Variance
 Interdependent
Methods

Are input
metric?

Yes No

Latent
Cluster
Factor Analysis Metric MDS Non Metric MDS Structure
Analysis
analysis
Multiple Regression
• Multiple regression is an extension of simple linear regression.
• It is used when we want to predict the value of a variable based on the value of
two or more other variables.
• The variable we want to predict is called the dependent variable (or sometimes,
the outcome, target or criterion variable).
• The variables we are using to predict the value of the dependent variable are
called the independent variables (or sometimes, the predictor, explanatory or
regressor variables).
Example
• You could use multiple regression to understand whether exam performance can
be predicted based on revision time, test anxiety, lecture attendance and gender.
• Alternately, you could use multiple regression to understand whether daily
cigarette consumption can be predicted based on smoking duration, age when
started smoking, smoker type, income and gender.
Characteristics of Multiple Regression
• Multiple regression also allows you to determine the overall fit (variance
explained) of the model and the relative contribution of each of the predictors to
the total variance explained.
• For example, you might want to know how much of the variation in exam
performance can be explained by revision time, test anxiety, lecture attendance
and gender "as a whole", but also the "relative contribution" of each independent
variable in explaining the variance.
Multiple Discriminant Analysis (MDA)
• Multiple Discriminant Analysis (MDA) is a multivariate dimensionality reduction technique.
• It has been used to predict signals as diverse as neural memory traces and corporate failure.
• MDA is not directly used to perform classification.
• It merely supports classification by yielding a compressed signal amenable to classification.
• This technique reduces the differences between some variables so that they can be classified in
a set number of broad groups, which can then be compared to another variable.
• Multiple discriminant analysis is related to discriminant analysis, which helps classify a data
set by setting a rule or selecting a value that will provide the most meaningful separation.
• MDA has been used to reveal neural codes.
Example
• An analyst who wants to select securities based on values that measure volatility
and historical consistency might use multiple discriminant analysis to factor out
other variables such as price.
Characteristics Of MDA
• MDA is sensitive to outliers. These should be identified and treated accordingly.
• MDA is only suitable when evaluating the variables' ability
to linearly discriminate between any grouping.
• Highly correlated variables will contribute very similarly to an MDA solution
and may be redundant. Thus, variables that are uncorrelated are preferable.
• While unequal group sizes can be tolerated, very large differences in group sizes
can distort results, particularly if there are very few (< 20) objects per group.
• If MANOVA tests on a given set of explanatory variables are insignificant, MDA is
unlikely to be useful.
• When interpreting the coefficients of a discriminant function, carefully distinguish
between standardised and unstandardised coefficients.
• Heteroscedasticity (differing dispersion)is likely to lead to invalid significance tests.
• Across implementations, the absolute values of discriminant weights may vary due
to different scaling and standardisation approaches, but their relative proportions
should be the same.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
• Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is an extension of the univariate analysis of
variance (ANOVA).
• In an ANOVA, we examine for statistical differences on one continuous dependent variable by an
independent grouping variable.
• The MANOVA extends this analysis by taking into account multiple continuous dependent variables,
and bundles them together into a weighted linear combination or composite variable.
• The MANOVA will compare whether or not the newly created combination differs by the different
groups, or levels, of the independent variable.
• In this way, the MANOVA essentially tests whether or not the independent grouping variable
simultaneously explains a statistically significant amount of variance in the dependent variable.
Examples
• Do the various school assessments vary by grade level?
• Do the rates of graduation among certain state universities differ by degree
type?
• Which diseases are better treated, if at all, by either X drug or Y drug?
Canonical Correlation Analysis
• Canonical correlation analysis is used to identify and measure the associations
among two sets of variables.
• Canonical correlation is appropriate in the same situations where multiple
regression would be, but where, there are multiple intercorrelated outcome
variables.
• Canonical correlation analysis determines a set of canonical variates, orthogonal
linear combinations of the variables within each set that best explain the
variability both within and between sets.
Examples
• Example 1. A researcher has collected data on three psychological variables, four academic
variables (standardized test scores) and gender for 600 college freshman. She is interested in
how the set of psychological variables relates to the academic variables and gender. In
particular, the researcher is interested in how many dimensions (canonical variables) are
necessary to understand the association between the two sets of variables.
• Example 2. A researcher is interested in exploring associations among factors from two
multidimensional personality tests, the MMPI and the NEO. She is interested in what
dimensions are common between the tests and how much variance is shared between them.
She is specifically interested in finding whether the neuroticism dimension from the NEO can
account for a substantial amount of shared variance between the two tests.
