Grammar Notes For Class 9 & 10 PDF

THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in
meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more
than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is
essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.
1. NOUN
 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
2. PRONOUN
 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is
the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or
things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize
another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative
pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
Oh my!
3. VERB
 A verb expresses action or being.
jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different
forms to express tense.
Oh my!
4. ADJECTIVE
 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
pretty... old... blue... smart
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An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)
Oh my!
5. ADVERB
 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher,
and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
6. PREPOSITION
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying
another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
7. CONJUNCTION
 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
disappeared. Oh my!
8. INTERJECTION
 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.
Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
disappeared. Oh my!
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GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
A gerund is the –ing form of a verb that functions the same as a noun. In a nutshell, a word
formed from a verb acting as a noun and ending in ing is a gerund. Swimming in the ocean
has been Sharon‘s passion since she was five years old.
Examples:
1. Let‘s go dancing at the club tonight.
2. I delayed telling Jerry the bad news.
3. Pema decided that flying above the clouds was the most incredible experience she‘d ever
had.
4. Bikash avoided doing his math assignment because the World Cup was on.
5.
An infinitive is a verb that can function as noun, adjective, or adverb. It is formed by using "to"
+ the verb.
Any verb that is preceded by the word 'to' is an infinitive. Here are some examples: 'to love, to
eat, to run, to believe, to follow, to laugh, to stare, to wonder.‘
Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as nouns:
1) I like to run. (functions as a direct object)
2) I wanted to cook dinner for my parents. (functions as a direct object)
3) To fly an airplane is a dream of mine. (functions as a subject)
4) I cannot believe you knew to put out grits to attract ants! (functions as a direct object)
Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as adjectives:

1) The fair is the place to go. (tells us which place)
2) I have some jeans to wash. (tells us which jeans)
3) The singer to watch is Joyce. (tells us which singer)
4) The kind of flowers to plant are perennials. (tells us which flowers)
Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as adverbs:

1) To complete the math problem, you divide by x. (tells why to divide)
2) I bought paint to finish the picture for my mom. (tells why I bought paint)
3) To make the cookies, you must add the flour first. (tells why we add flour)
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TENSES
It is a term used in grammar to indicate the time of the action or event.
In any language, tense is divided into three classes namely:
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense
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Each of the above tenses is divided into four classes:
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE

a. Simple Present Tense a. Simple Past Tense a. Simple Future Tense
b. Present Continuous Tense b. Past Continuous Tense b. Future Continuous Tense
c. Present Perfect tense c. Past Perfect Tense c. Future Perfect Tense
d. Present Perfect Continuous d. Past Perfect Continuous d. Future Perfect Continuous
Tense Tense Tense
PAST TENSE
i. Simple Past Tense-indicates an action took place before the present moment and that has no
real connection with the present time.
For example, "He danced in the function." (The action took place in the past, is finished and is
completely unrelated to the present)
"He flew to London yesterday."
Note
a..the verb 'flew' is an irregular verb which does not take 'ed' in the past tense like regular verbs.
b. the form of Simple Past Tense is - verb + ed
ii. Past Perfect Tense- indicates an action in the past that had been completed before another
time or event in the past.
For example, "He had exercised before it started to rain."
"He had slept before I came back from the market."
Note
a. the form of Past Perfect Tense is- had + verb (past participle form or the 3rd form of the verb)
iii.Past Continuous Tense-indicates an action going on at some time in the past or an action in
the past that is longer in duration than another action in the past.
For example, "It was getting darker."
"The light went out while theywere reading."
Note
a. the form of Past Continuous Tense is- was/were + verb + ing
iv. Past Perfect Continuous Tense-indicates an action in the past that took place before another
time or event in the past and continued during the second event/time point in the past.
For example, "At that time, he had been writing a novel for two months."
"He had been exercising when I called."
Note
a. the form of Past Perfect Continuous Tense is- had + been + verb + ing
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PRESENT TENSE
i. Simple Present Tense- indicates an action that is generally true or habitual. That is, it took
place in the past , continue to take place in the present, and will take place in the future. This
tense is used to denote
-a habitual action- for instance, "He walk to school."
-general truths- for instance, "The sun rises in the east", "Honesty is the best policy."
-a future event that is part of a fixed timetable- for instance, "The match starts at 9 o' clock."
Note
a. the form of Simple Present Tense is- verb (infinitive without 'to' and agreeable with the
subject)
ii. Present Perfect Tense-indicates an action that has been completed sometime before the
present moment, with a result that affects the present situation.
For example, "He has finished the work."
"He has slept."
Note
a. the form of Present Perfect Tense is- has/have + verb (past participle form or 3rd form of the
verb)
iii. Present Continuous Tense-indicates an action that is taking place at the moment of speaking.
For example, "She is walking."
"I am studying."
Note
a. the form of Present Continuous Tense is- is/am/are + verb + ing
iv. Present Perfect Continuous Tense-indicates an action that started in the past and is continuing
at the present time.
For example, "He has been sleeping for an hour."
Note
a. the form of Present Perfect Continuous Tense is- has/have + been + verb + ing
FUTURE TENSE
i. Simple Future Tense-indicates an action that will take place after the present time and that has
no real connection with the present time.
For example, "She will visit her ailing grandmother soon."
"He will walk home."
Note
a. the form of Simple Future Tense is- will/shall + verb
ii. Future Perfect Tense-indicates an action in the future that will have been completed before
another time or event in the future.
For example, "By the time we arrive, he will have studied."
Note
a. the form of Future Perfect Tense is- will/shall have + verb(past participle form or 3rd form of
the verb)
iii. Future Continuous Tense-indicates an action in the future that is longer in duration than
another action in the future.
For example, "He will be walking when it starts to rain."
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Note
a. the form of Future Continuous Tense is-will/shall be + verb + ing
iv. Future Perfect Continuous Tense-indicates an action in the future that will have been
continuing until another time or event in the future.
For example, "He will have been exercising an hour at 2:00."
Note
a. the form of Future Perfect Continuous Tense is- will/shall have been + verb + ing
Practice exercises:
Q1. Choose the correct verb from those in brackets:
a. The earth _____ round the sun. (move, moves, moved)
b. My friends _____ the film yesterday. (see, saw, have seen)
c. It started to rain while we _____ tennis. (are playing, had played, were playing)
d. I _____ English for five years. (have been studying, study, am studying)
e. The train _____ before we reach the station. (arrives, will have arrived, had arrived)
f. Don't disturb me. I _____ my work. (do, did, am doing)
g. Fortune _____ the brave. (is favouring, will favour, favours)
h. I _____ the letter before you arrived. (had written, wrote, will write)
i. He _____ us next week. (will have met, will have been meeting, will be meeting)
j. Perhaps we _____ Delhi next month. (visit, will visit, visited)
Q2. Correct the following sentences:
i. I lived in Calcutta since 1930.

