Indraprastha Institute of

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Lecture – 7 Date: 21.01.2016

• Vector Arithmetic (Review)

• Coordinate System and Transformations
• Examples
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Vector Addition
Q: Say we add two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 together; what is the result?
A: The addition of two vectors results in another vector,
which we will denote as 𝐶. Therefore, we can say: A B C

The magnitude and direction of 𝐶 is determined by the head-to-tail rule.

This is not a provable result, rather the head-to-tail rule is the
definition of vector addition. This definition is used because it has
many applications in physics.
Some important properties of vector addition:
1. Vector addition is commutative: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
2. Vector addition is associative: 𝑋 + 𝑌 + 𝑍 = 𝑋 + (𝑌 + 𝑍) = 𝐾
From these two properties, we can conclude that the addition of several
vectors can be executed in any order
• We consider the addition of a negative vector as a subtraction.
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Vector Multiplication
• Consider a scalar quantity a and a vector quantity 𝐵. We
aB  C
express the multiplication of these two values as:
In other words, the product of a scalar and a vector is a vector!

Q: OK, but what is vector 𝐶? What is the meaning of 𝐶?

A: The resulting vector 𝐶 has a magnitude that is equal to a
C a B
times the magnitude of 𝐵. In other words:
The direction of vector 𝐶 is exactly that of 𝐵.
→ Jut to reiterate, multiplying a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of
the vector, but not its direction.
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Multiplication (contd.)
Some important properties of vector multiplication:

1. The scalar-vector multiplication is distributive: aB  bB   a  b  B

2. also distributive as: 
aB  aC  a B  C 
3. Scalar-Vector multiplication is also commutative: aB  Ba

4. Multiplication of a vector by a negative scalar is

interpreted as:
 
aB  a  B

5. Division of a vector by a scalar is the same as B 1

  B
multiplying the vector by the inverse of the scalar: a a
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Unit Vector
• Lets begin with vector 𝐴. Say we divide this vector by its A
aˆ A 
magnitude (a scalar value). We create a new vector, which A
we will denote as 𝑎𝐴:
Q: How is vector 𝑎𝐴 related to vector 𝐴?
• But, the A
A: Since we divided 𝐴 by a scalar value, the magnitude of aˆ A   1
vector 𝑎𝐴 has the same direction as vector 𝐴. A
𝑎𝐴 is:

The vector 𝑎𝐴 has a magnitude equal to one! We call such a

vector a unit vector.
• A unit vector is essentially a description of direction only, as its
magnitude is always unit valued (i.e., equal to one). Therefore:
• |𝐴|is a scalar value that describes the magnitude of vector 𝐴.
• 𝑎𝐴 is a vector that describes the direction of 𝐴.
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The Dot Product
• The dot product of two vectors, 𝐴 and 𝐵, is denoted as 𝐴 . 𝐵

A.B  A B cos AB
θAB 𝐵
𝐴
angle θAB is the angle formed between the
vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵. A.B  A B cos AB

• Note also that the dot product is commutative: A.B  A B cos AB

• The dot product of a vector with

itself is equal to the magnitude A.B  B. A 0   AB  
of the vector squared.
• If 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 0 (and 𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝐵 ≠ 0), then it must be true that: A.B  B. A
•
2
If 𝐴 . 𝐵 = |𝐴||𝐵|, then it must be true that: A.A  A . A cos0  A

• The dot product is distributive with addition: A  A. A

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The Cross Product
• The cross product of two vectors, 𝐴 and 𝐵, is denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵.

A  B  aˆn A B sin  AB 0   AB  

Just as with the dot product, the angle θAB θAB

is the angle between the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐴 𝐵
𝐵.The unit vector 𝑎𝑛 is orthogonal to both
𝐴 and 𝐵(i.e., 𝑎𝑛.𝐴 =0 and 𝑎𝑛.𝐵 =0.) 𝐴 ×𝐵

IMPORTANT NOTE: The cross product is an operation involving two

vectors, and the result is also a vector. e.g.,:
𝐴 ×𝐵 =𝐶
• The magnitude of vector 𝐴 × 𝐵 is therefore: A  B  A B sin  AB

While the direction of vector 𝐴 × 𝐵 is described by unit vector 𝑎𝑛.