Factor Analysis
• Factor analysis is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of variables into fewer
numbers of factors.
• This technique extracts maximum common variance from all variables and puts them into a
common score.
• As an index of all variables, we can use this score for further analysis.
• Factor analysis is part of general linear model (GLM)
• This method also assumes several assumptions: there is linear relationship, there is no
multicollinearity, it includes relevant variables into analysis, and there is true correlation
between variables and factors.
• Several methods are available, but principle component analysis is used most commonly.
Example
• Suppose a psychologist has the hypothesis that there are two kinds of intelligence, "verbal
intelligence" and "mathematical intelligence", neither of which is directly
observed. Evidence for the hypothesis is sought in the examination scores from each of 10
different academic fields of 1000 students. If each student is chosen randomly from a
large population, then each student's 10 scores are random variables. The psychologist's
hypothesis may say that for each of the 10 academic fields, the score averaged over the group
of all students who share some common pair of values for verbal and mathematical
"intelligences" is some constant times their level of verbal intelligence plus another constant
times their level of mathematical intelligence, i.e., it is a combination of those two "factors". The
numbers for a particular subject, by which the two kinds of intelligence are multiplied to obtain
the expected score, are posited by the hypothesis to be the same for all intelligence level pairs,
and are called "factor loading" for this subject.
Cluster Analysis
• It is a class of techniques that are used to classify objects or cases into relative
groups called clusters.
• Cluster analysis is also called classification analysis or numerical taxonomy.
• In cluster analysis, there is no prior information about the group or cluster
membership for any of the objects.
• Cluster analysis involves formulating a problem, selecting a distance measure,
selecting a clustering procedure, deciding the number of clusters, interpreting
the profile clusters and finally, assessing the validity of clustering.
Example
• Cluster Analysis has been used in marketing for various
purposes. Segmentation of consumers in cluster analysis is used on the basis of
benefits sought from the purchase of the product. It can be used to identify
homogeneous groups of buyers.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
• Multidimensional scaling (MDS) can be considered to be an alternative to factor
analysis.
• In general, the goal of the analysis is to detect meaningful underlying
dimensions that allow the researcher to explain observed similarities or
dissimilarities (distances) between the investigated objects.
• In factor analysis, the similarities between objects (e.g., variables) are expressed
in the correlation matrix. With MDS, you can analyze any kind of similarity or
dissimilarity matrix, in addition to correlation matrices.
Example
• Suppose we take a matrix of distances between major US cities from a map. We then
analyze this matrix, specifying that we want to reproduce the distances based on two
dimensions. As a result of the MDS analysis, we would most likely obtain a two-
dimensional representation of the locations of the cities, that is, we would basically
obtain a two-dimensional map.
• In general then, MDS attempts to arrange "objects" (major cities in this example) in a
space with a particular number of dimensions (two-dimensional in this example) so
as to reproduce the observed distances. As a result, we can "explain" the distances in
terms of underlying dimensions; in our example, we could explain the distances in
terms of the two geographical dimensions: north/south and east/west.
 Latent Structure Analysis
• Latent structure analysis is a general class of methods that involve manifest and latent variables that are continuous or
categorical.
• Manifest variables (directly measured or observed) are observed and are usually used as measures of the latent
variables.
• Latent variables are not observed and are the constructs of interest in a theory.
• When the latent variables are continuous, the models are known as structural equation models, which have been widely
used in a number of disciplines, such as psychology, education, biology, and medicine.
• When the latent variables are discrete, the models are known as latent class models, which have been widely used in
sociology and to a lesser extent in psychology.
• In both cases, the manifest variables can be treated as being either continuous or discrete (with ordered or un-ordered
categories).
• Recent developments include models that combine aspects of latent class analysis and structural equation modeling.
Qualitative Research
DR. KEERTI JAIN
NIIT UNIVERSITY, NEEMRANA
Qualitative Research
‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what
people think, and how they feel - or at any rate,
what they say they think and how they say they
feel. This kind of information is subjective. It
involves feelings and impressions, rather than
numbers’
Bellenger, Bernhardt and Goldstucker, Qualitative Research in
Marketing, American Marketing Association

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 Qualitative Research
•Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and
sometimes counter-disciplinary field.
•It crosses the humanities and the social and physical sciences.
•Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is multi-
paradigmatic in focus.
• Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach.
• They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and to the
interpretative understanding of human experience.
• At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple
ethical and political positions.