ii. She died before her husband came.
iii. I have written a letter to her last Monday.
iv. I am reading Kalidasa for the last six days.
v. The new hotel has been opened last Saturday.
vi. He had gone to Madras last week.
vii. The train leave the station before I reached there.
viii. I wish my men had been coming quickly and find us.
ix. At the moment the baby sleep in the cradle.
x. He goes out for ten minutes.
Answer Key
Q1.
a. moves
b. saw
c. were playing
d. have been studying
e. will have arrived
f. am doing
g. favours
h. had written
i. will be meeting
j. will visit
Q2.
i. I have been living in Calcutta since 1930.
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ii. She had died before her husband came.
iii.I wrote a letter to her last Monday.
iv. I have been reading Kalidasa for the last six days.
v. The new hotel opened last Saturday.
vi. He went to Madras last week.
vii. The train had left the station before I reached there.
viii. I wish my men came quickly and found us.
ix. At the moment the baby is sleeping in the cradle.
x. He has gone out for ten minutes.
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ARTICLES
‗A‘, ‗an‘ and ‗the‘ are called articles.
A/an= indefinite articles. Eg-I saw a girl. (any girl). I ate an orange.
The= definite article. Eg. I met the teacher. (the particular teacher)
A/an is used before vowels and before letters with a vowel sound. Eg. An egg, an hour. It is
used:
1. Before a singular countable noun. Eg. I found a pen.
2. In the original sense of meaning one, or with some numbers to mean one.
Eg. A stitch in time saves nine. A litre, a dollar, a thousand.
3. In the sense of any.(when an individual is meant to represent a class/group)
Eg. A student should work hard.
4. In exclamations before singular countable nouns. Eg. What a cute child!
5. When we imply that a person, whose name we use with a title is unknown to us.
Eg. A Mr. Sharma has applied for the post. A Dr. Roy wishes to speak to you.
6. With names of occupations. Eg. She‘ll be a dancer. He studied to be an engineer.
Omission of the article a/an

A/an is omitted:
1. When a noun is the name of a meal. Eg. We had breakfast rather late today.
*But the article is used when it is a special meal. Eg.I‘m invited to a dinner given to
welcome the new Minister.
2. Before uncountable nouns. Eg. Sand is used in making glass. The bag is made of paper.
‘The’ is used:
1. Before any nouns whether singular or plural countable and uncountable noun and before
a singular countable noun which represents a whole class of things.
Eg. Anil dropped the pen. The children were not at home. My favourite flower is the rose.
2. Before nouns that are unique and one in the Universe. Eg. The sun, the Equator, in the
east,etc.
3. With superlative adjectives. Eg. She told him the latest news. He is the tallest boy in the
class.
4. Before adjectives used as nouns. Eg. It is the duty of the young to support the old.
5. Before certain proper nouns or nouns referring to geographical places. Eg. The Indian
Ocean,
The United States.
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6. Before proper nouns when one is talking about a family or people of a nation. Eg. The
Sharmas have shifted to their new house. The Spanish live in Spain.
7. Before comparative constructions. Eg.He is the younger of the two boys. The more it
rains, the worse the roads will become.
8. Before a proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective. Eg. The immortal Kalidas.
9. Before certain expression of time. Eg. The day before, in the evening.
Omission of ‘the’
‗The‘ is not used:
1. Before the names of languages. Eg. I‘m learning to speak Italian. He studied Urdu.
2. For means of travel. Eg. By air, by bus.
*But when we are more specific, the article is used. Eg. He has to catch the morning
train.
3. Before names of games. Eg. He plays football.
4. Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense.
Ex. Men fear death.
*But we say-The death of his father adversely affected him.
5. Before plural nouns used for a whole class. Eg. Cars have become very expensive.
Ex. Elephants are quite intelligent.
7. Before the names of meals. Ex. We had porridge for breakfast.
8. In certain idiomatic phrases. Ex. The farmer worked hard by day and slept in peace by
night.
9. When places are visited or used for their primary purpose.
Ex. People go to church to pray.
We go to school to study.
*But when these places are visited or used for other specific purpose, ‗the‘ is used. Eg.
He went to the church to meet the priest. She went to the school to pay her son‘s fees.
Repetition of articles
Ex. The Principal and the Secretary were present.
We have a black and a white cat.
The learned, the eloquent, and the patriotic leader is no more.
Napoleon was a general, a statesman, an orator and a mathematician.
Practice exercises:
Q1.Choose the correct definite or indefinite article: "the", "a", "an" or "x" (zero article) .
1. I bought pair of shoes.

2. I saw movie last night.
3. They are staying at hotel.
4. Look at woman over there! She is a famous actress.
5. I do not like basketball.
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6. That is girl I told you about.
7. night is quiet. Let's take a walk!
8. price of gas keeps rising.
9. John traveled to Mexico.
10. Juan is Spanish.
11. I read amazing story yesterday.
12. My brother doesn't eat chicken.
13. love is such beautiful thing.
X
14. I live in apartment. apartment is new.
15. I would like piece of cake.
The
16. I was in Japanese restaurant. restaurant served good food.
17. Sara can play guitar.
Q2. Write ‘a,an,the or x for zero/no article in the space provided and check your answers
from the answer key given below.
1-2. We have beautiful garden. garden is full of roses.
3-4. Is fencing popular sport in world? No, it isn‘t.
5. I'd like glass of orange juice please.
6. Can you give me envelope, please?
7. Certainly. Oh! Where‘s envelope?
8. Is there post office near here?
9. They‘re at cinema.
10. My brother is in classroom.
11. Would you like hamburger?
12. Selena has got cat.
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13. What is cat‘s name?
14-15. school is very cold. Hasn‘t it got central heating

system?
16. It has, but central heating is broken down.
Answer key:
. 1-2.. We have a beautiful garden. The garden is full of roses.
3-4.. Is fencing a popular sport in the world? No, it isn’t.
5. I'd like a glass of orange juice please.
6. Can you give me an envelope, please?
7. Certainly. Oh! Where’s the envelope?
8. Is there a post office near here?
9. They’re at the cinema.
10. My brother is in the classroom.
11. Would you like a hamburger?
12. Selena has got a cat.
13. What is the cat’s name?
14-15. The school is very cold. Hasn’t it got a central heating system?
16.. It has, but the central heating is broken down..

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PREPOSITION
There are over 100 prepositions in English and using them correctly can be difficult, especially
for learners.
Although most prepositions are single words such as 'at', 'on', 'to', 'from', some pairs and groups
of words operate like single prepositions, for example 'up to', 'out of' 'in front of' etc.
Below is a list of commonly-used propositions with their meaning and a sentence showing how
they are used.
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Preposition Meaning Example
above higher than, or over The sun is above the clouds.
across from one side to the other It's dangerous to run across the road.
after - following something - The boy ran after the ball.

- later than - I'll phone you after lunch.
against - in opposition to - Stealing is against the law.

- in contact with - The sofa is against the wall.
along from one end to the other They are walking along the street.
among surrounded by Peter was among the spectators.
around - in a circle - He walked around the table.

- near, approximately - It costs around 50 euros.
before - earlier than - The day before yesterday.

