Concepts of Applications for Effective Learning

Learning
Knowing
Yourself as a  Know how you learn best and adapt the study strategies that work best for
Learner you.
 Choose the best learning strategy for the task at hand.
 Monitor your understanding and progress as you go along.
 Adjust strategies when appropriate.
 Web sites on learning styles, metacognition (knowing how you know) and
learning disabilities.
 Find out more about the Study Skills Course.
Getting the Big
Picture &  Read the course syllabus for an overview of the course.
Dealing with  Preview the whole text to get an overview of course content.
Details  Outline (Cornell notes) or map each chapter before you read in detail or go
to class.
 Read/listen for the introduction and summary.
 Review your outlines or maps before tests.
 Preview the test before starting, then plan your strategy
Breaking Tasks
into Meaningful  Break up study into 45 minute to 1 hour chunks.
Chunks  Break up reading or study by units of information ( i.e., chapters or topics).
 Label information in text books and in your notes.
 Connect new information to maps or outlines to keep it connected with
other related information.
 Look for relationships-- i.e., categories, cause-effect, similarities/differences,
etc. Use cognitive questions and visual organizers to assist understanding
and memory.
 Study by reviewing main ideas and details from flash cards and Cornell notes.
Questioning and
Using Cognitive  Determine your purpose for reading or for the task.
Structures  Ask, "What do I already know about this task or subject?"
 Use questions at the end of the chapter or develop questions from headings
to focus on important information as you read.
 Monitor your understanding as you read or listen to lectures.
 Use questions at all cognitive levels to help yourself process and remember
information.
 Ask: "Does this answer make sense?"
 Ask for help if you need it.
Memory and the
Importance of  "Use it, or lose it". Go over material frequently.
Review  Focus on the material and information that is most important.
 Use index cards and maps or Cornell notes for quick, convenient review.
 Analyze past tests to improve your test-taking skills.
 Use mnemonic devices to assist memory of important information.
 Watson coined the term "Behaviorism" in 1913.
Behaviorism assumes that behavior is observable
John B. Watson (1878 to 1958) and can be correlated with other observable
Behaviorism events.Thus, there are events that precede and
follow behavior. Behaviorism's goal is to explain
Biography relationships between antecedent conditions
(stimuli), behavior (responses), and consequences
John Broadus Watson was born in 1878 in (reward, punishment, or neutral effect).
Greenville, South Carolina, to Emma and Pickens
Watson.
Watson's theory was more concerned with effects
He earned his Bachelor's degree at the University of of stimuli. He derived much of his thinking from
Chicago, and In 1903 he received his doctorate and Pavlov's animal studies (classical conditioning). this
later became an associate professor of psychology is also referred to as "learning through stimulus
at Johns Hopkins University. He wrote his
substitution," a reference to the substitution of one
dissertation about the relation between behavior in
the white rat and the growth of the nervous system. stimulus for another. For example, the ringing of a
bell eventually produced the same response as food
In the first years of the 20th Century, the field of for Pavlov's dogs.
psychology was in disagreement over the ideas of
the nature of consciousness and the methods of
studying it. In 1913 at Columbia University, Watson Aspects of Watson's theory:
delivered a lecture entitled "Psychology as the • He opposed mentalistic concepts
Behaviorist Views It." He claimed that the problem • He used contiguity to explain learning
was the use of archaic methods such as • He considered emotion to be just another
introspection, and inappropriate subject matter. example of classical conditioning
Instead, he proposed the idea of an objective study • He rejected the notion of individual differences
of behavior called "behaviorism." He saw • He thought complex behaviors came about
psychology as the study of people's actions with the through combinations of identifiable reflexes
ability to predict and control those actions. This • He was a chief proponent of "nurture" and
new idea became known as the behaviorist theory. believed that all human differences were the result
His view of behaviorism was considered radical and of learning
was known for its extreme anti-mentalism, its • He believed that practice strengthens learning
radical reduction of thinking to implicit response, While Watson's position fell short of his goal of
and its heavy and somewhat simplistic reliance on explaining human learning, his work is now
conditioned reactions. considered as an early beginning of the
development of learning science.
In his earlier research Watson used animal subjects
and later shifted to the study of human behaviors Learning Theory Bibliography
and emotions at Johns Hopkins University. He
wanted to develop techniques to allow him to Lefrancois, 1972
`condition and control the emotions of human Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviorist
subjects. He theorized that children have three Views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177.
basic emotional reactions: fear, rage, and love. He Watson, J. (1928). The ways of behaviorism. New
left academia to pursue an interest in advertising. York, NY: Harper & Brothers Pub.