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The Cross Product (contd.)
Problem! There are two unit vectors that satisfy the equations
𝑎𝑛 . 𝐴 =0 and 𝑎𝑛 . 𝐵 =0!! These two vectors are
antiparallel.

𝑎𝑛2 A.aˆn1  A.aˆn 2  0 A.aˆn1  A.aˆn 2  0 B.aˆn1  B.aˆn 2  0

𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 ×𝐵

𝑎𝑛1
𝐴

Q: Which unit vector is correct?

A: Use the right-hand rule

𝐵
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The Cross Product (contd.)
1. If θAB = 90ο (i.e., orthogonal), then: A  B  aˆn A B sin 90  aˆn A B

2. If θAB = 0ο (i.e., parallel), then: A  B  aˆn A B sin 0  0

Note that 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝟎 also if θAB = 180ο.

3. The cross product is not commutative! In other words, 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴.
While evaluating the cross product of two vectors,
𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ −(𝐵 × 𝐴)
the order is important !

4. The negative of the cross product is: ( A  B )  A  (  B )

5. The cross product is also not associative: 

A B  C  A B  C 
6. But, the cross product is distributive, in that: A   B  C    A  B    A  C 
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The Triple Product
• The triple product is not a “new” operation, as it is simply a combination
of the dot and cross products.
• For example, the triple product of vectors 𝐴 , 𝐵 , and 𝐶 is denoted as:

A.B  C

Q: Yikes! Does this mean:  A.B   C OR 

A. B  C 
A: The answer is easy! Only one of these two interpretations makes sense:

 A.B   C  Scalar X Vector makes no sense

 
A. B  C  Vector . Vector dot product
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The Position Vector

• Consider a point whose location in space is specified with Cartesian
coordinates (e.g., P(x, y, z)). Now consider the directed distance (a vector
quantity!) extending from the origin to this point.

P(x, y, z) This particular directed distance—a

vector beginning at the origin and
𝑟 extending outward to a point—is a very
important and fundamental directed
distance known as the position vector 𝑟

• Using the Cartesian coordinate system, the position

vector can be explicitly written as:
r  xaˆ x  yaˆ y  zaˆ z
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The Position Vector (contd.)

• Note that given the coordinates of some point (e.g., x =1, y =2, z =-3), we
can easily determine the corresponding position vector (e.g., 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑥 +
2𝑎𝑦 − 3𝑎𝑧).
• Moreover, given some specific position vector (e.g., 𝑟 = 4𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧), we
can easily determine the corresponding coordinates of that point (e.g., x
=0, y =4, z =-2).
• In other words, a position vector 𝑟 is an alternative way to denote the
location of a point in space! We can use three coordinate values to
specify a point’s location, or we can use a single position vector 𝑟.

𝑃(𝑟)
I see! The position vector is essentially
a pointer. Look at the end of the
vector, and you will find the point
specified!
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The magnitude of 𝑟
• Note the magnitude of any and all position vectors is:

r  r .r  x 2  y 2  z 2  r

Q: Hey, this makes perfect sense!

Doesn’t the coordinate value r have a
physical interpretation as the distance
between the point and the origin?

A: That’s right! The magnitude of a directed distance vector is equal to the

distance between the two points—in this case the distance between the
specified point and the origin!
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The Distance Vector

𝑅12 = 𝑃1 𝑃2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑅12 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑎𝑥 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑎𝑦 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑎𝑧

𝑑 = 𝑅12
𝑅12

𝑅1
𝑅2
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Example – 1
In Cartesian coordinates, Vector 𝐴 points from the origin to point 𝑃1 =
(2, 3, 3), and Vector 𝐵 is directed from 𝑃1 to point 𝑃2 = (1, −2, 2). Find:

(a) Vector 𝐴, its magnitude A, and unit vector 𝑎.