- in front of - He bowed before the king.
behind at the back of Passengers sit behind the driver.
below lower than His shorts are below his knees.
beneath under The pen was beneath the books.
beside next to The bank is beside the cinema.
between in the space separating two things Mary sat between Tom and Jane.
by - near, at the side of - The restaurant is by the river.

- not later than - The boss wants the report by Friday.
close to near The school is close to the church.
down from higher to lower She pulled down the blind.
for what is intended I bought this book for you.
from where something starts or originates The wind is blowing from the north.
in at a point within an area The pen is in the drawer.
in front of directly before The child ran out in front of the bus.
inside on the inner part of The bird is inside the cage.
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into enter a closed space He went into the shop.
near close to The school is near the church.
next to beside The bank is next to the cinema.
off down or away from He fell off the horse.
on in a position touching a surface The plate is on the table.
onto move to a position on a surface The cat jumped onto the roof of the car.
opposite facing, on the other side Eva sat opposite Tom at the table.
out of - move from a closed space - He got out of the taxi.

- without - She's out of work.
outside - opposite of inside The garden is outside the house.

- on the outer side
over - above/across - The plane flew over the Atlantic.

- on the surface of - She put a sheet over the furniture.
past beyond She drove past the supermarket.
round in a circular movement The earth moves round the sun.
through from one side to the other The Seine flows through Paris.
throughout in every part of The virus spread throughout the country.
to in the direct of; towards On the way to the station.
towards in the direction of The child ran towards her father.
under beneath, below Water flows under the bridge.
underneath beneath There was dust underneath the rug.
up towards or in a higher position She walked up the stairs.
within inside They live within the old city.
without not have or lack something I don't like coffee without milk.
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A preposition may be defined as a word or group of words (e.g. at, in, out of, etc.) used before a
noun, pronoun, gerund, etc. to show its relation with another word in a sentence.
For example:
They came here at 5 p.m. He was born in 1980. She went out of the room.
These prepositions relate to time, place, position, direction, means, etc.
. Prepositions of Time:
1. At:
At is used to indicate when something happens. We use at with clock times, e.g. periods of the
year, and periods of the day, festivals, etc. But we don‘t use at with ‗morning‘, ‗evening‘,
‗afternoon‘, etc.
 The train left at 8 o’clock.

 She used to go to temple at Dussehra and Diwali.
 He came here at the weekend.
 She married at the age of twenty.
 I called on my friend at night.
 We rested at noon/dawn/dusk.
2. In:
In is used to indicate the period of time in which something happens. We use ‗in‘ with centuries,
years, seasons, months, periods of the day ‗morning‘, ‗evening‘, ‗afternoon‘: English literature
flourished in the 16th century.
 She was born in 1990.

 They visited this place in summer.
 He called on me in the evening.
 The theft took place in the day-time.
 My father went to the U.S.A. in October.
 It all happend in three minutes/hours/days/years.
3. On:
On is used with days, dates, birthdays, anniversaries, etc.
 We went to see a movie on Tuesday.

 He was born on October 3,1980.
 We congratulated him on his birthday.
 We gave them a gift on their 20th marriage anniversary.
Note: We use ‗on‘ with ‗morning‘, ‗afternoon‘, ‗evening‘, etc. when they are modified:
 They reached here on a hot afternoon.
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 People did not come out of their houses on a night like this.
 We went for fishing on a pleasant morning.
4. During:
During may be used instead of‗in‘ with periods of the day, months, seasons, years, decades and
centuries to express the idea that something continues throughout the whole of a specified
period.
 During the war many people were killed.

 We work during the day and sleep during the night.
 We try to contact people during October.
 During the nineties many taxes were imposed.
 She used to ring up many times during the week.
 During the journey I came to respect her.
5. By:
By is used to indicate the latest time at which an action will be finished:
 He will finish this work by 5 o’clock.

 By that time, the moon was up.
 You must come to me by 8 a.m.
 Applications must be received by 10th May.
By can be used instead of during with almost the same.
 We took rest by day and travelled by night.

 By mid afternoon about 5,000 people had visited the exhibition.
6. For:
For is used with periods of time to indicate how long an action lasts. It is generally used with the
Perfect Tense but is also used with other tenses.
 They have lived here for five years.

 It rained continuously for twelve hours.
 We stayed there for fifteen days.
 They have been working for two hours.
 She will not be here for another three hours.
7. Since:
Since is used with a point of time in the past from which some action began and it continues till
the time of speaking. It is generally used with the Perfect Tense:
 He has lived here since 1980.

 Everything has changed since the last summer.
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 It has not rained since the end of June.
 He had been writing novels since he was thirty years old.
8. From:
From indicates the starting point of an action in the past or future. It is always used with ‗to‘ or
‗till‘:
 They lived here from 1980 till/until 1990.

 We worked from morning to/till evening.
 She lived with them from the age of twenty.
 He lives in his office from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.
 She is interested in the period from 1950 to 1960.
9. Till/Until:
Till and Until are used to show something happening or done up to a particular point in time and
then stopping:
 He is expected to be here until/till the end of the week.

 I was employed by the company until 1980.
 You will have to wait until my return.
10. Before and After:

The preposition before and after are used to relate events to a particular time. Before means
earlier than and after means later than something.
 I get up before six.

 She returned before Monday.
 They came here after 8 o’clock.
 We went to Paris four years after our marriage.
Prepositions of Place:
1. At:
At is used to show the exact point, e.g. houses, stations, small villages and towns:
 They lived at Gohana, a small town in Haryana.

 He was born at his village, Shilmar.
 The Prime Minister lives at 10 Downing Street.
 She works at the Town Hall.
 The plane landed at London airport.
 The train stopped at New Delhi Railway Station.
2. In:
In is generally used when the reference is not to any specific place or to the names of large cities,
countries, continents, etc.
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 Many people in India live in villages.
 They used to live in Bengaluru.
 The Indians live in India.
 They lived in Europe for ten years.
3. On:
On is used to indicate a particular area of land or place where something is:
 He spent a few days on an island.

 He worked on a farm for sometime.
 They built their house on a beautiful piece of land.
 There is a school on the outskirts of the city.
 The hotel stands on the banks of a river.
Prepositions of Direction:
1. From:
From is used with the starting point or point of departure from a place or the point of origin:
 They came from China.

 We started from Chennai.
 The train from Kolkata has arrived.
 She comes from office at 6 p.m.
 He fell from the fifth floor of the hotel.
2. Off:
Off means from the surface of and also down from:
 He took the hat off the table.

 The boy fell off the tree/roof.
 The ball rolled off the floor.
 Keep off the grass.
 Take this packet off the shelf.
3. Out of: .
Out of means from the interior of something:
 He went out of the room.

 The bird flew out of the cage.
 She jumped out of the shelf.
 I saw him coming out of the library.
➣ Direction Towards:
1. For:
For is used to show direction only when the verb indicates the beginning of a movement:
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 She left for Japan early in the morning.
 We set off for New York
 They left for home late at night.
2. Against:
Against means to have contact or pressure:
 The child threw the ball against the wall.