Theory
Behaviorism (John B. Watson – 1913) Watson’s initial research focused on animal subjects
such as rats (1903), rabbits (Watson & Watson,
Thorndike and Pavlov provided important 1913), birds (e.g., 1907; 1908a; 1910), and monkeys
contributions to behavioral psychology, but it was (1908b; 1909). But by the year 1919 he had been
John B. Watson (1878-1958) who championed the able to apply the same experimental procedures to
popular behaviorist movement. Pavlov’s the study of man—the goal he had established for
contribution was made from the discipline of himself in his 1913 article. This article has come to
physiology and was somewhat indirect. His be referred to as the Behaviorist Manifesto.
connection with American behavioral psychology
was initially made by Watson, who felt that Pavlov’s Through his own efforts and through the reports of
experiments provided a good example of a sound other researchers working in the same field,
experimental method used to observe the Watson collected data through “daily observation of
conditioning process of the secretory reflex, by several hundred infants from birth, through the first
monitoring the flow of saliva (Watson, 1916, p. 92; thirty days of infancy and of a smaller number
1928, p. 35; 1930, p. 50). As for Thorndike, it is through the first years of childhood” (Watson, 1930,
unlikely that he would have labeled himself a p. 118). From this data he concluded that “young
‘behaviorist’, since it wasn’t until 1913 that the children taken at random from homes of both the
term began to come into vogue. This new term, and poor and of the well-to-do do not make good
the perspective on the study of psychology to which subjects” (p. 149) because their behavior was too
it referred, quickly became the dominating school complex. His solution to this problem was to study
of psychology in American universities. It was in his hospital-reared children belonging to wet nurses.
article entitled, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views Perhaps his most famous experiments were those
It, that Watson (1913) positioned behavioral conducted to establish conditioned emotional
psychology as “a purely objective experimental responses in “Little Albert” by exposing him to
branch of natural science” with a “theoretical goal” various small animals and simultaneously sounding
of “prediction and control of behavior” (p. 158). a loud noise that had been found to elicit crying.
Watson (1928) more plainly defined behaviorism by Through repeated pairing of the animals with the
saying that, noise, the animals themselves came to elicit
responses of fear, crying, and avoidance behavior—
Behaviorism is the scientific study of human where previously they had not (Watson & Rayner,
behavior. Its real goal is to provide the basis for 1920). Several other experiments conducted with
prediction and control of human beings: Given the children are accounted in Watson’s 1930
situation, to tell what the human being will do; publication entitled, Behaviorism.
given the man in action, to be able to say why he is
reacting in that way. (p. 2) Watson’s perspective on learning—i.e., his theory of
habit formation—is illustrated in the following
Later, in reflecting on the behaviorist movement, he example generalized from his observations of
wrote, several children in similar situations:

Behaviorism, as I tried to develop it in my lectures To make the whole process a little more concrete,
at Columbia in 1912 and in my earliest writings, was let us put in front of the three-year-old child, whose
an attempt to do one thing—to apply to the habits of manipulation are well established, a
experimental study of man the same kind of problem box—a box that can be opened only after a
procedure and the same language of description certain thing has been done; for example, he has to
that many research men had found useful for so press inward a small wooden button. Before we
many years in the study of animals lower than man. hand it to him, we show him the open box
(Watson, 1930, p. v) containing several small pieces of candy and then
we close it and tell him that if he opens it he may Watson.[1] The first two are frequency and recency.
have a piece of candy. This situation is new to him. The remaining seven are
None of his previously learned formed manipulation
habits will completely and instantly work in this 3. Conditioning is a process of stimulus substitution:
situation. None of his unlearned reactions will help “The [conditioned stimulus] now becomes a
him very much. What does he do? That depends substitute stimulus—it will call out the [response]
upon his previous organization. If well organized by whenever it stimulates the subject” (p. 21)
previous handling of toys, he goes at the problem at
once—(1) he picks the box up, (2) he pounds it on 4. The process of conditioning is ubiquitous, “So far
the floor, (3) he drags it round and round, (4) he as we know we can substitute another stimulus for
pushes it up against the base-board, (5) he turns it any stimulus calling out a standard reaction” (p. 22).
over, (6) he strikes it with his fist. In other words, he Thus, learning never produces truly new responses.
does everything he has learned to do in the past in “The organism starts out life with more unit
similar situations. He displays his whole repertoire responses than it needs” (p. 24). The process that
of acts—brings all of his previously acquired appears to establish new responses “concerns itself
organization to bear upon the new problem. Let us really with stimulus substitutions and not reaction
suppose that he has 50 learned and unlearned substitutions (pp. 25-26).
separate responses at his command. At one time or Laws 5-9 came from Pavlov, by way of G. V. Anrep
another during his first attempt to open the box, let (Watson does not give a reference).
us assume that he displays, as he will, nearly all of 5. “Conditioned responses [may be] temporary and
them before he pushes the button hard enough to unstable. After periods of no practice they cease to
release the catch. The time the whole process takes, work [but they can] be quickly reestablished.”
we will say, is about twenty minutes. When he 6. “The substituted stimulus can be made [so
opens it, we give him his bit of candy, close up the specific that no] other stimulus of its class will then
box and hand it to him again. The next time he call out the reflex.” But, in apparent contradiction
makes fewer movements; the third time fewer still. to this idea, Watson also noted that conditioned
In 10 trials or less he can open the box without responses generalize (transfer) to similar
making a useless movement and he can open it in conditioned stimuli.
two seconds. (Watson, 1930, p. 204) 7. “The magnitude of the response is dependent
upon the strength of the [conditioned] stimulus”.
Watson explained this instance of learning—the 8. “There is a marked summation effect. If a dog is
ability to open the box with increasing speed and conditioned separately to [two stimuli], there is a
with fewer and fewer useless movements—as a marked increase in the [strength of the response] if
function of frequency and recency. The act that is the stimuli are given simultaneously.”
performed most frequently persists while the rest 9. “Conditioned responses can be ‘extinguished’”
die away. The act that has been performed most (pp. 28-29).
recently is more likely to appear sooner in the next
succeeding trial. Watson’s explanation of recency Though Watson’s role as the recognized founder of
and frequency as the basis for habit formation was behaviorism as a school of psychology is clear
criticized by some writers, and specific experiments (Morris & Todd, 1999), his impact on educational
were performed to demonstrate the inadequacy of learning theory is limited, as evidenced by the (at
these two factors alone to account for learning best) tangential coverage he is given in
(Gengerelli, 1928). However, these factors do not comprehensive books on learning theory (e.g.,
form Watson’s complete picture of learning. In his Bohlin et al., 2009; Bower & Hilgard, 1981; Driscoll,
introduction to a republication of Watson’s 2000; Eggen & Kauchak, 1999; Hilgard, 1948;
Behaviorism (Watson & Kimble, 2002, p. xii) Kimble O’Donnell et al., 2007; Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009;
lists nine hypothetical laws of learning identified by Ormrod, 2003; Sternberg & Williams, 2010;
Woolfolk, 2010). Perhaps this is because his
explanation of frequency and recency was never behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal
fully accepted as sufficient to account for learning, thoughts and motivations)
and because his other laws—as summarized by
Kimble—weren’t really unique, with most of them Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and
having been adopted without change from Pavlov. negative. We will explain this below.
Positive and negative reinforcers

