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A REVIEW ON MICROBIAL FUEL CELL USING ORGANIC WASTE AS FEED

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
2012 Vol. 2 (1) January-March, pp.17-27/Samatha and Durgesh
Research Article
A REVIEW ON MICROBIAL FUEL CELL USING ORGANIC WASTE AS
FEED
*Samatha Singh1 and Durgesh Singh Songera2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Eng and Science, IPS Academy, Indore, MP, India
*Author for Correspondence

ABSTRACT
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are devices that can use bacterial metabolism to produce an electrical current
from wide range organic substrates. Sustainable energy production from organic wastes is gaining a
research interest from last few years. But only a few marine sediment MFCs have been used for providing
current for low power devices practically. The greatest value of MFC technology may not be the
production of electricity but the ability of electrode associated microbes to degrade wastes and toxic
chemicals. The effects of operational conditions of a microbial fuel cell were tested and optimized for the
best performance of a mediator-less microbial fuel cell. The optimal pH was 7. The resistance higher than
500 V was the rate-determining factor by limiting electron flow from anode to cathode. At the resistance
lower than 200 V, proton and oxygen supplies to the cathode were limited. A non-compartmentalized fuel
cell with less resistance and an electrode having a high oxygen reducing activity with efficient mediator
less bacteria should be developed for efficient Microbial Fuel cell. Apart from electricity generation it can
be effectively used as BOD sensor as the concentration of substrate affects the electricity generation.

Key Words: Anode, Microbial Fuel Cell, Extracellular Electron Transfer, Conductive Bio Film, Cathode.

INTRODUCTION
Three E’s are the national Energy policy drivers of any country of the world. Energy security, energy
growth, environmental protection. Energy has become an indispensible part of everybody human life
which is compromising the environmental protection. The global warming situation is worsened by the
fact that power generation is continuously increasing through the world using fossil fuel. Low reserves of
fossil fuels and the environmental impact of their use to produce energy are leading to a search for novel
renewable energy technologies. The idea of using microbial cells in an attempt to produce electricity was
first conceived in the early twentieth century. M. Potter a professor of botany at the University of Durham
managed to generate electricity from E.coli in 1911 (Potter, 1911). Electrical effects accompanying the
decomposition of organic compounds. Royal Society (Formerly Proceedings of the Royal Society) B, 84,
p260-276), but the work was not to receive any major coverage. In 1931, however, Barnet Cohen drew
more attention to the area when he created a number of microbial half fuel cells that, when connected in
series, were capable of producing over 35 volts, though only with a current of 2 milliamps (Cohen, B.
(1931). The Bacterial Culture as an Electrical Half-Cell, Journal of Bacteriology, 21, pp18-19). Electricity
generation and waste water treatment using Microbial Fuel Cells are among such technologies (Ashley E.
Franks et al., 2010). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) provide a method of adding wastewater to the list of
renewable energy sources (Ashutosh Patra et al., 2008). MFCs are attractive for wastewater treatment,
because they could allow for harvesting energy from wastewater for producing electricity. The anaerobic
microbes required for MFCs are commonly found in wastewater (Lui et al., 2004; Min and Logan, 2004),
so influent wastewater could act as both a substrate and a source of microorganisms. Logan (2005)
estimates that electricity accounts for roughly 25% of the total operating costs of a wastewater treatment
plant. The wastewater from 100,000 people amounts to1.64*107 Liters/year from which MFCs could, at a
maximum, produce 2.3 MW/year (Logan, 2005 ) The discovery that bacteria can be used to produce
electricity from waste and renewable biomass (Bond et al., 2002) has gained much attention. Recently
the increased interest in microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology was highlighted by the naming of
Geobacter sulfurreducens KN400, a bacterial strain capable of high current production, as one of the top

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
2012 Vol. 2 (1) January-March, pp.17-27/Samatha and Durgesh
Research Article
50 most important inventions for 2009 by Time Magazine. The discovery that microbial metabolism
could provide energy in the form of an electrical current (Potter et al., 1910) has lead to an increasing
interest and a dramatic raise in the number of publications in the field of MFC research. These systems
are very adaptable and hold much promise to provide energy in a sustainable fashion.
A typical microbial fuel cell consists of anode and cathode compartments. In the anode compartment, fuel
is oxidized by microorganisms, generating electrons and protons. Electrons are transferred to the cathode
compartment through an external electric circuit, and the protons are transferred to the cathode
compartment through a separator. Electrons and protons are consumed in the cathode compartment,
combining with oxygen to form water. (Ashutosh Patra et al., 2008) As a result of these two half
reactions, a potential difference develops between the anode and the cathode and current flows in the
external circuit. The following equations illustrate the two half reactions and the equation (3) explains
overall oxidation/reduction reaction using a monosaccharide (e.g. glucose) as the organic matter.
Oxidation half reaction:
Microbes
C6H12O6 + 6H2O 6CO2 + 24H+ + 24e- ……………….. ……….. (1)