 The crowd pressed against the door.
 He put the ladder against the wall.
 She stood, with her back against the well.
 He hit his head against the branch.
3.To:
To is used for destination or the end-point:
 He went from Delhi to Ambala.

 She is came to India as a tourist.
 The train started from Kolkata and came to Delhi.
 He was on his way to the station.
 We went from London to New York.
4. Towards:
Towards is used to indicate the direction of something:
 They went towards the airport.

 He was speeding towards the town.
 The train was coming towards the station.
 I saw him hurrying towards me.
 He stood with his back towards me.
 She marked towards the river.
 He ran fowards the door.
Prepositions of Position:
1. Under:
Under is used to indicate a position that is below or beneath something. It means vertically
below:
 The dog was under the table.

 He looked under the bed.
 They took shelter under the trees.
 The water flows under the bridge.
2. Underneath:
Underneath has the same meaning as under. It means a position below something.
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 She found a lot of dust underneath the carpet.
 The coin rolled underneath the table.
 He hid the gun underneath the bed.
 He left the key underneath the mat.
‗ Underneath‘ generally implies covered by something so that the object covered is not seen.
3. Below and Beneath:

Below means in a position lower than something:
 They could see the village below them.

 The lake is 500 feet below the sea level.
 He had a wound below the left shoulder.
 You should write below this line.
Beneath also means a lower position than something:
 They found the body beneath a pile of grass.

 The boat sank beneath the waves.
Beneath has the sense of directly under something.
5. Over:
Over is used to indicate a position vertically above something or somebody or partly or
completely covering the surface of something.
 She hung the calendar over the fireplace.

 There were books all over the table.
 They held a large umbrella over her.
 There was a lamp (hanging) over the table.
6. Above:
Above is used to indicate a position higher than something:
 There were clouds above us.

 The water came above our knees.
 The pilot was flying above the clouds.
 The birds were flying high above the trees.
 We lived in the room above the shop.
Above has the sense of something being directly over something else.
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Prepositions of Travel and Movement:
1. Across:
Across is used to indicate movement from one side of a space, area, line to the other side:
 I walked across the road.

 The cat ran across the lawn.
 They flew across the Pacific.
 He walked across the street.
2. Along:
Along is used to indicate movement from one end to or towards the other end of something. The
place is seen as a line:
 We walked along the street.

 She went along the corridor.
 He hurried along the path towards me.
3. Into:
Into is used to indicate movement inside a place seen as a volume. The opposite of into is out of.
It is used for entering a place, building, vehicle,
etc: ;
 The boys came into the hall.

 She ran into the house.
 He got into a bus/a train/a plane/a car.
 The athletes marched into the stadium.
4. Onto:
Onto is used to indicate movement into a position on an object or surface:
 He climbed onto the roof.

 The cat jumped onto the table.
 A tree fell onto a car.
 He stepped out of the train onto the platform.
5. Through:
Through is used to indicate movement from one end of an opening, or a passage to the other.
The place is seen as a volume.
 The train passed through a tunnel.

 The water flows through this pipe.
 They were riding through a forest.
 The ball went flying through the window.
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6. Up and Down:
Up is used to indicate movement to a higher position and down to a lower position.
 We climbed up the hill.

 The girl ran up the stairs.
 I set off up the road.
 She was walking down the street.
 She fell down the stairs.
 The stone rolled down the hill.
7. On/In/By (Travel):
We may use on, in or by while using a public or private vehicle. On is used when the vehicle is
seen as a surface, in is used when it is seen as a volume. By is used to indicate the means of
travel.
 We travelled on the horseback/foot/a cycle/a bus/a plane.

 They travelled by bus/car/train/cycle/sea/plane/air.
 We travelled in a bus/a car/a train/a ship/a plane.
Between and Among:

Between is used with two persons or things. Among is used with more than two people or
things:
 Between you and me, she is very stupid.

 She divided the apples between the two children.
 C comes between B and D.
 Samesh sat between Mahesh and Ramesh.
 He lives in a house among the trees.
 She divided the money among her four sons.
 Satish works among the poor.
But if each individual person is mentioned, between is used even if there are more than two:
 The money was divided up between Mohan, Sohan and Rohan.
If the people are mentioned as a single group, among is used:
 I shared out the food among the family.

 The girl quickly disappeared among the crowd.
. By and Beside:
By means close to someone or something. Beside means by the side of someone or something.
Both imply nearness:
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 She was sitting by the door.
 There is a glass just by your elbow.
 The telephone is by the window.
 She was sitting beside her mother.
 He always kept a dictionary beside him. Who is standing beside Kumar?
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions using the given alternatives.
(i) The lion was killed…………………… the hunter……………………… a sword, (in, on, by,
with)
(ii) Father divided his property……………………… four sons, (between, among, of, in)
(iii) He has been living in this house…………………….. 1985. (for, since, in, on)
(iv) I shall return…………………. a month, (in, of, on, for)
(v) The Ramayana is lying…………………. the table, (in, of, on, for)
(vi) We shall finish this work……………….. 5 p.m. today, (in, by, on, at)
(vii) Send me letters……………… this address, (by, in, to, on)
(viii) You should listen……………………. what your parents say. (among, in, to, between)
(ix) Sita writes………………… (with, on, in, at)
(x) He did not listen………………….. my advice, (at, to, in, on)
Answer key: (i) by, with (ii) among (iii) since (iv) in (v) on (vi) by (vii) on (viii) to (ix) in (x) to.
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions using the given alternatives.
(i) Mahesh has sent the application………………………. the principal, (by, to, for, in)
(ii) I am aware……………….. my shortcomings, (of, in, by, to)
(iii) He divided his property………………… two sons, (between, among, to, in)
(iv) He is afraid……………… lions, (to, of, in, with)
(v) Dogs always bark……………….. strangers, (in, at, on, to)
Exercise with answer key

1. I was amazed ---------------------- her brilliant performance.
2. She is anxious ------------------------ hear from her daughter.
3. I am anxious ---------------------- his health.
4. He apologized ---------------------- her for his rude behavior.
5. They appealed --------------------- us for help.
6. He appears ---------------------- be rather opinionated.
7. We want the best candidate to be appointed --------------------- the post.
8. She has an aptitude -------------------- mathematics.
9. Avail yourself ---------------------- this opportunity to visit Kashmir.
10. Are you aware ------------------- his plans?
11. She is backward --------------------- her studies.
12. I don't think we can bank --------------------- him this time.
13. The task turned out to be more difficult than he had bargained -------------------------
14. Please bear ----------------------- me until I finish this job.
15. Do you believe --------------------- socialism?
Answer key
1. I was amazed at her brilliant performance.
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2. She is anxious to hear from her daughter.
3. I am anxious about his health.
4. He apologized to her for his rude behavior.
5. They appealed to us for help.
6. He appears to be rather opinionated.
7. We want the best candidate to be appointed to the post.
8. She has an aptitude for mathematics.
9. Avail yourself of this opportunity to visit Kashmir.
10. Are you aware of his plans?
11. She is backward in her studies.
12. I don't think we can bank on him this time.
13. The task turned out to be more difficult than he had bargained for.
14. Please bear with me until I finish this job.
15. Do you believe in socialism?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
DIRECT AND INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH

There are two ways of relating what a person has said. We may quote his actual words. This is
called ‗direct speech.‘ Eg- Dorji said, I‘m writing a poem.‘
Then we may sometimes report what he said without quoting his exact words. This is called
‗indirect or reported speech. Eg- Dorji said that he was writing a poem.
If the reporting verb is in past tense, the following changes take place:
Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present Simple Past
He said: "I am happy" He said that he was happy
Present Continuous Past Continuous
He said: "I'm looking for my keys" He said that he was looking for his keys
Simple Past Past Perfect Simple
He said: "I visited New York last year" He said that he had visited New York the
previous year.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
He said: " I've lived here for a long time " He said that he had lived there for a long time
Past Perfect Past Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work when He said that they had finished the work when he
I arrived" had arrived"
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said: "I was playing football when the He said that he had been playing football when
accident occurred" the accident had occurred
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said:"I have been playing football for He said that he had been playing football for two
two hours." hours
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Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said: "I had been reading a newspaper He said that he had been reading a newspaper
when the light went off" when the light had gone off
Future Simple (will+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I will open the door." He said that he would open the door.
Conditional (would+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were He said that he would buy Mercedes if he had
rich" been rich"
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, ―She might be right.‖ – He said that she might be right.
Types of questions Direct speech Reported speech

With question word (what, "Why" don‘t you He asked me why I didn‘t
why, where, how...) speak English?‖ speak English.
Without question word (yes or ―Do you speak He asked me whether / if I
no questions) English?‖ spoke English.
Direct speech Reported speech

―Nancy,do the exercise.― He told Nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please." He asked Nancy to give him her pen.
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")
She said, ―Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.

She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy
For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)
For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).
Other transformations
 Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using
advise / urge.
Example:
―You must read this book.―
He advised / urged me to read that book.
 The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two
possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
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Example:
―Let‘s go to the cinema.―he said.
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Main clauses connected with and/but

If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and or ‚but, put ‚that after the conjunction.
Example:
He said,―I saw her but she didn't see me.― – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen
him.―
If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do
not use ‚that‘.
Example:
She said,―I am a nurse and work in a hospital.― – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a
hospital.
Changes in place, demonstratives and time expression:
Direct Indirect
Will Would
Shall Should
Can Could
May Might
Must Had to
Used to Used to
Ought Ought
Is Was
Isn‘t Wasn‘t
Are were
Aren‘t weren‘t
Has had
Hasn‘t hadn‘t
I he/she
My his/her
Here there, at the….
Now then/ at the time.
Today that day/on Monday,etc
Yesterday the day before/the previous day
Tomorrow the next day/the following day
This week that week
Last week the week before/the previous week
An hour ago an hour before/earlier
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Q. Rewrite in reported speech.
1. Ram said, ―You are late today.‖
2. He said, ―I will write a letter tomorrow.‖
3. He said to me, ―I can easily beat you in the match.‘
4. The mother said to her little girl, ―I have told you not to play with fire.‖
5. ―I have acted wisely,‖ said Dawa, ―in what I did.‖
6. ―Call the accused,‖ said the Judge.
7. He said to Arun, ―Lend me your pen, please.‖
8. Father said to me, ―Work sincerely at all times.‖
9. The strange looking man said to me, ―Wait here till I come back.‖
10. The boy said to the woman, ―Why are you lying on the road?‖
11. He said, ―Will you listen to such a man?‖
12. Pem said, ―I have just eaten my breakfast.‖
13. Aristotle said, ―Hard work is the key to success.‖
14. He said, ―I go to meet my grandmother every Tuesday.‖
15.The teacher said, ―The sun rises in the East.‖
16. ―What a horrible accident it is!‖ he said.
17. He says, ―I‘m ready.‖
18. Deki said, ―I was writing a story.‖
19. Father said, ―Last evening, I met my childhood friend.‖
20. The teacher said to me, ―I have never seen such a funny boy as you are.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
1. Voice:
Voice is that form of the transitive verb that shows whether the subject of the sentence is the doer
of the action or has the action done to it. For example:
‗Mohan played football.‘—This sentence is said to be in the active voice. Here, Mohan is the
subject and he is the doer of the action, i.e. ‗played football‘. The action of the subject is
transferred to the object ‗football because Mohan has done something to the ‗football‘. The
passive voice of this sentence is:
Football was played by Mohan.
Here the subject is ‗football‘ which was ‗object‘ in the active sentence. So here something is
done to the subject ‗football‘, i.e. it suffers the action done by something or someone.
2. Rules for the Change of Voice:

(i) The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice. The
preposition ‗by‘ is put before it.
(ii) The main verb of the active sentence changes into the past participle.
(iii) The form of the verb to be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been) is placed before the main
verb according to the tense. The auxiliary verb is changed according to the new subject in
number and person.
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3. Changes in Pronouns
4. Changes in tenses from Active Voice to Passive Voice
5. Change of voice in the Simple Present
6. Simple Past Tense
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7. Future tense
8. Present Progressive/Continuous
9. Past Progressive/Continuous
10. Pressent Perfect Tense
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11. Past Perfect Tense
12. Future Perfect Tense
13. Imperative sentence

Imperative sentence express command/request/suggestion, etc.. While changing imperative
sentence into passive voice, we use verbs like advise, request, order, etc.
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14. Interrogative sentences
15. Modal auxiliaries

The form of the passive sentences will be: modal+be+past participle
16.Prepositional verbs
17. Miscellaneous examples
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Exercise (Solved)
Change the following sentences into Passive Voice.

(i) He has missed the train.
Answer: The train has been missed by him.
(ii) Do they speak French?
Answer: Is French spoken by them?
(iii) Was he reading a book?
Answer: Was a book being read by him?
(iv) Compose this letter.
Answer: Let this letter be composed.
(v) Where did you buy this pen from?
Answer: From where was this pen bought by you?
(vi) Who wrote this speech?
Answer: By whom was this speech written?
(vii) One should respect one‘s elders.
Answer: Elders should be respected.
(viii) I did not praise anybody.
Answer: Nobody was praised by me.
(ix) He hurt his leg in an accident.
Answer: His leg was hurt in an accident.
(x) Someone was knocking at the door.
Answer: The door was being knocked by someone.
Exercise (Unsolved)
Change the following sentences into Passive Voice.

