TRACKING AND MONITORING SYSTEM BASED ON LORA

TECHNOLOGY

ABSTRACT

Although many techniques exist to transfer data from the widely distributed
sensors that make up the Internet of Things (IoT) (e.g., using 3G/4G networks or
cables), these methods are associated with prohibitively high costs, making them
impractical for real-life applications. Recently, several emerging wireless
technologies have been proposed to provide long-range communication for IoT
sensors. Among these, LoRa has been examined for long-range performance.
Although LoRa shows good performance for long-range transmission in the
countryside, its radio signals can be attenuated over distance, and buildings, trees,
and other radio signal sources may interfere with the signals. Our observations
show that in urban areas, LoRa requires dense deployment of LoRa gateways
(GWs) to ensure that indoor LoRa devices can successfully transfer data back to
remote GWs. Wireless mesh networking is a solution for increasing
communication range and packet delivery ratio (PDR) without the need to install
additional GWs. This paper presents a LoRa mesh networking system for large-
area monitoring of IoT applications. We deployed 19 LoRa mesh networking
devices over an 800 m × 600 m area on our university campus and installed a GW
that collected data at 1-min intervals. The proposed LoRa mesh networking system
achieved an average 88.49% PDR, whereas the star-network topology used by
LoRa achieved only 58.7% under the same settings. To the best of our knowledge,
this is the first academic study discussing LoRa mesh networking in detail and
evaluating its performance via real experiments.
 CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

Although many techniques exist to transfer data from the widely distributed
sensors that make up the Internet of Things (IoT) (e.g., using 3G/4G networks or
cables), these methods are associated with prohibitively high costs, making them
impractical for real-life applications. Recently, several emerging wireless
technologies have been proposed to provide long-range communication for IoT
sensors. Among these, LoRa has been examined for long-range performance.
Although LoRa shows good performance for long-range transmission in the
countryside, its radio signals can be attenuated over distance, and buildings, trees,
and other radio signal sources may interfere with the signals. Our observations
show that in urban areas, LoRa requires dense deployment of LoRa gateways
(GWs) to ensure that indoor LoRa devices can successfully transfer data back to
remote GWs. Wireless mesh networking is a solution for increasing
communication range and packet delivery ratio (PDR) without the need to install
additional GWs. This paper presents a LoRa mesh networking system for large-
area monitoring of IoT applications. We deployed 19 LoRa mesh networking
devices over an 800 m × 600 m area on our university campus and installed a GW
that collected data at 1-min intervals. The proposed LoRa mesh networking system
achieved an average 88.49% PDR, whereas the star-network topology used by
LoRa achieved only 58.7% under the same settings. To the best of our knowledge,
this is the first academic study discussing LoRa mesh networking in detail and
evaluating its performance via real experiments.

complex, and data transfer needs must be balanced with operating considerations
and infrastructure costs. In contrast to existing short-range wireless communication
technologies currently used for indoor IoT sensors [4], several techniques have
been proposed for providing long-range and outdoor wireless communication, such
as Sigfox [5], LoRa/LoRaWAN [6], NB-IoT, and LTE-M [7]. Among these,
LoRaWAN, which is based on the LoRa physical layer (PHY) [8] implementation,
is a network standard for telecom operators. It allows them to provide network
service and enable devices to wirelessly transfer data over long distances to remote
gateways (GWs). LoRaWAN uses a star-network topology for communication
between LoRa GWs and IoT devices; only one hop is allowed between a GW and a
LoRa device. Some experiments have shown that a LoRa device can transmit data
15 km in an open area, which is sufficient for most current long-range IoT
applications. However, indoor LoRa devices may still be unable to communicate
wirelessly with a nearby GW, due to obstacles between sensors, which can
attenuate wireless signal strength and result in data losses and communication
errors

Increasing the spreading factor (SF) of LoRa PHY to 12 can significantly extend
the communication range by increasing the receiver sensitivity [9], but the
drawback is that doing so can lower the data throughput rate and cause more
severe data collision due to the longer times required for transmission. This issue
can be exacerbated when a large number of high-density LoRa devices send
wireless data and receive acknowledgments at the same time. Some studies [11]
have shown that these conditions can cause the packet delivery ratio (PDR) to drop
significantly. To solve this issue, telecom operators need to deploy more
LoRaWAN GWs to increase the probability of receiving the wireless data from the
LoRaWAN devices; this solution increases the cost of the network infrastructure

Wireless mesh networks are one feasible solution to increase the communication
performance of devices in indoor networks. This approach allows all LoRa devices
on the network to act as routers and relay data from other devices. In this paper,
which is based on [10], we explore the use of wireless mesh networks based on
LoRa PHY with the aim of collecting reliable data on the performance of this
technique.

by circles with numbers. Nineteen sensors were installed in different buildings

across the 600 m × 800 m university campus. The yellow lines connecting the
circles indicate the topological paths generated by the data being relayed to the
GWs at the moment of the snapshot
 CHAPTER – II

LITERATURE REVIEW

LITERATURE REVIEW – I

• TITLE : Poster Abstract: Evaluation of a LoRa Mesh Wireless

Networking System Supporting Time-Critical Transmission and Data Lost
Recovery

• AUTHOR : Chi-Wen Liang, Yung-Lin Wu, Cheng-Yu Shi, Shu-Min Lu,

Huang-Chen Le

• YEAR : 2019

• DESCRIPTION :

• This paper evaluates a LoRa mesh networking system area monitoring of

sensor applications. A prior proposed a LoRa-based wireless mesh network
periodic data collection. In this study, we further evaluate data recovery
mechanisms and time-critical data transmission affect periodic data
communication, and a data transmission recovery mechanism was developed
to recover lost data.

