Cameras and Projection

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 Cameras and Projection

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Cameras and Projection

http://www.julianbeever.net/pave.htm
Müller-Lyer Illusion

http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/sze_muelue/index.html
Image formation

Let’s design a camera

• Idea 1: put a piece of film in front of an object
• Do we get a reasonable image?
Pinhole camera

Add a barrier to block off most of the rays

• This reduces blurring
• The opening is known as the aperture
• How does this transform the image?
Camera Obscura

• Basic principle known

to Mozi (470-390 BC),
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• Drawing aid for arCsts:
described by Leonardo
Gemma Frisius, 1558
da Vinci (1452-1519)
Pinhole camera

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Pinhole camera

[ @integrity of light ] 9
Student can make a pinhole camera

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Pinhole cameras everywhere

Sun “shadows” during a solar eclipse


by Henrik von Wendt http://www.flickr.com/photos/hvw/2724969199/
Pinhole cameras everywhere

Tree shadow during a solar eclipse

photo credit: Nils van der Burg

http://www.physicstogo.org/index.cfm
Pinhole cameras everywhere
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UC7HjYhfgcU

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Camera Obscura

The first camera

• How does the aperture size affect the image?
Shrinking the aperture

Why not make the aperture as small as possible?

• Less light gets through
• Diffraction effects...
Shrinking the aperture
Diffraction effects

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[ http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk ]
Diffraction effects

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[ http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk ]
Diffraction effects

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Pinhole camera
+ Actually works
+ Everything is in focus

- Diffraction effects

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Pinhole camera
+ Actually works
+ Everything is in focus

- Diffraction effects
- Either dark image or slow shutter speed

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Questions

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Want to get a Ph.D. from Oxford?
Why does a camera have lens?

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Adding a lens

“circle of
confusion”

A lens focuses light onto the film

• There is a specific distance at which objects are “in focus”
– other points project to a “circle of confusion” in the image
• Changing the shape of the lens changes this distance
Lenses

focal point
optical center
(Center Of Projection)

A lens focuses parallel rays onto a single focal point

• focal point at a distance f beyond the plane of the lens
– f is a function of the shape and index of refraction of the lens
• Aperture of diameter D restricts the range of rays
– aperture may be on either side of the lens
Lenses

focal point
optical center
(Center Of Projection)

A lens focuses parallel rays onto a single focal point

• focal point at a distance f beyond the plane of the lens
– f is a function of the shape and index of refraction of the lens
• Aperture of diameter D restricts the range of rays
– aperture may be on either side of the lens
• Lenses are typically spherical (easier to produce)
• Real cameras use many lenses together
Thin lenses
Thin lenses
Thin lenses
Depth of field

f / 5.6

f / 32
Changing the aperture size affects depth of field F-number
• A smaller aperture increases the range in which the object is
approximately in focus

Flower images from Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field

Depth of field

Portrait (family photos)

Computer vision experiments

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[ expha.com ]
Summary
For pinhole
• Aperture big-> Entire image gets blurry.
• Aperture small -> Entire image gets sharp.
• Aperture very small -> Entire image gets blurry

For a camera with lens

• An object at the “focus” distance is always sharp.
• An object not at the “focus” distance follows the pinhole principle.

Aperture small -> long exposure -> bad for moving object

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The eye

The human eye is a camera

• Iris - colored annulus with radial muscles
• Pupil - the hole (aperture) whose size is controlled by the iris
• What’s the “film”?
– photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina
• How do we refocus?
– Change the shape of the lens
The eye

The human eye is a camera yellow->rods, blue->cones


[ blindless.org ]
• Iris - colored annulus with radial muscles
• Pupil - the hole (aperture) whose size is controlled by the iris
• What’s the “film”?
– photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina
• How do we refocus?
– Change the shape of the lens
Digital camera

A digital camera replaces film with a sensor array

• Each cell in the array is a Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
– light-sensitive diode that converts photons to electrons
• CMOS is becoming more popular (esp. in cell phones)
– http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm
Issues with digital cameras
Noise
– big difference between consumer vs. SLR-style cameras
– low light is where you most notice noise
Compression
– creates artifacts except in uncompressed formats (tiff, raw)
Color
– color fringing artifacts from Bayer patterns
Blooming
– charge overflowing into neighboring pixels
In-camera processing
– oversharpening can produce halos
Interlaced vs. progressive scan video
– even/odd rows from different exposures
Are more megapixels better?
– requires higher quality lens
– noise issues
Stabilization
– compensate for camera shake (mechanical vs. electronic)

More info online, e.g.,

• http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm
• http://www.dpreview.com/
Questions?