Reduction half reaction:

24H+ + 24e- + 6O2 12H2O …………………. ……..… (2)

Overall oxidation/reduction reaction:

Microbes
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O ……………… ………... (3)

MFCs rely on the activities of microorganisms that can directly transfer electrons to an anode using
cytochromes. Examples of microorganisms with this capability include Shewanella putrefaciens,
Geobacter sulfurreducens, Geobacter metallireducens, and Rhodoferax ferrireducens (Bond et al., 2002).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Microorganisms in a Microbial Fuel Cell
In its most basic form, a MFC is a device that uses microorganisms to generate an electrical current
through the oxidation of organic material (Figure 1). Microorganisms in the MFC metabolize organic
substrates and extracellularly transfer electrons to an electrode surface. The oxidation of the organic
material liberates both electrons and protons from the oxidized substrate. Electrons are transferred to the
anode and then to the cathode through an electrical network. The protons migrate to the cathode and
combine with the electron and a catholyte, a chemical such as oxygen, which is reduced at the cathode
surface. As such, an electrical current is generated in a fashion similar to a chemical fuel cell, but with
microbes acting as a catalyst on the anode surface as shown in Figure 1. Catalysts generally increase the
rate of a reaction without being changed by or receiving energy from the reaction they catalyze. The
microbes in a MFC are not true catalysts since they obtain energy from the oxidation of the substrate to
support their own growth and create an energy loss. Microbes in a MFC may gain all the energy and
carbon required for cellular growth from the oxidation of the complex organic material and as such MFC
technology has been considered self-sustaining (Lovley et al., 2006). As long as conditions remain
favorable for current production by the anode-associated microbes, a MFC has the potential to produce
electricity indefinitely.
A diverse range of microorganisms are found in association with substrates as shown in Table 1 in MFC
systems, especially when an environmental inoculum is used to seed the MFC .A general term for bacteria
associated with a surface is a biofilm.

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
2012 Vol. 2 (1) January-March, pp.17-27/Samatha and Durgesh
Research Article

Figure 1: A diagram of a MFC containing a graphite anode acting as an electron acceptor for
anaerobic microbial oxidation of organic compounds separated by a proton diffusion layer from an
aerobic graphite cathode (Lovley et al., 2006).

It is likely that not all of the organisms associated anode biofilm interact directly with the anode but may
interact indirectly through other members of the electrode community.

Table 1: Various Microbes and their applications which can be used in MFC with different
substrates.
Microbe Substrate Applications Reference
Actinobacillus Glucose Neutral red or Thionin Park et al.,
succinogenes as electron mediator (1999)
Aeromonas hydrophila Acetate Meediator-less MFC Pham et al.,
(2003)

Clostridium beijerinckii Starch, glucose, lactate, Fermentative Niessen et al.,

molasses bacterium (2004)
Clostridium butyricum Starch, glucose, lactate, Fermentative Park et al.,
molasses bacterium (2001)
Erwinia dissolven Glucose Ferric chelate complex Vega and
as mediators Femandez (1987)
Escherichia coli Glucose, sucrose Mediators such as Schroder et al.,
methylene blue needed (2003)
Geobacter Acetate Mediator-less MFC Min et al., (2005)
metallireducens
Geobacter Acetate Mediator-less MFC Bond and Lovely
sulfurreducens (2003)
Klebsiella pneumonia Glucose HNQ as mediator Rhoads et al.,
biomineralized (2005)
manganese as electron
acceptor

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
2012 Vol. 2 (1) January-March, pp.17-27/Samatha and Durgesh
Research Article
Lactobacillus plantarum Glucose Ferric chelate complex Vega and
as mediators Fernandez (1987)
Proteus mirabilis Glucose Thionin as mediator Choi et al.,
(2003)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Glucose Pyocyanin and Rabaey et al.,
phenazine-1- (2004)
carboxamide as
mediator
Rhodoferax Glucose, xylose, sucrose, Mediator-less MFC Chaudhuri and
ferrireducens maltose lovely (2003)
Shewanella oneidensis Lactate Anthraquinone 2,6 Ringeisen et al.,
disulfonate as (2006)
mediator
Shewanella putrfaciens Lactate, pyruvate, acetate, Mediator-less MFC Park and Zeikus
glucose (2002)
Streptococcus lactis Glucose Ferric chelate complex Vega and
as mediators Fernandez (1987)