LITERATURE REVIEW – II

• TITLE : Smartphone Based LoRa In-soil Propagation Measurement for

Wireless Underground Sensor Networks

• AUTHOR : Wan Xue-fen, Du Xing-jing, Yang Yi*, Zhang Jing-wen,

Muhammad Sohail Sardar, Cui Jian

• YEAR : 2017
• DESCRIPTION :

• A smartphone based LoRa in-soil propagation measurement is proposed in

this paper. The measurement system (named LoRa Wizard) consists of
smartphones and testing nodes. The design of App in Android smartphone
and the corresponding testing node is discussed in detail. The LoRa in-soil
propagation characteristics in municipal garden area and farmland are
experimentally measured with LoRa Wizard.

LITERATURE REVIEW - III

• TITLE : Forest Fire Detection using LoRa Wireless Mesh Topology

• AUTHOR : 1st Adnan, 2nd A. Ejah Umraeni Salam, 3rd Arham Arifin

• YEAR : 2018

• DESCRIPTION :

• designed forest fire detectors that use LoRa mesh network. The detector is
able to inform us where the fire location using Google map. Forest fire
detector constitute of Arduino Uno, LoRa modules, DHT 11 humidity and
temperature sensor and the MQ2 sensor. We put several nodes within a
forest. In this case of forest fire alarm, the best LoRa configurations are BW
250 CR 4/5 SF 10. Using these configuration, we can send data to the LoRa
gateway which is 500 meters away from the sensor nodes.

LITERATURE REVIEW – IV

• TITLE : On the Coexistence of LoRa- and Interleaved Chirp

Spreading LoRa-Based Modulations
• AUTHOR : Phoebe Edward, Sondos Elzeiny, Mohamed Ashour, &
Tallal Elshabrawy

• YEAR : 2019

• DESCRIPTION :

• In this paper, we investigate the possibility of deploying ICS-LoRa to rather

create a new overlapping logical network that co-exists with the nominal
LoRa network. This would have the potential of increasing the overall
system capacity by up to 100%. Accordingly, we specifically focus on
studying the inter-network interference between the nominal LoRa and the
ICS-LoRa logical networks at different Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR)
and at different Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) scenarios.

LITERATURE REVIEW – V

• TITLE : Wireless Self Powered Environmental Monitoring System for

Smart Cities based on LoRa

• AUTHOR : Konstantinos Tzortzakis∗, Konstantinos Papafotis∗ and Paul P.

Sotiriadis

• YEAR : 2017

• DESCRIPTION :

• This work presents the design and implementation of a wireless sensor

network based on the LoRa protocol. Sensor nodes with embedded
temperature, humidity, luminance, carbon monoxide, methane, alcohol and
smoke detection sensors transmit the collected data to a base station
(gateway) using LoRa. The base station collects all the data and uploads
 them to the cloud using GPRS, where data gathered is stored and processed
in order to be accessible to users.

LITERATURE REVIEW – VI

• TITLE : Toward Intelligent Agriculture Service Platform with

LoRa-based Wireless Sensor Network

• AUTHOR : Yi-Wei Ma1 and Jiann-Liang Chen2

• YEAR : 2018

• DESCRIPTION :

– This work uses LoRa as a network transmission interface to solve

problem of communication failure and save energy. An agricultural
intelligent agriculture service platform is developed to support
environmental monitoring and to improve the efficiency of agricultura
management

LITERATURE REVIEW – VII

• TITLE : A Novel Rate and Channel Control Scheme Based on Data

Extraction Rate for LoRa Networks

• AUTHOR : Qihao Zhou, Jinyu Xing, Lu Hou, Rongtao Xu†, Kan Zheng

• YEAR : 2019

• DESCRIPTION :

• experiments demonstrate that the proposed DRCC performs well on

improving the reliability and capacity compared with other spreading factor
allocation schemes in dense deployment scenarios.
 CHAPTER – III

PROPOSED SYSTEM
 CHAPTER – III

MODULE DESCRIPTION

3.1 ARDUINO

Arduino interface boards provide the engineers,artists,designers,hobbyists and

anyone who tinker with technology with a low-cost,easy-to-use technology to
create their creative,interactiveobjects,useful projects etc.,A whole new breed of
projects can now be built that can be controlled from a computer.

WHAT IS ARDUINO?

Figure 3.1 ARDUINO UNO

Arduino is a open source electronics prototyping platform based on

flexible,easy-to-use hardware and software.It’s intended for
artists,designers,hobbyists,and anyone interested in creating interactive objects or
environments.It’s an open-source physical computing platform based on a
microcontroller board,and a development environment for writing software for the
board.
 In simple words,Arduino is a small microcontroller board with a USB plug to
connect to your computer and a number of connection sockets that can be wired up
to external electronics,such as motors,relays,lightsensors,laser
diodes,loudspeakers,microphones,etc.,They can either be powered through the USB
connection from the computer or from a 9V battery.They can be controlled from
the computer or programmed by the computer and then disconnected and allowed
to work independently.

Anyone can buy this device through online auction site or search engine.Since
the Arduino is an open-source hardware designs and ccreate their own clones of the
Arduino and sell them,so the market for the boards is competitive.An official
Arduino costs about $30,and a clone often less than $20.

The name “Arduino” is reserved by the original makers. However, clone Arduino
designs often
have the letters “duino” on the end of their name, for example, Freeduino or
DFRduino. The software for programming your Arduino is easy to use and also
freely available for Windows, Mac, and LINUX computers at no cost.