Positive reinforcers are favorable events or

outcomes that are given to the individual after the
Contributors desired behavior. This may come in the form of
praise, rewards, etc.
Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner (1904 – 1990) Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by
Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936) the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome
after the desired behavior. A response is
Key Concepts strengthened as something considered negative is
removed.
What is the difference between operant
conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is
conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed for the behavior to increase.
by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary Positive and negative punishment
response (e.g. studying for an exam) is more likely
to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of
conditioning is when a stimulus automatically something undesirable attempts to cause a
triggers an involuntary response. decrease in the behavior that follows.
Operant Conditioning
Positive punishment is when unfavorable events
Operant conditioning can be described as a process or outcomes are given in order to weaken the
that attempts to modify behavior through the use response that follows.
of positive and negative reinforcement. Through Negative punishment is characterized by when an
operant conditioning, an individual makes an favorable event or outcome is removed after a
association between a particular behavior and a undesired behavior occurs.
consequence[2].
The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for
Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent a behavior to decrease.
grades with candy or some other prize.
Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to
those students who are the most calm and well- DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNING
behaved. Students eventually realize that when
they voluntarily become quieter and better The relationship between theories of learning and
behaved, that they earn more points. educational practices is complicated by the reality
Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as that there is more than one type of learning. None
food) is given to an animal every time the animal of the present theories is capable of explaining
(for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever[3]. learning in all situations, and scholars working
within a particular theoretical perspective often
The term “operant conditioning” originated by the ignore or deny the importance of other types of
behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one learning and the relevance of other theories for
should focus on the external, observable causes of different situations. Nearly every educational
setting involves several types of learning, each with
its unique importance to the functioning of the current theories of learning presuppose that the
classroom. goal of education is to develop the ability of
students to understand the content and to think for
There is little agreement on how many types of themselves, presumptions that are consistent with
learning actually exist. Nevertheless, it should not the majority of modern-day schools.
be too difficult to identify different types of learning
in the following examples: (a) learning to tie a
shoelace or necktie, (b) being afraid (fearful in a EVOLVING THEORIES OF LEARNING
literal sense) to work in a math class after a lengthy
public ridicule by a teacher two years earlier for The modern psychological study of learning can be
being unable to explain a problem to the class, (c) dated from the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus
understanding and explaining causes of the French (1850–1909), whose well-known study of memory
and American revolutions, (d) learning to cook by was published in 1885. Other early studies of
watching one's father or mother, and (e) learning were by Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949),
negotiating an understanding of “learning” with a whose dissertation on problem solving was
person holding a different theoretical perspective. published in 1898, and Ivan Pavlov (1849– 1936),
Different theories are good for explaining one whose research on classical conditioning was begun
example but poor for explaining other examples. in 1899 but first published in English in 1927. These
theories focused on explaining the behavior of
When evaluating the validity or usefulness of individuals and became known as behavioral
different theories, especially from the perspective theories. These theories use a stimulus-response
of the student doing the learning, it is helpful to framework to explain learning and dominated
consider what the person is learning and what is psychology and education for over half a century.
taken as evidence that learning has occurred. Because behavioral theories focus on
Students do not always engage in the type of environmental factors such as reinforcement,
learning sought by the teacher. For example, a feedback, and practice, they conceptualize learning
teacher conducts a lesson on the Civil War that as something that occurs from the outside in.
includes authentic activities, having students
question one another about the war, and finally Behavioral theories provide very good explanations
giving the students a quiz. It would not be at all for certain kinds of learning but poor explanations
uncommon for the teacher to conclude that a for other types of learning. Operant conditioning,
particular student understood what happened at for example, is better than other theories at
Gettysburg when in reality he or she only explaining the rote acquisition of information, the
memorized certain facts. learning of physical and mental skills, and the
development of behaviors conducive to a
Theories of learning are efforts to explain how productive classroom (i.e., classroom management).
people learn. Different theories are based on In these situations, the focus is on performing
different assumptions and are appropriate for behavioral tasks rather than developing a learner's
explaining some learning situations but not others. cognitive structure or understanding. Although
Theories of learning can inform teaching and the classical conditioning frequently is dismissed as
use of different instructional resources including irrelevant to human learning (Pavlov's initial
technology, but ultimately the learning activities in research paradigm involved dogs salivating), this
which the student actually engages (mental, type of learning provides by far the best explanation
physical, and social) determine what a student of how and why people, including students, respond
learns in the classroom. Classroom learning involves emotionally to a wide variety of stimuli and
social, emotional, and participatory factors in situations. The many types of emotional reactions
addition to cognitive ones, and theories of learning acquired through classical conditioning include:
need to take these factors into account. Most anger toward or hatred for a particular person or
group, phobias to a particular subject area or to learning. The work of the Russian psychologist Lev
school itself, and infatuation with another person. Vygotsky (1896–1934) first became available in
However, they are very poor at explaining how North America and along with the work of
individuals come to understand complex ideas and anthropologists such as Jean Lave began to have a
phenomena. major influence on theories of learning. Individuals
were seen as initially participating in peripheral
But environmental factors are not the only ones activities of a group (known as legitimate peripheral
that influence learning. Serious consideration of participation)before becoming fully integrated into
other perspectives began to enter mainstream group activities. Apprenticeship became a metaphor
psychological thinking about learning during the for the way people learn in natural settings. The
1960s. For example, people clearly learn by notion that people learn by observing others, first
observing others, and a learner's belief about his or articulated in social-cognitive theory, was expanded
her ability to perform a task (i.e., self-efficacy) plays in a new context.
an important role in their learning. In 1963 Albert
Bandura and R. H. Walters published the first formal Traditionally, learning has been viewed as
statement of social-learning theory in their book, something that occurs within an individual.
Social Learning and Personality Development. Individuals may participate and learn in groups, but
Social-learning theory has clear roots in behavioral it is the individual person that learns. With few
theory but differs from these theories in significant exceptions, the educational systems in Europe and
ways. During the 1980s the theory became known North America have adopted this perspective, if not
as social-cognitive theory. Although essentially the entirely with regard to instructional practices,
same theory, the new name more accurately certainly in the evaluation of student performance
reflects the cognitive features of the theory and and the assignment of grades. Many psychologists