(i) Shut the door.
(ii) When did they deliver the mail?
(iii) The children were making a noise.
(iv) They will not have done this work.
(v) Why are you wasting your time?
(vi) We did not grow potatoes.
(vii) Her uncle will look after her.
(viii) Listen to his speech with attention.
(ix) He hopes to pass this year.
(x) He will look into the matter.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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PHRASAL VERBS
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and an adverb or preposition which together have a
particular meaning.
List of commonly used phrasal verbs:

1. Ask in (to invite somebody into the room or house)
Eg: I asked the guests in and offered them seats.
2. Answer back (answer a reproof impudently)
Eg: The mother was upset as her only son answered back to her insultingly.
Back out (withdraw, refuse)
Eg: He promised to coordinate the show but he backed out later.
3. Back up (support morally)
Eg: My friend did not back me up in my difficulty.
4. Be back (return from)
Eg: Wait! I‘ll be back soon.
5. Call off (cancel something)
Eg: The workers called off the strike.
6. Carry on (continue)
Eg: I carried on my research for five years.
7. Carry out (perform, obey, fulfill)
Eg: You must carry out my orders.
8. Deal with (tackle a person )
Eg: She doesn‘t know how to deal with him.
9. Deal in (trade in a commodity)
Eg: My Uncle deals in aerobics and sports.
10. Do away with (abolish)
Eg: We must do away with the dowry system in Indian marriages.
11. Do without (manage in the absence of )
Eg: I can do away without comforts.
12. Draw up (make a written plan, agreement)
Eg: The Indian government drew up several plans to improve on their economy.
13. Drop in (pay a short visit)
Eg: Whenever you have time, please drop in.
14. Drop out (withdraw, retire from scheme or plan)
Eg: Maya dropped the proposal of her marriage.
15. Fall behind (fail to keep up)
Eg: India has fallen behind in space technology.
16. Fall in with (accept, agree with plans)
Eg: She has fallen in love with the wrong guy.
17. Fall in (of troops, get into line)
Eg: The commander ordered the soldiers to fall in (a line)
18. Fall off (decrease in number, attendance)
Eg: The standard of education is falling off in colleges and universities.
19. Get away with (perform some illegal act)
Eg: They are getting away with their smuggling activities.
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20. Get over (recover from illness/distress)
Eg: She got over her difficulties and is now a happy mother of two children.
21. Get through (finish, succeed in something)
Eg: I got through the examination with flying colours.
22. Give away (give something)
Eg: The chief guest gave away the prizes to the winners.
23. Give in (yield, cease to exist)
Eg: I tried to convince her but I gave in later.
Don‘t give in, even though you are weak.
24. Give out (distribute, issue)
Eg: He gave out the answer sheets to the students.
25. Hand down (pass on)
Eg: The culture has been handed down to us from generation to generation.
26. Hand over (surrender authority)
Eg: He handed over the charge to the newly elected chairman.
27. Hand in (give by hand)
Eg: I handed in my application at the university office.
28. Hold on (wait)
Eg: Please hold on, I will come with you.
29. Hold up (stop, delay)
Eg: We were held up by heavy traffic yesterday.
30. Keep down (repress, control)
Eg: We must try to keep down illegal activities in school.
31. Keep off (refrain from)
Eg: Keep off! This is a prohibited area.
Keep off your hands from this business.
32. Keep on (continue)
Eg: I kept on writing to her.
33. Keep out (prevent from entering, stay outside)
Eg: He kept me out at the gate.
34. Keep up (maintain)
Eg: He tried hard to keep up his courage when he lost the match.
35. Keep up with ( remain abreast of)
Eg: We must keep up with other nations in the promotion of education.
36. Let down (lower, disappoint)
Eg: Please, don‘t let me down.
37. Let in (allow to enter, admit)
Eg: I asked her to let me in
We let them in the house.
38. Live up to (maintain a certain standard)
Eg: We must live up to the expectations of our parents.
39. Make out (discover the meaning, understand)
Eg: I tried hard to make out her words.
40. Make up (come to a decision, end a quarrel, invent, put together, beautify, compose)
Eg: I made up my mind to visit that place.
She made up a story to convince her father.
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41. Move on (advance, continue))
Eg: You must move on with your life.
42. Pick out (choose, select)
Eg: She requested me to pick out a nice dress for her.
43. Pull down (demolish)
Eg: The government decided to pull down the building.
44. Pull through (recover)
Eg: She pulled through her illness completely and felt better.
45. Put away (remove)
Eg: She put away the books and cleaned the table.
46. Run into (meet by chance)
Eg: I ran into an old friend last Sunday at the City Mall.
47. Run out of (consume all)
Eg: We ran out of sugar and rice in the house.
I have run out of stationary in my office.
48. See off (accompany someone to a train/plane)
Eg: I went to see my friend off at the airport.
49. See through (discover a hidden attempt)
Eg: He tried to cheat his wife but she saw through his cruel intention.
50. Sell off (sell cheaply)
He sold off his old car.
51. Sell out (sell all)
All the tickets for the film were sold off.
52. Set off (start a journey)
Eg: We set off on our journey in the morning.
53. Set up (establish, achieve, start a new business)
Eg: I‘m going to set up a degree college in my village.
54. Take after (resemble)
Eg: Karma takes after her father.
55. Take down (write )
Eg: The students are taking down the notes.
56. Take off (remove, leave the ground)
The little baby can‘t take off his shoes by himself.
The plane took off at the airport and started for New York.
57. Take over (assume responsibility for, control of )
Eg: She took over the school as the Principal in 1998.
58. Wear off (disappear gradually)
Eg: The gold coating will wear off in a year.
59. Wear out (use till no longer serviceable)
Eg: The door paint was worn out and looked ugly.
60. Wind up (bring/come to an end)
Eg: I will wind up the meeting in few minutes.
61. Work out (find solution to a problem)
Eg: We must work out unemployment problem in our country.
62. Watch over (look carefully)
Eg: She decided to watch over his actions.
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QUESTION TAGS
Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences – particularly in spoken
English. In other words, question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
They are mainly used in speech when we want to:
 confirm that something is true or not, or

 to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.
Positive/negative
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….
 He’s a doctor, isn’t he?

 You work in a bank, don’t you?
... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
 You haven’t met him, have you?

 She isn’t coming, is she?
With auxiliary verbs
The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb
(‗have‘, ‗be‘) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.
 They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?

 They weren’t here, were they?
 He had met him before, hadn’t he?
 This isn’t working, is it?
Without auxiliary verbs
If the main part of the sentence doesn‘t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an
appropriate form of ‗do‘.
 I said that, didn’t I?

 You don’t recognise me, do you?
 She eats meat, doesn’t she?
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With modal verbs
If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal
verb.
 They couldn’t hear me, could they?