Microcontroller
Microcontroller can be described as a computer embedded on a rather small circuit
board.To describe the function of a microcontroller more precisely,it is a single
chip that can perform various calculations and tasks,and send/receive signals from
other devices via the available pins. Precisely what tasks andcommunication with
the world it does, is what is governed by what instructions we give tothe
Microcontroller. It is this job of telling the chip what to do, is what we refer to as
programming on it.
 However, the uC by itself, cannot accomplish much; it needs several
external inputs: power, for one; a steady clock signal, for another. Also, the job of
programming it has to be accomplished by an external circuit. So typically, auC is
used along with a circuit which provides these things to it; this combination is
called a microcontroller board. The Arduino Uno that you have recieved, is one
such microcontroller board. The actual microcontroller at its heart is the chip called
Atmega328. The advantages that Arduino offers over other microcontroller boards
are largely in terms of reliability of the circuit hardware as well as the ease of
programming and using it.

OPEN-SOURCE HARDWARE
Open-source hardware shares much of the principles and approach of free
and open-source software.The founders of Arduino wanted people to study their
hardware,to understand how it works,make changes to it,and share those changes
with the world.To facilitate this,they release all of the original design files(Eagle
CAD)for the Arduinohardware.These files are licensed under a Creative Common
Attribution Share-Alike license,which allows for both personal and commercial
derivative works,as long as they(people) credit Arduino and release their designs
under the same license.
The Arduino software is also oen-source.The source code for the Java
environment is released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries are
under the LGPL

HISTORY OF ARDUINO
 While teaching a physical computing class at the Interaction Design Institute
Ivrea in 2005, Massimo Banzi’s students were unwilling to spend the 76 euros for
the BASIC Stamp microcontrollers commonly used in such applications. Banzi and
his collegues looked for alternatives, finally settling on the wiring platform
developed by one of Banzi’s students. In his own words:
“…we started to figure out how could we make the whole platform even simpler,
even cheaper, even easier touse. And then we started to essentially reimplement the
whole thing as an open source project.” Once they had a prototype, a student wrote
the software that would allow wiring programs to run on the new platform. Upon
seeing the project, visiting professor Casey Reas suggested that there might be
wider applications than just design schools for the new product. The prototype was
redesigned for mass production and a test run of 200 boards was made. Orders
began coming in from other design schools and the students looking for Arduinos,
and the Arduino project was born and  MassimoBanzi and David Cuartielles
became its founders.”ARDUINO” is an Italian word,meaning “STRONG
FRIEND”.The English version of the name is “Hardwin”. As of May 2011,more
than 300,000 Arduino units are “in the wild”.
Design Goals
 Work with a Mac (as most design students use one)
 USB connectivity (MacBooks don’t have serial ports
 Look nice
 Cheap (about 20 euros, the cost of going out for pizza in Europe)
 More powerful than a BASIC stamp
 Something you could build/fix yourself
Simple and easy to use by someone without formal electronics training
Business Models
Since the entire project is open source, anyone can build and sell Arduino-
compatible devices. So in this sense, the Arduino project relies heavily on its
branding for it’s financial success . Other projects manufacture compatible and
cheaper boards, however people are loyal to the Arduino branded boards because
they associate quality and a certain image to the
final product .
By the Numbers
Year Units Sold
2005 200
2006 10 000
2010 120 000
2011 300 000

Competitors
Before Arduino, the largest players in the design/hobbyist market segment were
the PIC microcontroller family (made by Microchip) and the BASIC Stamp (made
by Parallax). Since the introduction of the Arduino, other large companies have
tried to enter the hobbyist market, including Texas Instruments , and even
Microsoft . However, the open-sourced tools
of the Arduino and the size of its community are large barriers for new platforms
to overcome.
COMMUNITY

As the project is aimed at students and hobbyists who may not have any
formal electronics background, there are many excellent guides online covering
everything from making a light blink to creating a laser harp. The official forum
has almost 60 000 registered users, and along with helping users with their
projects, is extremely active in developing new libraries to extend the functionality
of the Arduino . The open-source share and share alike sentiment is very strong,
and the vast majority of users freely publish the code to their projects.

PHYSICAL COMPUTING
Physical Computing is an approach to learn how humans communicate
through computers that starts by considering how humans express themselves
physically.

PLATFORM
HARDWARE

ARDUINO Board Layout

Figure 1 ARDUINO board layout

ARDUINO pin diagram

Figure 2 ARDUINO pin diagram

ATmega8(Microcontroller)
  16 MHz
 8 Kbyte Flash RAM(1K taken by the boot loader)
 1 Kbyte RAM(eg.for auto/local variables and stack)
 14 digital Input/Output Ports

Figure 3 ATmega8

Single chip USB to async. Serial data transfer

interface

 USB 2.0 compatible

 Transmit and receive LED frive signals
 256 Byte receive,128 Byte transmit buffer
 Data transfer rate from 300bits/sec to 2
Mb/sec

Fig2.1 Android Software Architecture

The OFF-the shelf adapter
 must be a DC adapter (i.e. it has to put out
DC, not AC)
 should be between 9V and 12V DC 
 must be rated for a minimum of 250mA
current output, although you will likely
 want something more like 500mA or 1A output, as it gives you the current
necessary to power a servo or twenty LEDs if you want to.
 must have a 2.1mm power plug on the Arduino end, and
 the plug must be "centre positive", that is, the middle pin of the plug has to
be the + connection.
Current rating: Since you'll probably be connecting other things to the Arduino
(LEDs, LCDs, servos) you should get an adapter that can supply at least 500mA, or
even 1000 mA (1 ampère). That way you can be sure you have enough juice to
make each component of the circuit function reliably.
The Arduino's on-board regulator can actually handle up to 20V or more, so you
can actually use an adapter that puts out 20V DC. The reasons you don't want to do
that are twofold: you'll lose most of that voltage in heat, which is terribly
inefficient. Secondly, the nice 9V pin on the
Arduino board will actually be putting out 20V
or so, which could lead to potential disaster
when you connect something expensive to
what you thought was the 9V pin. Our advice is
to stick with the 9V or 12V DC adapter.