aids in differentiating it from behavioral theories of and educators currently consider learning to be a
learning. phenomenon that is distributed among several
individuals and/or environmental affordances (such
During the 1970s and 1980s conceptions and as calculators, computers, and textbooks) or
definitions of learning began to change situated (existing or occurring) within a “community
dramatically. Behavioral theories gave way to of practice” (or community of learners). Both a
cognitive theories that focused on mental activities social and a material dimension are involved in this
and the understanding of complex material. An distribution (Pea, 1993). For example, a student
information-processing metaphor replaced the may use a calculator to help learn how to solve a
stimulus-response framework of behavioral three-digit multiplication problem (the material
theories. These theories emphasized that learning dimension) and/or work with another student to
occurred from the inside out rather than from the understand the proper procedures to follow (the
outside in. During the late 1970s John Flavell and social dimension). In either case, the student is not
Ann Brown each began to study metacognition— learning totally on his or her own but is taking
the learners' awareness of their own learning, an advantages of resources (affordances) available in
ability to reflect on their own thinking, and the the environment. If the student is not able to solve
capacity to monitor and manage their learning. a subsequent problem without the aid of the
During the mid 1980s the study of self-regulated calculator or another student, then it is possible to
learning began to emerge (see Zimmerman & see the distributed nature of learning. In such
Schunk, 2001). situations, participation or activity rather than
acquisition becomes the defining metaphor
Then, especially during the later 1980s and the (Greeno, 2006).
1990s, these cognitive theories were challenged by
theories that emphasized the importance of social The evolution from behavioral to social to
interactions and the sociocultural context of distributed to situated theories of learning was
accompanied by new conceptions of knowledge (for
a good discussion of these changes, see Schraw,
2006). Traditional theories conceive of knowledge
as a commodity capable of being transmitted, more
or less intact, from one individual to another. Some of the most important principles of learning
According to these theories, knowledge is are as follows:
something an individual acquires; when a student
successfully learns it, he or she can reproduce the To teach effectively, the teacher must understand
knowledge in its original form. In contrast, more the basic principles of learning. Based on the
recent theories conceive of knowledge as different concepts of the learning process and the
something each learner constructs or creates afresh laws that govern them, the following general
rather than something that is assimilated in its principles of learning are presented for guidance in
preexisting form. According to current theories, teaching:
truly “objective” knowledge does not exist,
although something similar exists in the form of 1. Learning is considered as the acquisition of
collective knowledge within a particular culture or knowledge, habits, skills, abilities, and attitudes
discipline. Knowledge resides in the community of through the interaction of the whole individual and
learners (individuals) that creates it and is his total environment. Responses are considered an
distributed among members of the community and integral part of the unified self in meeting life’s
the various environmental affordances available to demands.
the group. Because each person constructs his or
her own understandings, the knowledge they 2. Learning is meaningful if it is organized in such a
acquire is unique. Communities and cultures are way as to emphasize and call for understanding,
composed of individuals with common insight, initiative, and cooperation. When the
understandings, and these groups provide learner is capable of gaining insight or
opportunities for new members (e.g., children) to understanding into the learning situation, then and
construct similar knowledge of the world through only then will learning take place. Understanding is
schools and/or a variety of informal activities. an organizing, synthesizing process that integrates
experiences into larger meaningful units.
The 1990s were dubbed “The Decade of the Brain,”
and huge advances were made in neuroscience and 3. Learning is facilitated by motives or drives.
how the brain relates to human behavior and Needs, interests, and goals are fundamental to the
learning. The study of how the brain relates to learning process. If the individual has to learn, he
learning is in its infancy (for an introduction to some must have some goal to be accomplished. Learning
of the issue, see Bransford et al., 2006). An is best when the learner knows and understands his
understanding of how the neurophysiology of the motive in learning.
brain affects learning and cognition will add greatly
to our understanding of human learning and have a 4. Learning is facilitated by the law of readiness or
large influence on future theories of learning. mindset. Learning does not occur unless the learner
Nevertheless, a psychological component to these is ready to act or to learn. When a person is ready
theories will remain critical for learning in to learn, he learns more effectively and with greater
educational settings. Education as it is presently satisfaction than when unprepared. When a person
understood is based on psychological processes and feels ready to act and is prevented from doing so,
interactions capable of being influenced by he feels annoyed. Mental set is conductive to
instruction, and it seems likely that psychological effective learning.
interventions will continue to be important for the
foreseeable future. ADVERTISEMENTS:
5. Learning is facilitated by the law of exercise. 10. Learning difficulty is due to many factors within
Practice and exercise are so common that they are the learner himself. The most common factors
universally accepted as an active means of learning. which affect the learning process are the
Lack of practice or exercise causes memory of intellectual, physical, emotional and social factors.
learned materials weaken; and in general, the All of these factors may be found in the individual
longer the period of disuse, the greater the loss. We himself.
learn and retain by exercise and forget through
disuse. 11. Learning is effective when more senses are
utilized by the learner. The combination of seeing
6. Learning is facilitated by the law of effect. The and hearing with touch, taste, and smell will
law of effect pertains to the influence of satisfying facilitate the learning and understanding of the
or unsatisfying feeling tones that accompany a ‘learning situation. The use of different senses will
response and either strengthen or weaken that also add electiveness in causing learning to be
response. When the learner finds the correct meaningful and functional.
answer to a question, he feels pleased about his
achievement and the connection is consequently 12. Learning is effective when it is made functional
strengthened. A feeling of satisfaction fixes a and aided by understanding derived from
response, whereas a feeling of annoyance tends to experience. The experiences of the pupil when
destroy it. utilized by the teacher will add to the understanding
of the learning situation. Experiences and other
7. Learning is facilitate by the law of belongingness. material devices are often used in teaching to give
When the learner perceives the relationship of facts meaning and understanding to the learner. The
presented, the speed of learning is greatly maturity and intelligence of the learner will
increased. In other that learning, in the classroom determine the need for supplemental experience
will be more meaningful to the learner, it must be and other instructional devices.
related in some way to his previous knowledge. It
must belong to the context of learning the learner Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)
has already achieved.
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the
ADVERTISEMENTS: original S-R framework of behavioral psychology:
Learning is the result of associations forming
8. Learning is facilitated when the teacher provides between stimuli and responses. Such associations
the learner with the proper stimuli and guides, and or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by
uses the principle of conditioning or associating the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The
those learning functions that need to be made paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning
automatic for most effective learning. Automatic in which certain responses come to dominate
responses are of prime importance in the formation others due to rewards. The hallmark of
of new habits or skills for they increase power and connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that
lessen fatigue. They serve as time-and-energy- learning could be adequately explained without
saving habits. refering to any unobservable internal states.