(b) The angle between 𝐴 and the y-axis.
(c) Vector 𝐵
(d) The angle 𝜃𝐴𝐵 between 𝐴 and 𝐵.
(e) Then find the angle 𝜃𝐴𝐵 from the cross product between 𝐴 and 𝐵.
(f) The perpendicular distance from the origin to Vector 𝐵
(g) Find the angle between Vector 𝐵 and the z-axis.
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Example – 2
• Find the distance vector between 𝑃1 = (1, 2, 3) and 𝑃2 = (−1, −2, 3)
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Example – 3
• Vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 lie in the y-z plane and both have the same magnitude of
2. Determine (a) 𝐴. 𝐵 and (b) 𝐴 × 𝐵.

𝐴
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Example – 4
• If 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐶 then does it mean that 𝐵 = 𝐶 ? ?
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Example – 5
• Given 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑧 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝐶 = −2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑧

Find (𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶 and compare it with 𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶)

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Cartesian Coordinates
• Note the coordinate values in the
Cartesian system effectively
represent the distance from a plane Z-axis
intersecting the origin.
• For example, x =3 means that the
point is 3 units from the y-z plane 2
(i.e., the x = 0 plane). 3
• Likewise, the y coordinate provides P (2, 3, 2.5)
P (0, 0, 0)
the distance from the x-z (y=0) 2.5 Y-axis
plane, and the z coordinate provides
the distance from the x-y (z =0)
plane.
• Once all three distances are
X-axis
specified, the position of a point is
uniquely identified.
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Cylindrical Coordinates
• You’re also familiar with polar coordinates. In two dimensions, we specify
a point with two scalar values, generally called ρ and φ.
We can extend this to 3-dimensions, by adding a third
scalar value z. This method for identifying the position of a
point is referred to as cylindrical coordinates.
Y-axis Z-axis

P (ρ, φ, z)
P (ρ, φ)

ρ Y-axis

φ
X-axis

X-axis
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Cylindrical Coordinates
Note the physical significance of each
parameter of cylindrical coordinates:
1. The value ρ indicates the distance of Z
the point from the z-axis (0 ≤ ρ<∞).
2. The value φ indicates the rotation
3 P (3, 60ο, 2.5)
angle around the z-axis (0≤φ<2π),
precisely the same as the angle φ used 60ο
in spherical coordinates. 2.5
3. The value z indicates the distance of
the point from the x-y (z = 0) plane
(−∞<z<∞), precisely the same as the
coordinate z used in Cartesian P (0, φ, 0)
coordinates.
4. Once all three values are specified, the
position of a point is uniquely
identified.
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Spherical Coordinates
• Geographers specify a location
on the Earth’s surface using three
scalar values: longitude, latitude,
and altitude.
• Both longitude and latitude are
angular measures, while altitude
Z-axis
is a measure of distance.
• Latitude, longitude, and altitude
P (r, θ, φ)
are similar to spherical
coordinates.
• Spherical coordinates consist of
Y-axis
one scalar value (r), with units of
distance, while the other two
scalar values (θ, φ) have angular
units (degrees or radians).
X-axis
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Spherical Coordinates
• For spherical coordinates, r (0≤r<∞)
expresses the distance of the point
from the origin (i.e., similar to
altitude). P (3, 45 ο, 60ο)
• Angle θ (0 ≤θ ≤π) represents the angle θ = 45ο
formed with the z-axis (i.e., similar to
P (0, θ, φ) r=3
latitude).
• Angle φ (0≤φ<2π) represents the
rotation angle around the z-axis,
φ = 60ο
precisely the same as the cylindrical
coordinate φ (i.e., similar to
longitude).