ARDUINO flavors!!
There have been many revisions of the USB
Arduino.some of them are
1. Arduino UNO:
This is the latest revision of the basic Arduino USB board. It connects to the
computer with a standard USB cable and contains everything else you need to
program and use the board. It can be extended with a variety of shields: custom
daughter-boards with specific features. It is similar to the Duemilanove, but has a
different USB-to-serial chip the ATMega8U2,
and newly designed labeling to make inputs
and outputs easier to identify.
2. Arduino Mega 2560:
A larger, more powerful Arduino board.
Has extra digital pins, PWM pins, analog
inputs, serial ports, etc.The version of the
Mega released with the Uno, this version
features the Atmega2560, which has twice the memory, and uses
the ATMega 8U2 for USB-to-serial communication. 
3. ArduinoDuemilanove:
The Duemilanove automatically
selects the appropriate power
supply (USB or external power),
eliminating the need for the power
selection jumper found on previous boards. It also adds an easiest to cut
trace for disabling the auto-reset, along with a solder jumper for re-
enabling it.
Note: around March 1st, 2009, the Duemilanove started to ship with
the ATmega328p instead of theATmega168.

4. ArduinoFio:
An Arduino intended for use as a
wireless node. Has a header for
an XBee radio, a connector for
a LiPobattery, and a battery
chargingcircuit.

5. LilyPad Arduino:

A stripped-down, circular Arduino board

designed for stitching into clothing and
other fabric/flexible applications. Needs
an additional adapter to communicate
with a computer.

6. ArduinoDiecimila:

The main change in the ArduinoDiecimila

is that it can be reset from the computer,
without the need to physically press the
reset button on the board. The Diecimila
uses a low dropout voltage regulator
which lowers the board's power
consumption when powered by an
external supply (AC/DC adapter or
battery). A resettable polyfuse protects
your computer's USB ports from shorts
and surges. It also provides pin headers for
the reset line and for 3.3V. There is a built-in
LED on pin 13. Some blue Diecimila boards
say "Prototype - Limited Edition" but are in
fact fully-tested production boards (the actual
prototypes are red).

7. LilypadArduino 03

This revision has a 6-pin programming

header that's compatible with FTDI USB cables and the Sparkfun FTDI Basic
Breakout. It adds support for automatic reset, allowing sketches to be uploaded
without pressing the reset button on the
board. The header is surface mounted,
meaning that the board has no pokey bits
sticking out the back.

8. Arduino NG Rev.C

Revision C of the Arduino NG does not

have a built-in LED on pin 13 - instead you'll see two small unused solder pads
near the labels "GND" and "13". There is, however, about 1000 ohms of
resistance on pin 13, so you can connect an LED without external resistor. 
 9. Arduino Extreme

The Arduino Extreme uses many more surface mount components than
previous USB Arduino boards and comes with female pin headers. It also has
RX and TX LEDs that indicate when data is being sent to or from the board.

10.Arduino Mini 04

On this version of the Arduino Mini, two of

the pins changed. The third pin became reset
(instead of ground) and fourth pin became
ground (instead of being unconnected). These
boards are labelled "Mini 04".

Still there are ,ArduinoSerial,Arduino

Serial v2.0,Arduino Nano 3.0,Arduino
Nano 2.x,Serverino(S3V3),Arduino Stamp
02,Mini USB adapter 03,Mini USB
Adapter,Arduino Bluetooth.
Basic

Figure 4 Different FlavoursOf ARDUINO with their Configuration

Terminologies in ARDUINO:
1.Analog to digital converter(ADC)
The process of Analog to digital conversion is shown in figure.
The Arduino has 10 bits of Resolution when reading analog
signals.
2 power 10=1024 increments
Influence also by how fast you sample

2.Pulse width modulation (PWM)

The Arduino has 8bit of resolution,when outputting a signal using PWM.The range
of output voltage is from 0 to 5 Volts
2power 8=255 Increments
Average of on/off(digital signals to make an average voltage),Duty cycle in 100%
of 5Volts.
LANGUAGE REFERENCES:
The Microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino
programming language(based on wiring) and the arduino development
environment(based on processing).
Arduino Programming Language(APL)(based on wiring)
The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar
physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia
programming environment.
Wiring
Wiring is an open-source programming framework for microcontrollers. Wiring
allows writing cross-platform software to control devices attached to a wide range
of microcontroller boards to create all kinds of creative coding, interactive objects,
spaces or physical experiences. The framework is thoughtfully created with
designers and artists in mind to encourage a community where beginners through
experts from around the world share ideas, knowledge and their collective
experience. There are thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and
hobbyists who use Wiring for learning, prototyping, and finished professional
work production.
Arduino development environment(based on processing)
Processing
Processing is an open source programming language and environment for people
who want to create images, animations, and interactions. Initially developed to
serve as a software sketchbook and to teach fundamentals of computer
programming within a visual context, Processing also has evolved into a tool for
generating finished professional work. Today, there are tens of thousands of
students, artists, designers, researchers, and hobbyists who use Processing for
learning, prototyping, and production.

Software
The software used by the arduino is Arduino IDE.

heArduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from

the IDE for the Processing programming language and the Wiringproject. It is
designed to introduce programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with
software development. It includes a code editor with features such as syntax
highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of
compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There is
typically no need to edit makefiles or run programs on acommand-line interface.
Although building on command-line is possible if required with some third-party
tools such as Ino.

The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of
the same name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier.
Arduino programs are written in C/C++, although users only need define two
functions to make a runnable program:

 setup() – a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize
settings
 loop() – a function called repeatedly until the board powers off

3.2 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

 All electronic circuits works only in low DC voltage, so we need a power
supply unit to provide the appropriate voltage supply for their proper functioning
.This unit consists of transformer, rectifier, filter & regulator. AC voltage of
typically 230v rms is connected to a transformer voltage down to the level to
the desired ac voltage. A diode rectifier that provides the full wave rectified
voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc
voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage
variation . A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide dc voltage that not
only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value even the dc
voltage varies some what, or the load connected to the output dc voltages
changes.