9. Learning “is conditioned by the attitude of the Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws:
learner, the environmental conditions conducive to (1) law of effect - responses to a situation which are
learning, and the attitude and skill of the teacher in followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be
setting the stage for learning, which includes strengthened and become habitual responses to
teaching skill itself. Learning is most effective in an that situation, (2) law of readiness - a series of
atmosphere of security and belonging. responses can be chained together to satisfy some
goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and
(3) law of exercise - connections become B.F. Skinner is perhaps the predominant figure in
strengthened with practice and weakened when American psychology. He is an experimental
practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of psychologist at Harvard who has developed
effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood behaviorism as a position in learning (he remains
of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, hesitant to use the term “theory”).
failures) will decrease in strength.
Skinner emphasizes observable behavior in the
The theory suggests that transfer of learning study of humans—hence the term “behaviorism.”
depends upon the presence of identical elements in He rejects any attempt at introspection or use of
the original and new learning situations; i.e., hypothetical internal processes or structures to
transfer is always specific, never general. In later account for learning. Instead, Skinner uses the
versions of the theory, the concept of consequences of a behavior to explain why the
"belongingness" was introduced; connections are behavior continues or fades.
more readily established if the person perceives
that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt Many of Skinner’s ideas are built upon Thorndike’s
principles). Another concept introduced was law of effect. Stated briefly, Skinner believes (or has
"polarity" which specifies that connections occur been conditioned to say?) that behavior that is
more easily in the direction in which they were followed by reinforcement (positive or negative)
originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also has an increased probability of reoccurrence.
introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., rewards Behavior followed by extinction or punishment has
affect not only the connection that produced them a decreased probability of re-occurrence.
but temporally adjacent connections as well.
Application Since learning is implied by a change in behavior, a
teacher must first determine what behavioral
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of change is desirable, then manipulate the
learning for animals and humans. Thorndike was consequences to alter the probability of the
especially interested in the application of his theory behavior recurring. Through proper use of shaping,
to education including mathematics (Thorndike, the teacher can promote the development of new
1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), behaviors. In concept, this is quite simple. In
measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., practice, it is a bit more difficult, but quite within
1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928). grasp, as research and experience with
Example programmed instruction and behavior modification
show.
The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory was a
cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by Skinner’s ideas about instruction have been very
pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and influential on education. After a period of almost
error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing total domination behaviorism is beginning to wane,
the lever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-R yet its impact will continue to be felt.
connection is established because it results in a
satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The
law of exercise specifies that the connection was
established because the S-R pairing occurred many
times (the law of effect) and was rewarded (law of
effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of
readiness).