Thus, using spherical coordinates, a point in space can be

unambiguously defined by one distance and two angles.
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Coordinate Transformations
• Say we know the location of a point, or the description of some scalar
field in terms of Cartesian coordinates (e.g., T (x, y, z)).
• What if we decide to express this point or this scalar field in terms of
cylindrical or spherical coordinates instead?
• We see that the coordinate values z, ρ, r, and θ are all variables of a right
triangle! We can use our knowledge of trigonometry to relate them to
each other.
• In fact, we can completely derive the relationship between all six
independent coordinate values by considering just two very important
right triangles!
• Hint: Memorize these 2 triangles!!!
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Coordinate Transformations (contd.)

Right Triangle #1
z  r  cos    cot   r 2   2

ρ   r  sin   z  tan   r 2  z 2

z
r   2  z 2    cos ec  z  sec
θ r

    z
  tan 1    sin 1    cos 1  
z r r 
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Coordinate Transformations (contd.)

Right Triangle #2

Y
x    cos   y  cot    2  y 2

ρ
y y    sin   x  tan    2  x 2

ϕ
x X
  x 2  y 2  x  s ec  y  cos ec

 y y x
  tan 1    sin 1    cos 1  
x    
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Coordinate Transformations (contd.)
Combining the results of the two triangles allows us to write
each coordinate set in terms of each other

• Cartesian and Cylindrical • Cartesian and Spherical

 x y 2 2 r  x2  y 2  z 2
 
 y   cos  2
1 z

  tan  
1

x  x  y  z 
2 2

zz
 y
  tan 1  
x

x    cos 
x  r  sin   cos 
y    sin 
y  r  sin   sin 
zz
z  r  cos
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Coordinate Transformations
• Cylindrical and Spherical
r   2  z2
  r  sin 
   
  tan 1  
z  r  cos z
 
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Example – 1
• Say we have denoted a point in space (using Cartesian Coordinates) as
𝑃 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = −3, 𝑧 = 2 .
• Let’s instead define this same point using cylindrical coordinates 𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧.
 3 
  (3) 2  (3) 2  3 2   tan 1    45 z2
 3 

Therefore, the location of this point can perhaps be defined also as

𝑃 ρ = 3 2, ϕ = 45ο, 𝑧 = 2 .

Q: Wait! Something has gone horribly

wrong. Coordinate ϕ = 45ο indicates that
point P is located in quadrant-I, whereas
the coordinates x =-3, y =-3 tell us it is in
fact in quadrant-III!
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Example – 1 (contd.)
A: The problem is in the interpretation of the inverse tangent!
Remember that 0≤ϕ<360ο, so that we must do a four quadrant inverse
tangent. Your calculator likely only does a two quadrant inverse tangent
(i.e., 90ο≤ϕ≤−90ο), so be careful!
1  3  
Therefore, if we correctly find the coordinate ϕ:   tan  3   225

The location of point P can be expressed as

either 𝑃 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = −3, 𝑧 = 2 or
𝑃 ρ = 3 2, ϕ = 225ο, 𝑧 = 2 .
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Example – 2
Coordinate transformation on a Scalar field

• Consider the scalar field (i.e., scalar function): g (  , , z )   3 z sin 

rewrite this function in terms of Cartesian coordinates.

• Note that since   x  y 2 2

  x  y
3 2

2 3/2

• Now, what about sinϕ?

 y
We know that   tan   , We might be tempted to write:
1

x

  y 
Technically correct, this is one
sin   sin  tan 1    ugly expression. We can
  x 
instead turn to one of the very
important right triangles that
we discussed earlier
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Example – 2 (contd.)
Y

From this triangle, it is apparent that:

ρ
y sin  
y
x2  y 2
ϕ
x X

As a result, the scalar field can be written in Cartesian

coordinates as:

g ( x, y , z )   x  y  z   x 2  y 2  yz
2 2 3/2 y
x2  y 2
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Example – 2 (contd.)
Although the scalar fields: g (  , , z)   z sin  and
3 g ( x, y, z )   x 2  y 2  yz

look very different, they are in fact exactly the same functions—only
expressed using different coordinate variables.
• For example, if you evaluate each of the scalar fields at the point
described earlier, you will get exactly the same result!

g ( x  3, y  3, z  2)  108

g (   3 2,  225 , z  2)  108