Fig 24.General Block of Power Supply Unit

DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Fig25 : Diode Bridge Rectifier

 A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four
diodesconnected in a bridge circuitas shown below, that provides the same polarity
of output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most
common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct
current(DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides
full wave rectification from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped
transformer) but has two diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a
center tap based design for the same output voltage.

Fig 26: Schematic Of A Diode Bridge Rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at
the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

BASIC OPERATION OF DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the
lower one.
operation of diode bridge rectifier

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current
flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored
path.

AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the
lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not
only produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what
is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal
functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply
wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage
that might occur without this circuit in place).
 Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was
always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-
terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge
configuration became a standard commercial component and is now available with
various voltage and current ratings.

TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a static piece of which electric power in one

circuit is transformed into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in the circuit, but with a corresponding decrease or increase
in current. It works with the principle of mutual induction. In our project we are using
a step down transformer to providing a necessary supply for the electronic circuits.
Here we step down a 230v ac into 12v ac.

RECTIFIER: A dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100%

using a process called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave
rectification we use bridge rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that
two diodes(say D2 & D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are
in off state during the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for the negative cycle of the
input the conducting diodes are D1 & D4 .Thus the polarity across the load is the
same.
In the bridge rectifier the diodes may be of variable types like 1N4001, 1N4003,
1N4004, 1N4005, IN4007 etc… can be used . But here we use 1N4007, because it can
withstand up to 1000v.

FILTERS: In order to obtain a dc voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter. so
that a capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier
output& a dc is obtained across it. The filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage
with negligible ripples & it is ultimately fed to the load.

REGULATORS: The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered & finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage
constant irrespective of the change in supply variations, load variations & temperature
changes. Here we use fixed voltage regulator namely LM7805.The IC LM7805 is a
+5v regulator which is used for microcontroller.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig29 power supply unit

FEATURES & DESCRIPTION OF REGULATORS

• Output Current up to 1A

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are

available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages
and currents.

3.3 RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use

an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles
are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to
control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between
control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers:
they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another
circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers
to perform logical operations.
 A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an
electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power
circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in
modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION:

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around

a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctancepath for magnetic
flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in
the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to
one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the
relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is
open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke,
which is soldered to the PCB.
 When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic
field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable
contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with
a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized,
then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if
the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is
returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used
commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or
current application it reduces arcing.
 When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across
the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation,
which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous
to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a diode
inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a
capacitor and resistor in series (snubbercircuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is
designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading
ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1]

APPLICATIONS

Relays are used wherever it is necessary to control a high power or high

voltage circuit with a low power circuit. The first application of relays was in
long telegraph systems, where the weak signal received at an intermediate station
could control a contact, regenerating the signal for further transmission. High-
voltage or high-current devices can be controlled with small, low voltage wiring
and pilots switches. Operators can be isolated from the high voltage circuit. Low
power devices such as microprocessors can drive relays to control electrical loads
beyond their direct drive capability. In an automobile, a starter relay allows the
high current of the cranking motor to be controlled with small wiring and contacts
in the ignition key.

Electromechanical switching systems

including Strowger and Crossbar telephone exchanges made extensive use of
relays in ancillary control circuits. The Relay Automatic Telephone Company also
manufactured telephone exchanges based solely on relay switching techniques
designed by GotthilfAnsgariusBetulander. The first public relay based telephone
exchange in the UK was installed in Fleetwood on 15 July 1922 and remained in
service until 1959.

The use of relays for the logical control of complex switching systems like
telephone exchanges was studied by Claude Shannon, who formalized the
application of Boolean algebra to relay circuit design in A Symbolic Analysis of
Relay and Switching Circuits. Relays can perform the basic operations of Boolean
combinatorial logic. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by
connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting
normally open contacts in parallel. Inversion of a logical input can be done with a
normally-closed contact. Relays were used for control of automated systems for
machine tools and production lines. The Ladder programming language is often
used for designing relay logic networks.

Early electro-mechanical computers such as the ARRA, Harvard Mark

II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3 relays for logic and working registers. However,
electronic devices proved faster and easier to use.

Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear

radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of
radioactive waste-handling machinery. Electromechanical protective relays are
used to detect overload and other faults on electrical lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers.

3.4 Liquid Crystal Display

Introduction:

Advances in the features, miniaturization, and cost of LCD (Liquid Crystal

Display) controller chips have made LCDs usable not only in commercial products
but also in hobbyist projects. By themselves, Liquid Crystal Displays can be
difficult to drive because they require multiplexing, AC drive waveforms, and
special voltages. LCD modules make this driving simpler by attaching hardware to
the raw glass LCD to assist in some or all of these rudimentary driving tasks. LCD
modules can be split into two groups: those that have built-in controller and driver
chips, and those that have only driver chips. LCD displays that do not have
controllers are typically used with powerful hardware, such as a laptop computer,
where a video controller is available to generate the complex drive signals
necessary to run the display. Most color and large (greater than 320x240)
monochrome displays are of this type. Other common sizes are 16x1, 20x1, 20x2,
20x4, 40x1, and 40x2 (characters x lines). Fortunately, all HD44780-based
displays (of any size) use the same standard 14-wire interface.

Therefore, code and hardware made for one size/type display can be
painlessly adapted to work for any HD44780 compatible. Information about these
displays can be easily obtained on the web by including “HD44780” in our search
keywords. Because of their widespread use, these displays can be purchased
surplus with typical prices of $3 for small displays to $20 for large ones.