B.F. Skinner
The Basics
COLONIALISM AND NATIONALISM IN SOUTHEAST Indigenous peoples practicing animism have lived in
ASIA Southeast Asia (SEA) since historical times. Later,
people from China moved southward to reach SEA
Rey Ty (Barton 26). As early as 300 BC, the age of bronze
and iron had passed from China into SEA (Fodor 64).
The Chinese under the Sung Dynasty by the 12th
Introduction century had become involved more and more in
international trade, including with SEA (Fodor 67).
The major colonizers of Southeast Asia were Hence, there were Chinese and Indian migrants
Europeans, Japanese and the U.S. All in all, there who have reached and lived in SEA for a long time
were seven colonial powers in Southeast Asia: now. The Chinese and Indian civilizations have
Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Great Britain, greatly impacted SEA societies. Many parts of SEA
France, the United States, and Japan. From the have been indianized from 500BC to 1000 AD
1500s to the mid-1940s, colonialism was imposed (Barton 47).
over Southeast Asia.
South and Southwest Asians used the monsoon
For hundreds of years, Southeast Asian kingdoms seasonal-reversal wind route from Arabia and India
had been engaged in international commercial to travel to Southeast Asia (Barton 46). SEA is home
relations with traders from East Asia (China), South to several ancient civilizations, including the Angkor
Asia (India), and West Asia (the “Middle East”). and the Sri Vijaya kingdoms. At about 1300, there
Asian sojourners also brought religion, customs, were two major kingdoms: the Sukhotai in
traditions, and court practices to the region. Hence, Mainland SEA and the Majapahit empire in insular
their relationship was economic and cultural at the SEA. During the 12th to the 14th centuries, there
same time. Moreover, local Southeast Asian rulers was an active spice trade in the region (Fodor 67-8).
used and indigenized practices of kingship
institutions from South Asia (rajadharma) and West Hence, Southeast Asia was exposed to different
Asia (sultanate). civilizations, cultures and religions for thousands of
years now: animism, Buddhism, Taoism,
European travelers did not only have economic Confucianism, Hinduism and Islam. Culture, trade,
relations with Southeast Asians but also imposed religion, and monarchy played a role in the state
their political—and in some cases, cultural— formation of SEAsian countries.
domination over Southeast Asian peoples and
territories. Hence, European colonialism covered a COLONIALISM
large chunk of Southeast Asian history.
Colonialism is alien or foreign political rule or
Aside from European colonials, Japanese and U.S. control imposed on a people. Colonialism can take
colonials controlled much of Southeast Asia. many forms: it can be political, legal, economic,
Japanese aggression took place during the “Pacific cultural and social. A political, economic and
War” of World War II. The Japanese occupied much cultural policy and practice by which several foreign
of Asia, including Southeast Asia. The U.S. colonized states explored, conquered, settled, exploited,
the Philippines in the aftermath of the Spanish- maintained and extended their control over large
American War of 1898. areas of foreign lands and its people who ceased to
control their own territories, resources and national
Southeast Asian response to colonialism was both destiny.
collaboration and nationalism in all its forms.
Historical Background The age of colonialism began about 1500, following
the European discoveries of a sea route around
Africa's southern coast (1488) and of America Because the spice trade could make them
(1492). wealthy, explorers were motivated to find a faster
and cheaper sea route. The European routes were
LEGACY OF COLONIALISM blocked by powerful rivals such as the Italian city-
states of Venice and Genoa and later the Turkish
European, American, and Asian powers colonized merchants of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul).
SEA. The major European colonizers in SEA included Their ships had control of the eastern
Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Britain, and Mediterranean where trade with the Arabs
France. The American power was the U.S.A. abounded. After Vasco da Gama's famous voyage
Europeans introduced Protestantism and Roman around the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese had
Catholicism to SEA. During World War II, Japan was to battle Muslim forces and rival traders to gain a
the only major Asian country that colonized SEA. piece of the spice trade. The rulers of Portugal and
MOTIVES Spain sought different routes to the Indies. While
the Portuguese concentrated their efforts to the
There are three motives for colonialism: political, south and east, the Spanish sought alternative
economic, and cultural. Reasons for colonialism are routes to the west.
manifold: to expand territory, to seek mercantilist
profit, to import cheap raw materials, and to extract Search for Raw Materials, esp. Spices
precious metals. The booming economies needed (Moluccas: Spice Islands”)
an assured supply of raw materials, assured new
markets and new places in which to invest.

Political Aggrandizement Spices such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger,

or cloves were like treasures to Europeans. All these
Aggrandizement of Political Power products were produced in India, Ceylon, and the
Nationalism Moluccas (known as the Spice Islands).
Territorial Expansionism to Other Areas
Increased National Pride 1800s: Industrial Revolution
Increase Military Might Search for New Raw Materials
Status as World Power New Markets
Intra-European Competition and Rivalry
European “Age of Discovery” = Southeast Asian
“Age of Colonialism”. One phenomenon, two
interpretations Cultural

First Circumnavigation of the World Colonialism is linked with the idea that the way of
life of the colonizers are better than that of the
Economic Profits: colonized.

Commercial Enterprise and International Trade “White Man’s Burden”