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Projection
Mapping from the world (3d) to an image (2d)


An optical system defines a particular projection

Projection
Mapping from the world (3d) to an image (2d)


An optical system defines a particular projection

Three examples:

1. Perspective projection (how we see “normally”)
2. Orthographic projection (e.g., telephoto lenses)
3. Weak-perspective (scaled orthographic) projection
Projection
Mapping from the world (3d) to an image (2d)


An optical system defines a particular projection

Three examples:

1. Perspective projection (how we see “normally”)
2. Orthographic projection (e.g., telephoto lenses)
3. Weak-perspective (scaled orthographic) projection
In Computer Vision...
Often approximate camera by a pinhole

So, we often assume

- Everything is sharp and in-focus (no out-of-focus blur)
- Lens are thin (no refraction)
- No diffraction
...

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Modeling projection

The coordinate system

• We will use the pin-hole model as an approximation
• Put the optical center (Center Of Projection) at the origin
• Put the image plane (Projection Plane) in front of the COP
– Why?
• The camera looks down the negative z axis (optical axis)
– we need this if we want right-handed-coordinates
Modeling projection

Projection equations
• Compute intersection with PP of ray from (x,y,z) to COP
• Derived using similar triangles (on board)

• We get the projection by throwing out the last coordinate:

Homogeneous coordinates
Is this a linear transformation?
• no—division by z is nonlinear
Trick: add one more coordinate:

homogeneous image homogeneous scene

coordinates coordinates

Converting from homogeneous coordinates

Perspective Projection
Projection is a matrix multiply using homogeneous coordinates:

divide by third coordinate

This is known as perspective projection

• The matrix is the projection matrix
• Can also formulate as a 4x4 (today’s reading does this)

divide by fourth coordinate

Perspective Projection Example
1. Object point at (10, 6, 4), d=2

2. Object point at (25, 15, 10)

Perspective projection is not 1-to-1!

Perspective Projection
How does scaling the projection matrix change the transformation?
Perspective Projection

• What happens to parallel lines in 3D?

• What happens to angles?
• What happens to distances?
Projection
Mapping from the world (3d) to an image (2d)
• Can we have a 1-to-1 mapping?
• How many possible mappings are there?

An optical system defines a particular projection

Two examples:

1. Perspective projection (how we see “normally”)
2. Orthographic projection (e.g., telephoto lenses)
3. Weak-perspective (scaled orthographic) projection
Modeling projection
What happens when you
- move PP a lot dè∞
- see only distant points zè - ∞
Modeling projection
What happens when you
- move PP a lot dè∞
- see only distant points zè - ∞
Modeling projection
What happens when you
- move PP a lot dè∞
- see only distant points zè - ∞
Orthographic projection
Special case of perspective projection
• Distance from the COP to the PP is infinite

Image World

• Good approximation for telephoto optics

• Also called “parallel projection”: (x, y, z) → (x, y)
• What’s the projection matrix?
Orthographic (“telecentric”) lenses

Navitar telecentric zoom lens

http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/3d/telecent.htm
Orthographic Projection

• What happens to parallel lines in 3D?

• What happens to angles?
• What happens to distances?
Popular for 3D modeling software

56 [ Maya ]
Projection
Mapping from the world (3d) to an image (2d)
• Can we have a 1-to-1 mapping?
• How many possible mappings are there?

An optical system defines a particular projection

Two examples:

1. Perspective projection (how we see “normally”)
2. Orthographic projection (e.g., telephoto lenses)
3. Weak-perspective (scaled orthographic) projection
Perspective projection
See the scanned notes.

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 Summary
Perspective Weak-perspective Orthographic
Scaled-orthographic

Projection formulae

In homogeneous Linear Linear Linear

In non-homogeneous Non-linear Linear Linear

Notes Exact pin-hole Approximate Approximate

depths by e zoom-lens
Inverse Pinhole

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