Interfacing our LCD module:

The microcontroller/microprocessor interface to HD44780 LCD modules

(hereafter generically Referred to as character LCD modules) is almost always 14
pins. We May find that some displays have additional pins for backlighting or
other purposes, but the first 14 pins still serve as the interface.

The first three pins provide power to the LCD module. Pin 1 is GND and
should be grounded to the power supply. Pin 2 is VCC and should be connected to
+5V power. Pin 3 is the LCD Display Bias. By adjusting the voltage or duty cycle
of pin 3, the contrast of the display can be adjusted. Most character LCDs can
achieve good display contrast with a voltage between 5V and 0V on pin 3. Note
that greater contrast comes with lower voltage and we should never apply a VLCD
higher than VCC. Some displays, which are specially made to work over a large
temperature range, may require a negative voltage to achieve readable contrast.

Basic 16x 2 Characters LCD - Black on Green 5V:

Description:

This is a basic 16 character by 2-line display. Black text on Green background.

Utilizes the extremely common HD44780 parallel interface chipset. Interface code
is freely available. We will need ~11 general I/O pins to interface to this LCD
screen. Includes LED backlight.
 Fig3.4.1 16/2 character LCD display

Pin Description: The most commonly used LCDs found in the market today are 1
Line, 2 Line or 4 Line LCDs which have only 1 controller and support at most of
80 characters, whereas LCDs supporting more than 80 characters make use of 2
HD44780 controllers.

Fig 3.4.2 Pin Description of LCD

 Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16
Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections). Pin description is
shown in the table below.

Figure 3.4.3: Character LCD type HD44780 Pin diagram

Pin description of character LCD:

Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 3 VEE Contrast adjust
Pin no. 4 RS 0 = Instruction input
 1 = Data input
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 5 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 9 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 10 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 11 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 12 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 13 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)

Table 3.4.1: Character LCD pins with 1 Controller

Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
Pin no. 2 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 3 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 4 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 5 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 6 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 7 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 8 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Enable signal for row 0 and 1
Pin no. 9 EN1
(1stcontroller)
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 10 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 11 RS
1 = Data input
Pin no. 12 VEE Contrast adjust
Pin no. 13 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 14 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 15 EN2 Enable signal for row 2 and 3
 (2ndcontroller)
Pin no. 16 NC Not Connected

Table 3.4.2: Character LCD pins with 2 Controller

LCD Background:

Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside world using
input and output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the
most common devices attached to an 8051 is an LCD display. Some of the most
common LCDs connected to the 8051 are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16
characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Interfacing Example - 16 Characters x 2 Lines LCD:

Description: This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will
start with something simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature
found on newer ports, thus it should work with most, if no all Parallel Ports. It
however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input. A 16 Character x 2
Line LCD Modules to the Parallel Port. These LCD Modules are very common
these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic required running
them is on board.

Schematic:
 Fig 3.4.4 Schematic Diagram of 2 line 16 character LCD display

Circuit Description:

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and
RegisterSelect is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open
collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up
resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K
external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of
computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors. We make no
effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W
line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data
lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us
if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem
is overcome by inserting known delays into our program.

The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here.
As with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. We can use a bench power
supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling
capacitors, especially if we have trouble with the circuit working properly.

GSM MODULE

GSM Modem (SIM300)

Fig 10 : GSM Module

The keypad and SPI LCD interface will give you the flexibility to develop
customized applications.
 Two serial ports can help you easily develop our applications.
 Two audio channels include two microphones inputs and two speaker
outputs. These audio interfaces can be easily configured by AT command.
 One ADC input
  Two GPIO ports and SIM card detection port

SIM CARD
Following is the reference circuit about SIM interface. We recommend
an Electro-Static discharge device ST ESDA6V1W5 or ON SEMI SMF05C for
“ESD ANTI”. The resistors (R204-R206) showed in the figure should be added in
series on the IO line between the module and the SIM card for matching the
impedance The SIM_PRESENCE pin is used for detecting the SIM card removal.
Note: The pull up resistor R207 must be added.
We can select the 8 pins SIM card. The reference circuit about SIM card illustrates
as following figure.

SIM300 is a Tri-band GSM/GPRS engine that works on frequencies

EGSM 900 MHz, DCS 1800 MHz and PCS1900 MHz. SIM300 provides GPRS
multi-slot class 10 capability and support the GPRS coding schemes CS-1, CS-2,
CS-3 and CS-4.

With a tiny configuration of 40mm x 33mm x 2.85 mm , SIM300 can

fit almost all the space requirement in our application, such as Smart phone, PDA
phone and other mobile device. The physical interface between SIM300 and the
mobile application is through a 60 pins board-to-board connector, which provides
all hardware interfaces from module to customers’ boards except the RF antenna
interface.

THE PART OF POWER ON CIRCUIT

We can turn on the module by driving the PWRKEY to a low level
voltage for period time. The automatic power on circuit illustrate as following
figure. The PWRKEY pin is the NO.34 pin of the module interface. The value of
the capacitor C155 is recommended as 330uF/16V. The diode D2 （1N4148 ）is
used for current discharge when power down. The diode can be modified to the
other type part which discharge capability is better. We can make a decision by
some experiments ourselves.