Need to Strengthen the economy by increasing
wealth
Mercantilism: Precious Metals
Accumulation of Capital Rudyard Kipling coined the term
Sea Route to the East Englishmen Cecil Rhodes, "I contend that we
Britons are the first race in the world, and the more
of the world we inhabit, the better it is for the
human race. I believe it is my duty to God, my of Manila and by 1600 it had gained control of most
Queen, and my country..." of the archipelago (Barton 50). The Katipunan (KKK)
White Supremacy: whites are supreme beings —Filipino revolutionaries—under Andrés Bonifacio
The supposed or presumed responsibility of fought against the Spaniards and became the first
white people to govern and impart their culture to Asian country to be independent in 1898, except
nonwhite people, often advanced as a justification that the U.S. took the reigns of power thereafter.
for European colonialism.
Duty to spread the ways of the superior beings Magellan: Magellan led the first circumnavigation of
to inferior beings with inferior ways of living the globe. He was born to a family of lower nobility
Devaluation of indigenous cultures and educated in the Portuguese court. Just like
“Civilizing Mission”: Bring Civilization to the Columbus who came before him, Magellan believed
“uncivilized world” the Spice Islands can be reached by sailing west,
around or through the New World. As Magellan did
not get any support from the Portuguese monarchy,
he sought and got the assistance of the teenaged
Conversion to Christianity Spanish king, Charles I (a.k.a. the Holy Roman
Spain and Portugal spread Roman Catholicism emperor Charles V) on March 22, 1518. Magellan
to their colonies by converting the indigenous got five ships. In September, 1519, he sailed with
peoples 270 men. His Italian crewmember, Antonio
local religions are inferior Pigafetta, kept a diary of and recorded the voyage.
They sailed on to the Philippines, arriving on March
COLONIAL HISTORY 28, 1521. On April 7, 1521, he arrived in Cebu and
befriended an island king—Datu Humabon. On April
On June 7, 1494, the Spanish and the Portuguese 14, 1521, Datu Humabon and 800 of his people
signed the Treaty of Tordesillas that divided the were drawn in a mass baptism. Later, though, Lapu-
world in two spheres. The imaginary line ran Lapu killed Magellan in a battle in Mactan on April
through the Atlantic: Spain gained lands to the 27, 1521.
west, including all the Americas, except Brazil,
which was granted to Portugal. The eastern half Sebastian del Cano took over the remaining three
including Africa and India was given to Portugal. In ships and 115 survivors. The two remaining ships
the absence of accurate measurements of sailed from the Philippines on May 1 and made it to
longitude, the issue of where the line should be the Moluccas (Spice Islands) in November, loaded
drawn in Asia refused to go away. with valuable spices. Hoping that at least one ship
would return to Spain, the Trinidad went east
Portugal (1511-1641/1975): The Portuguese were across the Pacific, while the Victoria continued
the first Europeans to dominate trade in SEA and west. On September 6, 1522, the Victoria and 18
the first to set up trading posts in military-occupied crewmembers—including Pigafetta—arrived in
ports (Barton 50). They defeated Moslem naval Spain. It was the first vessel to circumnavigate the
forces in 1509 and seized Malacca in 1511 (Barton globe.
50), until the Dutch captured it in 1641. Southeast
Asia felt Portuguese impact the least. The Spain and Portugal used the Cross and the Sword.
Portuguese controlled only the small territory of The U.S. beat and replaced Spain.
East Timor.
The Netherlands (1605-1799 & 1825-1940s): The
Spain (1565-1898): Ferdinand Magellan reached the Dutch arrived in Indonesia in 1596. Dutch
Philippines in 1521. Spanish expeditions from 1525 colonialism was carried out initially by the Dutch
to 1536 claimed the Philippines. In 1565, Spain East India Company (V.O.C.) from 1605 to 1799. It’s
conquered Cebu. In 1571, Spain established the city
main preoccupation was profits in trade through and Singapore became part of Malaysia in 1963, but
monopolies, not political rule. Singapore was told to withdraw in 1965 (Wilson).
Brunei decided to stay out of the new country and
When it collapsed in 1799, the government of is now an independent country.
Netherlands took over VOC’s assets in 1825 and put
Indonesia under its administrative authority, the France (1859-1954): The French, under Louis XIV,
process of which was completed in the 1930s exchanged embassies with Siam from 1600 to 1700.
(Wilson). The Dutch had taken control of most of European influence on SEA amplified. The French
the commercial islands in the East Indies and went to Vietnam in 1858 and seized Saigon in 1859
occupied Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and Java (Wilson). By 1867, the French annexed Cochin
(Barton 50). They built a port at Batavia and kicked China (the south) and Cambodia. The French used
out the Portuguese from the Indies, except for East Cochin China as the base from which they moved
Timor (Barton 50). westward and northward. By 1893, they set up
protectorates over Annam, Laos, and Tonkin, all of
The Dutch could not keep the Netherlands East which became the “French Indochina” (Barton 50).
Indies after WWII as they hoped to because the By 1907, the French completed their conquest of
Indonesians fought a war of national liberation to Indochina (Wilson).
set up a republic in 1945. The U.N. recognized
Indonesian independence in 1949. At the end of WWII, the French fought a war trying
to maintain its control over its SEAsian territories.
The Dutch acquired their empire to protect their French Indo-China ended with the French
trade. And they were after commodities. But not as humiliation at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. At the Geneva
raw materials: these were spices, for resale. The Conference of 1954, Vietnam gained its
Dutch were 250 years in Indonesia. independence.