 You won’t tell anyone, will you?
With ‘I am’
Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‗I am‘. The question tag for ‗I am‘ is
‗aren’t I?‘
 I’m the fastest, aren’t I?
Intonation
Question tags can either be ‗real‘ questions where you want to know the answer or simply asking
for agreement when we already know the answer.
If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice rises.
If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.
Practice exercise: Fill in the spaces with the correct question tags.
1. You like fish, ?
2. You have tea at 4, ?
3. You don't have tea at 4, ?
4. There'll be a strike tomorrow, ?
5. You never work on Sundays, ?
6. Nobody's been told, ?
7. Everyone's ready to leave now, ?
8. That suit is expensive, ?
9. You left the gas on, ?
10. You couldn't do me a favour, ?
11.. John smokes a lot, ?
12. My mother has lovely hair, ?
13. You do like this film we're watching, ?
14. He can't speak English very well, ?
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15. Your brother isn't married, ?
16. She doesn't cook very well, ?
17. We can go to the cinema tomorrow if you want, ?
18. They don't have a very nice house, ?
19. She is the richest woman in the town, ?
20. We should leave before it gets dark, ?
21. You'd like a cup of tea, ?
22. They mustn't go too near the lake, ?
23. You'll see John tomorrow, ?
24. We won't be going to that restaurant again, ?
25. Let's try and phone her again, ?
26. You've seen this film already, ?
27. Your uncle has never been out of the village, ?
28. You're seeing Amy next week, ?
29. I'm not speaking first at the meeting, ?
30. This was an interesting exercise, ?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
MODALS / MODAL AUXILIARY VERB
The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would, should. They are used with other
verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so on. Below is a list showing the most useful
modals and their most common meanings:
Modal Meaning Example

can to express ability I can speak a little Russian.
can to request permission Can I open the window?
may to express possibility I may start a new business.
may to request permission May I sit down, please?
must to express obligation I must go now.
must to express strong belief She must be over 90 years old.
should to give advice You should stop smoking.
would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say sorry.
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Q.Write the correctt modal verb.
1. There are plenty of tomatoes in the fridge. You buy any.

2. It's a hospital. You smoke.
3. He had been working for more than 11 hours. He be tired after such
hard work. He prefer to get some rest.
4. I speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Morocco. But
after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot
almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I just say a few things in the
language.
5. The teacher said we read this book for our own pleasure as it is
optional. But we read it if we don't want to.
6. you stand on your head for more than a minute? No, I .
7. If you want to learn to speak English fluently, you to work hard.
8. Take an umbrella. It rain later.
9. You leave small objects lying around . Such objects
be swallowed by children.
10. People walk on grass.
11. Drivers stop when the traffic lights are red.
12. I ask a question? Yes, of course.
13. You take your umbrella. It is not raining.
14. you speak Italian? No, I .
Answer key:
1. needn’t
2. mustn’t
3. must, may
4. could, can
5. can, needn’t
6. can, can’t
7. need
8. might
9. shouldn’t, may
10. mustn’t
11. must
12. may
13. needn’t
14. can, can’t
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DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Comparison can be made using the three forms of the adjective.

By adding ‘er’ and ‘est’
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bright brighter brightest
black blacker blackest
bold bolder boldest
clever cleverer cleverest
cold colder coldest
fast faster fastest
great greater greatest
high higher highest
kind kinder kindest
long longer longest
small smaller smallest
strong stronger strongest
sweet sweeter sweetest
tall taller tallest
young younger youngest
By adding ‘r’ and ‘st’
brave braver bravest
fine finer finest
large larger largest
nice nicer nicest
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noble nobler noblest
pale paler palest
simple simpler simplest
wise wiser wisest
white whiter whitest
By deleting the final ‘y’ and adding ‘ier’ and ‘iest’
costly costlier costliest
dry drier driest
easy easier easiest
happy happier happiest
heavy heavier heaviest
lazy lasier lasiest
mercy mercier merciest
wealthy wealthier wealthiest
By doubling the final consonats
big bigger biggest
dim dimmer dimmest
fat fatter fattest
hot hotter hottest
thin thinner thinnest
By using more and most
active more active most active
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attractive more attractive most attractive
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
careful more careful most careful
courageous more courageous most courageous
cunning more cunning most cunning
difficult more difficult most difficult
famous more famous most famous
faithful more faithful most faithful
proper more proper most proper
popular more popular most popular
splendid more splendid most splendid
Irregular Comparisons
bad worse worst
evil worse worst
good better best
ill worse worst
far farther farthest
well better best
late later latest
little less least
much more most
many more most
near nearer nearest
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old older oldest
old elder eldest

Comparison between two things.
Positive Comparative
Johnsy is as clever as Rosy Rosy is not clever than Johnsy
Benjamin is atleast as tall as Jane Jane is not taller than Benjamin
Comparative Positive
Lazar is brighter than Stalin Stalin is not so bright as Lazar
Superlative Comparative Positive
Akthar is the richest man Akthar is richer than any other No other man in Kanpur is
in Kanpur man in Kanpur so rich as Akthar
London is one of the London is bigger than most Very few cities in England
biggest city in England other city in England are so big as London
Sheakespear is the greatest Shakespeare is greater than all No other dramatist is so

of all dramatists other dramatists great as Shakespeare
Lazar is as strong as Lenin Lenin is not less strong than Lazar
Positive Comparative Superlative
Some boys in our class are at

Some boys in our class are not Benjamin is not the most
least as intelligent as
intelligent than Benjamin intelligent boy in our class
Benjamin
Iron is the most useful of all Iron is more useful than any No other metal is so
metals. other metal. useful as iron.
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Tom is the cleverest of all Tom is cleverer than any other No other boy in the class is
boys in the class. boy in the class. so clever as Tom.
Rain water is the purest Rain water is purer than any No other water is so pure as
water. other water. rain water.
Paris is one of the busiest Paris is busier than most other Very few cities in England
cities in England. cities in England. are as busy as Paris.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Very few animals are as fast Cheetah is faster than most Cheetah is one of the
as cheetah. other animals. fastest animals.
Food ball is one of the most Foot ball is more interesting Very few games are as
interesting games. than most other games. interesting as foot ball.
Paris is hotter than England. England is not so hot as Paris.
John is as tall as David. David is not taller than John.
The Blue Mountain Express runs faster than The Green Express does not run so fast as the
the Green Express. Blue Mountain Express.
Q. Fill in the box with the correct answer from the choices given.
1. Very few books are read Harry Potter by children.
(a) as much as (b) more than (c) the most
2. Life in the desert is than life in the mountains.
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(a) as dreary as (b) the dreariest (c) drearier
3. Honey is medicine.
(a) as good as (b) better than (c) the best
4. School days are than college days.
(a) as enjoyable as (b) more enjoyable (c) the most enjoyable
5. The coconut tree has any other tree.
(a) as much uses as (b) more uses than (c) the most uses of
6. Dogs are as dolphins.
(a) as friendly (b) more friendly (c) the most friendly
7. No other country sells number of cellphones as India after

America.
(a) as many (b) more (c) the most
8. Nursing is many other professions.
(a) as noble as (b) nobler than (c) the most noble
9. Very few channels are watched by children the Cartoon Channel.
(a) as much as (b) more than (c) the most
10. Black is the colour.
(a) as dark as (b) darker than (c) darkest
11. Milk is diet.
(a) so good as (b) better than (c) the best
12. Noodles is dish for children and youngsters.
(a) so enjoyable as (b) more enjoyable than (c) the most enjoyable
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13. We have not played any match as this.
(a) so bad (b) worse (c) the worst
14. This road is the one in town.
(a) as long as (b) longer than (c) longest
Transformations
No other town in Malaysia is as old as Malacca. (Positive)