Fig 11 : MAX 232 Pin Details

LOGIC SIGNAL VOLTAGE

Serial RS-232 (V.24) communication works with voltages

(between -15V ... -3V are used to transmit a binary '1' and +3V ... +15V to transmit
a binary '0') which are not compatible with today's computer logic voltages. On the
other hand, classic TTL computer logic operates between 0V ... +5V (roughly
0V ... +0.8V referred to as low for binary '0', +2V ... +5V for high binary '1' ).
Modern low-power logic operates in the range of 0V ... +3.3V or even lower.
So, the maximum RS-232 signal levels are far too high for
today's computer logic electronics, and the negative RS-232 voltage can't be
grokked at all by the computer logic. Therefore, to receive serial data from an RS-
232 interface the voltage has to be reduced, and the 0 and 1 voltage levels inverted.
In the other direction (sending data from some logic over RS-232) the low logic
voltage has to be "bumped up", and a negative voltage has to be generated, too.
The MAX232 and MAX232A were once rather expensive ICs, but today they are
cheap. It has also helped that many companies now produce clones (ie. Sipex).
These clones sometimes need different external circuitry, e.g. the capacities of the
external capacitors vary. It is recommended to check the data sheet of the
particular manufacturer of an IC instead of relying on Maxim's original data sheet.
The original manufacturer (and now some clone manufacturers, too) offers a large
series of similar ICs, with different numbers of receivers and drivers, voltages,
built-in or external capacitors, etc. E.g. The MAX232 and MAX232A need
external capacitors for the internal voltage pump, while the MAX233 has these
capacitors built-in. The MAX233 is also between three and ten times more
expensive in electronic shops than the MAX232A because of its internal
capacitors. It is also more difficult to get the MAX233 than the garden variety
MAX232A.
A similar IC, the MAX3232 is nowadays available for low-power 3V logic.

MAX232 to RS232 DB9 Connection as a DCE

MAX232 Pin Nbr. MAX232 Pin Name Signal Voltage DB9 Pin
7 T2out RTS RS-232 8
8 R2in CTS RS-232 7
9 R2out CTS TTL n/a
10 T2in RTS TTL n/a
11 T1in TX TTL n/a
12 R1out RX TTL n/a
13 R1in TX RS-232 3
14 T1out RX RS-232 2
15 GND GND 0 5

RS-232
(Recommended Standard-232) A TIA/EIA standard for serial
transmission between computers and peripheral devices (modem, mouse, etc.).
Using a 25-pin DB-25 or 9-pin DB-9 connector, its normal cable limitation of 50
feet can be extended to several hundred feet with high-qualitycable.

RS-232 defines the purpose and signal timing for each of the 25 lines;
however, many applications use less than a dozen. RS-232 transmits positive
voltage for a 0 bit, negative voltage for a 1. In 1984, this interface was officially
renamed TIA/EIA-232-E standard (E is the current revision, 1991), although most
people still call it RS-232.

G.P.S RECIEVER
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) developed by the United States Department of Defense. It is the
only fully functional GNSS in the world. It uses a constellation of between 24 and
32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, which
enable GPS receivers to determine their current location, the time, and their
velocity. Its official name is NAVSTAR GPS. Although NAVSTAR is not an
acronym, a few backronyms have been created for it. The GPS satellite
constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. GPS is
often used by civilians as a navigation system.
 After Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down in 1983 after straying into
the USSR's prohibited airspace, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive
making GPS freely available for civilian use as a common good. As suggested by
physicist D. Fanelli a few years before. Since then, GPS has become a widely used
aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying,
commerce, scientific uses, and hobbies such as geocaching. Also, the precise time
reference is used in many applications including the scientific study of
earthquakes. GPS is also a required key synchronization resource of cellular
networks, such as the Qualcomm CDMA air interface used by many wireless
carriers in a multitude of countries.

The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy,
was first successfully tested in 1960. Using a constellation of five satellites, it
could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S.
Navy developed the Imation satellite which proved the ability to place accurate
clocks in space, a technology that GPS relies upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based
Omega Navigation System, based on signal phase comparison, became the first
worldwide radio navigation system.

The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation

systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s,
and used during World War II. Additional inspiration for the GPS came when the
Soviet Union launched the first Sputnik in 1957. A team of U.S. scientists led by
Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions. They
discovered that, because of the Doppler Effect, the frequency of the signal being
transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it
continued away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location
on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by
measuring the Doppler distortion.

3.4.2 Working and Operation

When people talk about "a GPS," they usually mean a GPS receiver. The Global
Positioning System (GPS) is actually a constellation of 27 Earth-orbiting satellites
(24 in operation and three extras in case one fails). The U.S. military developed
and implemented this satellite network as a military navigation system, but soon
opened it up to everybody else.

Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe

at about 12,000 miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations every day. The
orbits are arranged so that at any time, anywhere on Earth, there are at least four
satellites "visible" in the sky.

A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the
distance to each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This
operation is based on a simple mathematical principle called trilateration.GPS
receiver calculates its position on earth based on the information it receives from
four located satellites. This system works pretty well, but inaccuracies do pop up.
For one thing, this method assumes the radio signals will make their way through
the atmosphere at a consistent speed (the speed of light). In fact, the Earth's
atmosphere slows the electromagnetic energy down somewhat, particularly as it
goes through the ionosphere and troposphere. The delay varies depending on
where you are on Earth, which means it's difficult to accurately factor this into the
distance calculations. Problems can also occur when radio signals bounce off large
objects, such as skyscrapers, giving a receiver the impression that a satellite is
farther away than it actually is. On top of all that, satellites sometimes just send out
bad almanac data, misreporting their own position.

Differential GPS (DGPS) helps correct these errors. The basic idea is to gauge
GPS inaccuracy at a stationary receiver station with a known location. Since the
DGPS hardware at the station already knows its own position, it can easily
calculate its receiver's inaccuracy. The station then broadcasts a radio signal to all
DGPS-equipped receivers in the area, providing signal correction information for
that area. In general, access to this correction information makes DGPS receivers
much more accurate than ordinary receivers.
3.18 G.P.S receiver communicating with the satellite and sending information
through the wireless mobile phone
G.P.S data decoding
G.P.S receiver continuously sends data and the microcontroller receives the data
when ever it requires. The data sent by the G.P.S is a string of characters which
should be decoded to the standard format. This is done by the program which we
implement in the controller.