Electrode Materials
The choice of electrode material affects the performance of MFCs various materials have been
investigated as electrodes to increase the performance and power output of the MFCs. For anode, carbon
cloth, carbon felt, graphite felt, carbon mesh and graphite fiber brush are frequently used due to their
stability, high electric conductivity and large surface area (Logan, 2010; Logan and Regan, 2006). For
cathodes, platinum (Pt), platinum black, activated carbon (AC), graphite based cathodes and bio cathodes
are used (Chen et al., 2008; Du et al., 2007). Though platinum coated electrodes are more efficient and
superior in power production due to higher catalytic activity with oxygen than other electrodes, they are
not cost effective. (Logan, 2010; Oh et al., 2004) Alternate catalysts for platinum include ferric iron,
manganese oxides, iron and cobalt based compounds. Ferricyanide (K3(Fe(CN)6) is frequently used as an
electron acceptor in the MFCs due to its good performance and low over potential (Logan and Regan,
2006). Bio cathodes increase the power by decreasing the over potential (Huang et al., 2011). Alternately,
the cathode can contain oxygen and is preferred because it simplifies the operation of the cell and is the
most commonly used electron acceptor in MFC. The power output depends on proton transfer from anode
to cathode. Transfer of protons to the cathode is a slow process that causes high internal resistance
(Kazuya, 2008; Osman et al., 2010). Most of the MFCs require a salt bridge or PEM to separate the anode
and cathode compartments. The PEM is commonly made from polymers like Nafion and Ultrex
(Schwartz, 2007). Although membrane-less, single chamber MFCs are reported to produce higher power
density, membrane absence would increase oxygen to the anode and thus lowers the coulombic efficiency
and bio electro catalytic activity of the microbes (Logan, 2010; Wen et al., 2010).
Substrate in MFC
Substrate provides not only energy for the bacterial cells to grow in the MFCs but also influences the
economic viability and overall performance such as power density and coulombic efficiency of MFCs.
The composition, concentration and type of the substrate also affect the microbial community and power
production which are shown in Table 2 (Cheng and Logan, 2011; Pant, 2010). Many organic substrates
including carbohydrates, proteins, volatile acids, cellulose and wastewater have been used as feed in MFC
studies. It can range from simple, pure, low molecular sugars to complex organic matter containing waste
water to generate electricity. In most of the MFCs, acetate is commonly used as a substrate due to its
inertness towards alternative microbial conversions (fermentations and methanogenesis) that lead to high
coulombic efficiency and power output (Pant, 2010). Power generated with acetate found to be higher
when compared with other substrate (Chae et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2005). Different substrate and their

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
2012 Vol. 2 (1) January-March, pp.17-27/Samatha and Durgesh
Research Article
columbic efficiency and power output have been reviewed by many authors (Lee et al., 2008; Niessen et
al., 2004; Pant, 2010; Zuo et al., 2006). However, the economics of substrate is not known.

Table 2: Different types of substrates and their current densities (Pant, 2010).
Substrate Concentration Current Density (mA/cm2 )
Acetate 1g/l 0.8
Lactate 18mM 0.005
Glucose 6.7mM 0.7
Sucrose 267mg/l 0.19
Phenol 400mg/l 0.1
Starch 10g/l 1.3
Cellulose particles 4g/l 0.02
Xylose 6.7mM 0.74
Domestic wastewater 600mg/l 0.06
Brewery Wastewater 2240mg/l 0.2

Key Findings
Identification of bacterial species such as Clostridium butyricum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa that
produces their own mediators reduced the addition of artificial chemical mediators to MFC for electron
transport from bacteria to the electrode (Osman et al., 2010). The direct communication of exoelectrogens
like Geobacter species that are capable of oxidizing organic compounds and their efficiency in
transferring electrons to electrodes via highly conductive filaments were considered remarkable in MFC
research (Derek R, 2008). Mixed bacterial cultures can produce power densities equal to pure cultures
(Liu et al., 2004) and gradual increases in power densities (Rabaey et al., 2003) accelerated the research
interest on MFCs. Wastewater as a fuel source while achieving waste water treatment has aided numerous
startups to focus on the commercial potential of MFC technology.
In Figure 2 and in Figure 3, it is clearly shown that how the operating conditions like pH, time and
resistance influence the current density. It is observed that at pH 7, current is maximum and as time
increases till sometime current increases and it will get reduces as per the m.

Figure 2: Variation of current density with pH (Zhang et al., 2009)

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Figure 3: Effect of resistance on current and columbic efficiency (Zhang et al., 2009).