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Qualitative Research
•Qualitative research is multimethod in focus,
involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to
its subject matter.

•Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and

their thoughts) in their natural settings, attempting
to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms
of the meanings people bring to them.

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Qualitative Research
•Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection
of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal
experience, introspective, life story, interview,
observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that
describe routine and problematic moments and meanings
in individuals lives.

•Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping

always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

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Popularity of Qualitative
Research
▪Usually much cheaper than quantitative research
▪Qualitative research understand in-depth the motivations
and feelings of consumer/respondent.
▪Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of quantitative research

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Limitations of Qualitative
Research
▪ Qualitative research doesn’t distinguish the differences as
well, as quantitative research can.
▪ Not representative of the population that is of interest to
the researcher
▪Since in qualitative research, the study is from multiple
methods and dimensions, so a trained and expert can
handle this.

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Qualitative Research as a
Process
Following three interconnect to define the qualitative
research process:

▪ Theory
▪ Method
▪ Analysis

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 Theoretical Approach Deductive
Deductive Theoretical Approach

Seek to use existing theory to shape the approach which you adopt to
the qualitative research process and to aspects of data analysis

Analytical Procedures

Pattern Matching

Involves predicting a pattern of outcomes based on theoretical

propositions to explain what you expect to find

Explanation Building

Involves attempting to build an explanation while collecting and

analysing the data, rather than testing a predicted explanation as in
pattern matching
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 Inductive Approach
Inductive Theoretical Approach

Seek to build up a theory which is adequately grounded in a number of

relevant cases. Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded Theory

Art of Interpretation

Field Text: Consists of field notes and documents from the field

Research Text: Notes and interpretations based on the filed text

Working interpretative document: Writers initial attempt to make

sense out of what he has learned

Public Text: The final tale of the Field

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Foundational Similarities
•All qualitative data can be measured and coded
using quantitative methods.
•Quantitative research can be generated from
qualitative inquiries.

Example: One can code an open-ended interview

with numbers that refer to data specific
references, or such references could become the
origin of a randomized experiment.

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 Foundational Differences
•The major difference between qualitative and
quantitative research stems from the researcher’s
underlying strategies.
•Quantitative research is viewed as confirmatory and
deductive in nature.
•Qualitative research is considered to be exploratory and
inductive.

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Qualitative v.'s Quantitative
Qualitative Quantitative
Research Research
Type of questions Probing Limited probing
Sample Size small large
Info. Per much varies
respondent
Admin Requires skilled Fewer specialist
researcher skills required
Type of Analysis Subjective, Statistical
interpretative
Type of research Exploratory Descriptive or
causal

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 Types of Qualitative Research
1. Grounded theory
2. Ethnography
3. Field research
4. Focus Groups
5. Narrative

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Grounded Theory
•Grounded theory refers to an inductive process of
generating theory from data.
•This is considered ground-up or bottom-up
processing.
•Grounded theorists argue that theory generated
from observations of the empirical world may be
more valid and useful than theories generated
from deductive inquiries.

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 Grounded Theory (con’t)
•Grounded theorists criticize deductive reasoning since it relies
upon a priori assumptions about the world.
•Grounded theory incorporates deductive reasoning when using
constant comparisons.
•Researchers detect patterns in their observations and then create
working hypotheses that directs the progression of the inquiry.

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 Ethnography
•Ethnography emphasizes the observation of details
of everyday life as they naturally unfold in the real
world.
•This is sometimes called naturalistic research.
•Ethnography is a method of describing a culture or
society.