FEATURE

 Brand new and high quality.

 Model: GY-GPS6MV2.
 With ceramic antenna.
 With LED signal indicator lamp.
 Power supply: 3-5V.
  The default baud rate: 9600.
 Compatible with different flight controller module.
 Size 1: 2.5cm x 3.5cm.
 Size 2: 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 0.8cm.

3.6 LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that

resembles a basic PN - junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When
an LED's anode lead has a voltage that is more positive than its cathode lead by at
least the LED's forward voltage drop, current flows. Electrons are able to
recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
 FEATURES

 High reliability

 High radiant intensity

 Peak wavelength λp = 940nm

 2.54mm Lead spacing.

APPLICATIONS

 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to
the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response
of these objects.

Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human VISION

 CHAPTER – IV
PREPARATION OF PRINTIG CIRCUITED BOARD

PCB DESGNING AND FABRICATION

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING THE PCB

PREPARING OF LAYOUT

With the diagram and all the hand, draw a complete layout plan of the circuit
on a sheet of a tracing paper. As a model, for laying the circuit, a thermo cole base
may be used to hold components. Avoid over crowding of components while
making full space utilization. Keep the ground line on the side of the PCB and the
supply line on other side as far as possible. When all the components have been
mounted on the tracing paper sheet fixed on a piece of thermo cole base, take out a
sketch pen for making in such a way that all the connecting wires are equal in
width, termination rounded off. Re-draw draw it on a fresh paper if required.

PAINTING OF PCB

The tracing so prepared has to be imposed over the copper printed circuit
board keeping in view that the component would be mounted from the non-clad
side of the board. Take a PCB lamination sheet and cur a piece of required size of
the board by using hacksaw file edges, put the copper clad sheet on the table
keeping side on the runway the dirt grease and oxide with a sand paper with its
marked side tracing the carbon paper and at her side on top. Since the tracing paper
is transformed you can now reproduce a carbon point over a surface but using ball
pen on a hard pencil over the drawing on the transparent side. When the carbon
print has been obtained over the copper clad board drill ropes in the board using a
hand drill. The holes may be draw with 1/32 bit for component lead sand the
carbon should be raised or wiped by mistake.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRINTED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

After painting the board, it will be made by the cool air for sometime. Now
take a plastic tray and get some Fe Cl3 chemical powder. The ferric chloride salt is
then added with 500ml of water. The color of the solution is pink. Color of the salt
is in yellow, now we add three to five drops of dilute HCL or H2SO4. This is
necessary to quicken the process.

ETCHING OF PCB

Now we take the painted copper clad board and dip it in the solution kept in
the tray. After 15 to 25 minutes we see the board, with only printed pattern portion
remaining in other place the copper coating is removed due to the chemical action.
Then the board is taken out and washes in water. After wash the board by using
thinner solution. Now a printed circuit has been formed on the board.

Take fresh water and mix a few teaspoons of FeCL3 add a few drops of
dilute HCL to it, as it speeds the etching process. Shake well immerse the PC Bin
the solution for about 20 minutes occasionally altering the solution by giving the
seesaw reaction to the disk storing reduces the etching time. Observe the changing
color on the copper surface. Take out the PCB only when the unpainted portion of
the copper surface is completely dissolved in the
3solution wash the PCB with the water. After the PCB is thoroughly washed
remove the paint by soft pieces of the cloth dipped in thinner or turpentine.

DRILLING OF HOLES

Then take a drilling machine with 1/32 drill bit to make holes for the
incretion of the components use 1/18 drill bit for inset wires and other thick
components.

Now the PCB is ready to use.

ADVANTAGES

 Reliability in operation and low cost.

 Space required becomes less.

DIS ADVANTAGES

 It can’t withstand larger weight such as transformer.

MATERIAL REQUIRED

 Copper clad sheet (It is made of hylam or board over

which the sheet copper is pressed.)
 “Paint or Nail polish” or even “PCB Ink”.
 Painting brush, tray.
 Ferric chloride solution and also few drop of dilute HCL or
H2so4.
 Thinner or kerosene or petrol.

 Cotton cloth.
  Trace paper.

CONCLUSION

Maritime communications may take advantage of the state-of-the-art

communication technologies that are emerging under the umbrella of the IoT
paradigm. For that reason, in this work, the use of LP-WAN solutions for
providing ships with connectivity to land has been explored. The status of current
existing solutions has been discussed and the advantages provided by these novel
transmission technologies have been identified. Concretely, it has been found that
the appropriateness of their use in boats with strong payload and energetic
restrictions such as small sailboats or low-cost marine devices,

Therefore, an LP-WAN-based architecture has been proposed and a field

experiment has been conducted in order to validate this proposal. A sampling
campaign has been carried out in order to evaluate the performance of LoRa, one
of the most promising LP-WAN technologies, with the aim of monitoring the
activities of Optimist Class sailboats. A real LoRa-based network has been
deployed in the port of Vigo (Spain). The attained results showed the validity of
LoRa aiming at tracking ships’ maneuvers and monitoring a series of parameters
within the port. Different LoRa configurations have been tested and discussed,
concluding that, under good transmission conditions, high data-rates should be
used in order to reduce the time-on-air of the transmissions. In addition, good
levels of transmission reliability (above 97% of PDR) were attained with the most
robust LoRa configuration

REFERENCE

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3. Lees, G.; Williamson, W. Handbook for Marine Radio Communication, 6th ed.;
Informa Law from Routledge; Taylor et Francis Group: Oxford, UK, 2015.
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5. Parker, J. European view of automated VHF/UHF radio systems—Marine

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