Challenges
Low Power:
The major challenge in the application of MFCs is its low power density. The voltage generated by MFC
is so low that it can only be used in limited applications and the actual current densities that can be
generated are not yet known. Saldago (2009) reported that the current generation is only 14mA, which
could power only small devices. Kim et al., (2007) reported that even using similar biocatalyst and
substrate showed differences in the power density. Abhijeet el al., (2009) reported that the power obtained
from MFCs is about 300 Wm3 which is low for commercial applications.
Microbe/electrode Interaction:
Though the electron transfer mechanism is understood in some bacteria, further research is needed to
create genetically engineered strains to generate more current (Lovely 2008). Current production by
bacteria in MFC is a complex process that is regulated by more than few genes and requires further
insight into the process of electron transfer (Franks and Nevin, 2010). Cheng Iting et al., (2006) reported
that befouling of cathode affect MFC performance. As the electrode properties affect microorganism
wiring and MFC performance, there is a need to develop higher catalytic material with superior
performance to avoid befouling, corrosion and other degradation mechanisms of electrodes (Huang et al.,
2011).
Large Scale:
The main challenge in implementing MFC on a large scale is in maintaining low costs, minimizing
hazards while maximizing power generation (Schwartz, 2007). The performance of the MFCs is
influenced by current, power density, fuel oxidation rate, loading rate and coulombic efficiency (Balat,
2009; Kim et al., 2007). The power density is affected by high internal resistance or over potential related
ohmic, activation and mass transfer losses (Logan and Regan, 2006) whereas the fuel oxidation rate is
influenced by anode catalytic activity, fuel diffusion, proton and electron diffusion and consumption

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
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Research Article
(Balat, 2009). Min et al., (2005) described that diffusion of oxygen into the anode chamber lowers the
coulombic efficiency by more than half (55% to 19%) and reduces the power output. It has also been
suggested that coulombic efficiency and maximum theoretical amount of energy depend on complete
oxidation of substrate to CO2 (Franks and Nevin, 2010). Geothrix fermentans and Geobacter has the
ability to oxidize the substrate completely (94-100% coulombic efficiency by oxidizing acetate), whereas
Shewanella oneidensis has only partial oxidation ability (56%). The internal resistance can be minimized
by reducing the electrode spacing, increasing the electrode surface area, using highly selective proton
membrane and increasing catalyst activity (Oh and Logan, 2006). Liu et al., (2005) showed that closer
electrode spacing increased the power density by 68%. Chaudhuri and Lovely (2003) described threefold
increase in current with larger surface area of electrode material. The performance is also affected by
factors such as pH, temperature, substrate, and micro bial activity, resistance of circuit and electrode
material. Yong Yuan et al., (2011) found that alkaline conditions (pH 9) favor electricity generation by
enhancing electron transfer efficiency. However, Gil et al., (2003) reported that the highest current was
obtained in the pH 7 -pH 8 range but not at pH 9. Oh and Logan (2007) reported that voltage reversal5 is
a problem in fuel cells due to substrate starvation in cells that resulted in reduced power generation. High
resistance remains a barrier in MFCs (Nwogu, 2007). The power density decreases as the system size
increases and further improvements are needed to construct highly efficient reactors with reduced internal
resistance and electrode over-potential to maximize power in large scale systems (Cheng and Logan,
2011).5Voltage reversal: When the voltage in the cells is not matched or when one cell suffers the loss of
fuel or shows higher resistance than other cells.
Other Factors:
One of the limited factors is cost of the electrode and membrane materials like Nafion. However, reviews
suggest that low cost materials are being tested to reduce the cost with slightly reduced performance
(Logan, 2010).
Polarization resistance of anode and slow rate of proton movement from the biofilm to cathode and
accumulation within the biofilm inhibits power production (Franks and Nevin, 2010; Wen et al., 2010).
Cathode is an important factor for better performance of MFCs but oxygen reduction at the cathode
occurs at a very slow pace that leads to high over potential, which is a limiting factor in obtaining high
current density (Kim 2008).
Optimizing MFC conditions and it performance needs to be evaluated over time to identify the variations
such as change in fuel composition, build-up of metabolites and electrode fouling that affect the
performance in large scale applications (Osman et al., 2010).
Better understanding of fluid flow, ion migration and its concentration, proton mass transfer and bio-
chemical pathway used by the exo-electricigens for higher metabolic rate and transfer of electrons to
acceptors outside the cell need further investigation.
Potential Applications for Microbial Fuel Cells
One of the most active areas of MFC research is the production of power from wastewaters combined
with the oxidation of organic or inorganic compounds. Studies are demonstrating that any compound
degradable by bacteria can be converted into electricity (Pant et al., 2010). The ability of the MFC
microbial communities to degrade a wide range of environmental pollutants may be more valuable than
production of electricity itself in certain settings, especially when the MFC technology can be used for
environmental cleanup in situ. Geobacter species have been shown to be important in the anaerobic
degradation of petroleum components and landfill leach ate contaminants in ground water. The use of an
electrode as an electron acceptor in the soil is attractive, as the microbes responsible for degradation will
co-localize with the contaminant at the graphite anode. Once in position the electrode can provide a
continuous long-term electron sink for the degradation of the harmful environmental contaminants. In this
setting the electrons produced by the microbes in the form of current is irrelevant when compared to the
increased rates of bioremediation. Likewise experiments have shown that MFCs may potential be able to
remove fermentation inhibitors which accumulate in process water after the pretreatment of cellulosic