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What is Ethnography?
 Ethnography: literally means “writing culture”
 Ethnographic research
 Seeks an in-depth understanding of how people make
sense of lived reality in their social worlds
 Involves observation or participant-observation,
“hanging out” with people in their natural, everyday
settings
 Uses field notes to render “thick descriptions” of social
interaction and lived experience through researcher
immersion in events and activities of the social setting
 When is ethnography appropriate?
 Ethnography is useful for studying the links between social
contexts, cultural meanings, and practices
 Practices are people’s everyday “doings” (activities,
interactions)
 Ethnographic focus on behavioral and interactive dimensions
of social life lends richness and depth
 Ethnography requires great deal of time, energy, resources
 Ethnography is most often rooted in the interpretive or critical
traditions, not a positivist framework
 Ethnography provides a window into the social worlds
people inhabit
 Ethnography focuses on people’s “doings” (practices,
interactions) in their natural setting
 Participant-observation is the most common ethnographic
approach
 Recording and analyzing field notes are the core research
activities of ethnography
 Ethnographic field notes can be paired with other data
collection methods (e.g., interviews)
 Ethnography is an interpretive activity
 Ethnography is representation of lived experience, not
“reality”
Phenomenological Research
(Narrative)
•Narrative research is a term that subsumes a group of
approaches that in turn rely on the written or spoken words
or visual representation of individuals.
•These approaches typically focus on the lives of individuals
as told through their own stories
•The goal of qualitative phenomenological research is to
describe a "lived experience" of a phenomenon.
•Same is the goal of qualitative analysis of narrative data.
• The methods to analyze its data must be quite different
from more traditional or quantitative methods of research.

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 Focus Groups

•Concentrated group exploration and discussions.

What can be gained from the focus group method?

•Method is qualitative but the information gathered can
be quantitative.

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 Field Research

•Field research is a general term that refers to a group of

methodologies used by researchers in making
qualitative inquiries.
•The field researcher goes directly to the social
phenomenon under study and observes it as
completely as possible.

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 Field Research (con’t)

•The natural environment is the priority of the field

researcher. There are no implemented controls or
experimental conditions to speak of.
•Such methodologies are especially useful in observing
social phenomena over time.

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 Methods
1. Participant observation
2. Direct observation
3. Unstructured or intensive interviewing
4. Case studies

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Participant Observation
The researcher literally becomes part of the observation.

Example: One studying the homeless may decide to walk the streets
of a given area in an attempt to gain perspective and possibly subjects
for future study.

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 Direct Observation
Direct observation is where the researcher observes the
actual behaviors of the subjects, instead of relying on what
the subjects say about themselves or others say about them.

Example: The observation booth at the CECP in Martha Van

may be used for direct observation of behavior where survey
or other empirical methodologies may seem inappropriate.

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Unstructured or Intensive
Interviewing

•This method allows the researcher to ask open-

ended questions during an interview.
•Details are more important here than a specific
interview procedure.
•Here lies the inductive framework through which
theory can be generated.

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Case Studies
•A particular case study may be the focus of any of the
previously mentioned field strategies.
•The case study is important in qualitative research,
especially in areas where exceptions are being studied.
•Example: A patient may have a rare form of cancer that has
a set of symptoms and potential treatments that have never
before been researched.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of
Qualitative Research
•Objectivity
•Reliability
•Validity
•Generalizability

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Objectivity
•It is given that objectivity is impossible in qualitative
inquiry.
•Instead the researcher locates his/herself in the research,
if required.
•Objectivity is replaced by subjective interpretation and
mass detail for later analysis.

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Reliability
•Since procedure is de-emphasized in qualitative
research, replication and other tests of reliability
become more difficult.
•However, measures may be taken to make
research more reliable within the particular study
(such as observer training, or more objective
checklists, and so on).

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 Validity
•Qualitative researchers use greater detail to argue for the
presence of construct validity.
•Weak on external validity.
•Content validity can be retained if the researcher
implements some sort of criterion settings.
•Having a focused criterion adds to the study’s validity.

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Generalizability
•Results for the most part, do not extend much
further than the original subject pool.
•Sampling methods determine the extent of the
study’s generalizability.
•Quota and Purposive sampling strategies are used
to broaden the generalizability.

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 Thank You

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