Britain (1824-1957): Britain acquired parts of its Myth about Thailand: There is a long-standing myth
empire through, or to aid, its traders. Using their that Thailand was never colonized. Factually
navies, the British penetrated SEA from the west speaking, though, Siam was being squeezed from
side, while the French from the east (Barton 50). the west by the British and from the east by the
The British used force to annex Burma between French (Barton 58). Siam had to give up large
1826 and 1888 (Barton 50) in three Anglo-Burmese chunks of land in exchange for keeping its territorial
Wars. The British maintained Burma as a province integrity. Only the middle core of Siam was
of British India, unlike other colonies which kept unoccupied (Barton 58).
their ethnic identities. Top British and middle Indian
administrators ruled Burma. In 1935, Britain U.S.A. (1898-1946): After the global triumph of the
consented to separate Burma from India and this U.S. over Spain in 1898, the U.S. moved in to
was put into force in 1937 (Wilson). In 1948, Burma colonize the Philippines. Admiral Dewey defeated
negotiated with Britain for its independence. Spain in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Aguinaldo
declared Philippine independence on June 12, 1898
The British (Raffles) set up Singapore in 1819 and and the Philippine Republic on January 23, 1899 but
the Netherlands ceded Malacca to Britain in 1824 the U.S. did not recognize it. Hence, the Philippine-
(Barton 50). Britain governed Penang (acquired in American War started in 1899 and went on for
1786), Singapore, and Malacca as the Straits about 10 years. About 400,000 to 600,000 Filipinos
Settlements from which Britain expanded into the were killed and 10,000 Americans died. On Feb. 6,
Malay Peninsula from 1874 to 1914 (Wilson). The 1899, the U.S. Senate voted to annex the
Malay States negotiated for and gained Philippines. On July 4, 1901, U.S. President McKinley
independence as the independent Federation of set up civil government and appointment the
Malaya in 1957. Penang, Malacca, Sabah, Sarawak,
Philippine Commission which was headed by upon traditional religious and cultural values. For
William Howard Taft. instance, the Young Man’s Buddhist Association in
Burma set up in 1906 aimed to bring down western
Mark Twain was the most famous literary adversary influence. In Indonesia, the Sarekat Islam which was
of the Philippine-American War and he served as a a nationalist political party (1912) aimed to bring
vice president of the Anti-Imperialist League from Moslem Indonesians under its reformist agenda.
1901 until his death. The Philippines became a
commonwealth in 1935 and independent in 1946 Western-style political movements were created;
after World War II. they drew inspiration from western ideologies and
models. Western education sons of the traditional
The western colonial powers had economic, social, aristocracy or the bureaucratic elite at the national
political, and cultural impact on the peoples and level and school teachers, government officials and
states of SEA. They brought about rapid changes in clerks at the local local level led nationalist
SEA. movements. In Burma, University of Rangoon
EFFECTS students formed the Dobayma Asiyone (“We
Burman”) society in 1935. Dobayman Asiyone
MASS ECONOMIC BITTERNESS members called themselves Thakins (“Master”).
SOCIO-CULTURAL CLEAVAGE Furthermore, Aung San, U Nu and Ne Win would
ECONOMIC GROWTH rise to become key figures in independent Burma.

COLONIAL PARTNERS In the Philippines, some leaders who were exposed

to western ideals waged a revolutionary war against
COOPTATION Spain. Others later cooperated with the U.S.
COLLABORATION
In Malaya, educated Malays joined the civil service
RESPONSE and worked closely with the British rulers (Wilson).

NATIONALISM Dutch-educated Indonesians formed the Indonesian

STRUGGLE FOR SELF-DETERMINATION Nationalist Party (PNI) in 1927. It later became a
ANTI-COLONIAL NATIONAL LIBERATION clandestine movement and the leaders went into
MOVEMENTS political exile.
JAPANESE AGGRESSION
DECOLONIZATION In Indochina, only in Vietnam was the nationalist
movement present.
Nationalism, Decolonization, and Independence
Communist leaders and parties rose in many parts
Colonial experience had an impact on the rise of of SEA. They were active in Burma, Indonesia,
anti-colonial as well as anti-fascist (anti-Japanese Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.
aggression) nationalist fervor that spawned
independence movements. Southeast Asian elites Moreover, new economic, administrative and
responded to western colonialism in a continuum political elites emerged within which ideals of
anywhere from adaptation, collaboration, to modernization and tradition competed. New
resistance. The traditional elite failed in their national identities were created; they drew upon
struggle. Many Filipino intellectuals identified traditional cultural symbols and western systems.
themselves with colonial Spain and the U.S. Charismatic national leaders such as Ho Chi Minh
and Sukarno embody national resurgence.
Cultural and indigenous religious movements World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region
surfaced and emphasized a national identity based
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and Clark Air Base on Fodor’s Southeast Asia. New York: Fodor’s Travel
December 7, 1941. Japanese aggression took place Guides, 1984.
in many parts of Asia and the Pacific, including
Southeast Asian countries. Hall, D.G.E. A History of South-east Asia, 4th rev
edn. London: Macmillan, 1981.
Japan occupied Indochina through a treaty with the
pro-German Vichy government in France (Wilson). Osborne, M. 2000, Southeast Asia : An introductory
history, 8th edn. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin,
In the Philippines, the last U.S. forces surrendered 2000.
to the Japanese in May 1942. The Japanese set up
an “independent” puppet “Philippine Republic”. On Reid, Anthony. “An ‘Age of Commerce’ in Southeast
October 20, 1944, US forces returned to the Asian History,” Modern Asian Studies, 24, I (1990),
Philippines. On July 4, 1946, the U.S. granted pp. 1-30.
independence to the Philippines.
Tarling, M. 2001, Southeast Asia:A Modern History.
On March 29, 1942, Filipinos organized the Melbourne: OUP, 2001.
Hukbalahap (People’s Anti-Japanese Army). In
Southeast Asia, only the Filipinos fought the fiercest Wilson, Constance. “Colonialism and Nationalism in
battle against the Japanese aggressors. At its Southeast Asia.” (Outline).
height, there were 260,000 anti-Japanese guerrillas. http://www.seasite.niu.edu/crossroads/wilson/
colonialism
The U.S. dropped nuclear bombs on the cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 6, 1945, the
U.S. dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima.
Approximately 130,000 were killed, wounded, or
missing, while 90% of the city was flattened. On
August 9, 1945, the U.S. dropped the second atomic
bomb on Nagasaki. About 75,000 people were
killed or injured, while more than 1/3 of the city
was destroyed. On August 14, 1945, Japan
surrendered to the Allied forces in Tokyo, Japan.
Conclusion

Modern Southeast Asian countries emerge from

their rich history, diverse cultures as well as their
social transformation from their anti-western
colonial struggle as well as their anti-Japanese
resistance during World War II.

Bibliography

Barton, Thomas F., Robert C. Kingsbury, and Gerald

R. Showalter. Southeast Asia in Maps. Chicago:
Denoyer-Geppert Company, 1970.