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
2012 Vol. 2 (1) January-March, pp.17-27/Samatha and Durgesh
Research Article
biomass .The removal of the inhibitors allows for increased fermentation product yields while providing
small amounts of energy. An unusual application for MFC technology is to power implanted medical
devices using glucose and oxygen from blood. An implanted MFC could provide power indefinitely and
negate the need for surgery to replace batteries. Abiotic fuel cells based on noble metal catalysts and
activated carbon have been demonstrated to produce energy from blood glucose in vitro and in .Fuel cells
based on enzymatic catalysts have also been shown to operate under physiological conditions but still
require much improvement to become viable .Interest has also been expressed in using human white
blood cells as a source of electrons for an anode (Calabrese Barton S et al., 2004). Experiments using
white blood cells in phosphate-buffered saline solution with a ferric-cyanide cathode produced a low
current level of 1-3 μAcm−2 but it could not determine if electron transport to the anode was through a
direct or indirect process.
Future Outlook
MFC is a promising technology for bioelectricity generation and waste water treatment. Recent research
and development and analysis of literature review show that higher power densities can be obtained from
improved MFC designs with the use of cost effective materials. Intensive research on this topic
significantly reduced the complexity of rate-limiting steps which in turn has enhanced higher current
output. Some companies (MFC Tech, Opencel) have emerged to use MFC technology for fuel and other
potential applications including remote power, bioremediation and biosensors (Caspermeyer, 2011; MFC
Tech) proving that this technology could have greater impact in development of clean energy with waste
water treatment within a few years.
Players and Research
In recent years, there are many research projects worldwide exploring MFC as a new source of energy. As
a result of rapid advances in MFC research, several research publications have been reported in peer
reviewed journals. Logan (2010) reported that the citation on the topic MFC have increased from 2,415 to
10,700 within a few years (2002-2009). A number of recently established startups and academic groups
have collaborated to explore the commercial applications of MFC. Cambridge based Int Act’s lab
(Cambrian Innovation) obtained funding from National Science Foundation (NSF) and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture for developing MFCs for wastewater treatment projects. It has plans to startup
a pilot plant for wastewater remediation. Similarly, Lebone, which was founded in 2007, obtained
$200,000 grant from the World Bank and launched a pilot program in Tanzania and Namibia using MFC
technology to provide power to small equipments like cell phone chargers and LEDs (Craven, 2010). The
University of Glamorgan, UK has been awarded one million dollars for microbial fuel cell research to
develop sustainable power (Lane, 2010). Emefcy, an Israeli biotechnology company is developing MFCs
for electricity generation from wastewater and has plans for commercial implementation of MFCs by
2012 (Clary, 2011). Bruce Logan’s groups at Penn state universities is funded by ARPA-E for
development of fuel using Rhodobacter (Logan) and have collaborations with National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL) and the Department of Energy (DOE) for fuel cell development. There are
many research projects worldwide including academia and companies that are exploring MFC on a
variety of technical aspects. As noted earlier there are several groups working on MFC, this table is a non-
comprehensive list of players and their research.

CONCLUSION
MFCs are a promising technology for the production of electricity from organic material and wastes.
Currently limited applications are possible because of low MFC power output. An understanding of the
microbiology of the current producing process is required before further advances in power output are
possible. The proton accumulation within the bio film and over potential at the cathode is the two major
problems which have to be addressed. MFCs where current production is not the major advantage, but
wastewater treatment or bioremediation using a cathode or anode maybe much more promising then the
electrical production of the MFC itself.

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CIBTech Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 2319-3859 (Online)
An Online International Journal Available at http://www.cibtech.org/cjb.htm
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