Malacca is older than any other town in Malaysia. (Comparative)
2. No other boy in the class is as clever as Peter. (Positive)
Peter is the cleverest boy in the class. (Superlative)
3. Jupiter is bigger than any other planet. (Comparative)
No other planet is as big as Jupiter. (Positive)
4. John is more industrious than most other boys. (Comparative)
John is one of the most industrious boys. (Superlative)
5. India is larger than any other democracy in the world. (Comparative)
No other democracy in the world is as large as India. (Positive)
6. No other playwright is as great as Shakespeare. (Positive)
Shakespeare is the greatest of all playwrights. (Superlative)
7. Very few Indian kings were as great as Asoka. (Positive)
Asoka was greater than most other Indian kings. (Comparative)
8. No other island in the world is as large as Greenland. (Positive)
Greenland is larger than any other island in the world. (Comparative)
9. No other metal is as heavy as lead. (Positive)
Lead is the heaviest of all metals. (Superlative)
10. The cow is more useful than most other animals. (Comparative)
The cow is one of the most useful animals. (Superlative)
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ANTONYM, SYNONYM AND HOMONYM
The English language is nothing if not complex. And that complexity lends itself well to some of the
finest prose in history. The fact that we can say one thing a hundred different ways is surely part of
the magic.
Certain words have identical meanings; some have similar meanings; others are as distinct as night
and day. As for words with similarities, they're known as synonyms. Antonyms, however, are words
that have opposite meanings.
Then, there's one other category of -nym words full of interest and intrigue. Homonyms are words
that are pronounced and spelled the same, although they have different meanings. Let's dive into an
array of examples of antonyms, synonyms, and homonyms.
Examples of antonyms:
Antonyms can be used to demonstrate contrast between two things or provide clues as to what is
meant. Here is a list of antonyms for you to review:
Achieve - Fail Giant - Dwarf Random - Specific
Afraid - Confident Gloomy - Cheerful Rigid - Flexible
Ancient - Modern Individual - Group Shame - Honor
Arrive - Depart Innocent - Guilty Simple - Complicated
Arrogant - Humble Knowledge - Ignorance Single - Married
Attack - Defend Liquid - Solid Sunny - Cloudy
Blunt - Sharp Marvelous - Terrible Timid - Bold
Brave - Cowardly Noisy - Quiet Toward - Away
Cautious - Careless Partial - Complete Tragic - Comic
Complex - Simple Passive - Active Transparent - Opaque
Crazy - Sane Permanent - Unstable Triumph - Defeat
Crooked - Straight Plentiful - Sparse Union - Separation
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Demand - Supply Positive - Negative Unique - Common
Destroy - Create Powerful - Weak Upset - Relaxed
Divide - Unite Praise - Criticism Urge - Deter
Drunk - Sober Private - Public Vacant - Occupied
Expand - Contract Problem - Solution Vague - Definite
Freeze - Boil Professional - Amateur Villain - Hero
Full - Empty Profit - Loss Wax - Wane
Generous - Stingy Quality - Inferiority Wealth - Poverty
Examples of synonyms:
Synonyms provide variety in our speech or writing. And, since there are endless arrays of synonyms,
it's possible to avoid over-usage and repetition. Let's take a look at some examples of synonyms:
Amazing: astounding, surprising, Fertile, fruitful, abundant, Polite: courteous, cordial,

stunning productive gracious
Annihilation: destruction, carnage, Gargantuan: colossal, mammoth,

Portion: piece, part, segment
extinction tremendous
Risky: dangerous, perilous,

Benefit: profit, revenue, yield Hungry: empty, ravenous, starved
treacherous
Injured: damaged, wounded, Sleepy: drowsy, listless,

Brave: courageous, valiant, heroic
harmed sluggish
Cohesive: united, connected, close- Senseless: absurd, illogical,

Intelligent: brilliant, clever, smart
knit unreasonable
Tumultuous: hectic, raucous,

Cunning: keen, sharp, slick Kindle: ignite, inflame, burn
turbulent
Destitute: poor, bankrupt, Loyal: faithful, ardent, devoted Vacant: empty, deserted,
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impoverished uninhabited
Deterioration: pollution, Veracity: authenticity,

Old: elderly, aged, senior
defilement, adulteration credibility, truthfulness
Organization: association,
Enormous: huge, gigantic, massive Wet: damp, moist, soggy
institution, management
Partner: associate, colleague, Young: budding, fledgling,

Feisty: excitable, fiery, lively
companion tenderfoot
Examples of homonyms:
Homonyms are words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings. Here are
some common homonym examples:
 Atmosphere - the gases surrounding the earth / the mood of a situation
 Bail - to clear out water / to release a prisoner
 Band - a ring, sometimes symbolizing eternity / a musical group
 Beat - to overcome something / to feel exhausted
 Capital - the chief city of a state / a crime punishable by death
 Cleave - to split or sever / to adhere to
 Dive - to go down quickly / an unpleasant place
 Employ - to put into use / to hire someone for a job
 File - to store computer data / to make a formal request
 Fine - being of high quality / sum of money used as a penalty
 Grave - something very serious / a place to bury the dead
 Hide - to keep something secret / the skin of an animal
 Iron - to press or smooth / silvery-gray metal
 Jade - a hard, green stone / a hardened or bad-tempered woman
 Lark - a small bird / something done for fun
 Objective - not being influenced by prejudice / the lens of a microscope or camera
 Plaque - an ornamental plate or slab that commemorates a person or event / a deposit on teeth
prone to bacteria
 Refrain - to stop oneself from doing something / a repeated line in music or poetry
 Reticule - at a distance or disconnected / an unlikely possibility
 Tender - sensitive or painful to the touch / soft food i.e. a chicken tender
Homonyms are not to be confused with homographs - words that are spelled the same but have
different pronunciation and meanings - or homophones - words that are pronounced the same but
have different spellings and meanings.
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IDIOMS
Idioms exist in every language. They are figurative words or phrases that aren't meant to be
taken literally. For example, if you say someone has ―cold feet,‖ it doesn't mean their toes are
actually cold. Rather, it means they're nervous about something.Idiomscan't be deduced merely
by studying the words in the phrase.
The examples below demonstrate how you can't really deduce the meaning of these expressions
without knowing what they mean. The next time someone says they're feeling "under the
weather," you'll know it has nothing to do with weather patterns, but rather that they're feeling
quite ill.
 Getting fired turned out to be a blessing in disguise. - Getting fired (normally a negative
event) turned out to be a good thing.
 These red poppies are a dime a dozen. - These red poppies are very common.
 Don't beat around the bush. - Just say what you really mean.
 After some reflection, he decided to bite the bullet. - After some reflection, he decided to do
the undesirable thing he was avoiding.
 I'm going to call it a night. - I'm going to bed.
 He's got a chip on his shoulder. - He's holding onto a grudge or grievance that's making
him very angry or callous.
 Would you cut me some slack? - Don't be so hard on me.
 Don't cut any corners. - Don't take any shortcuts and produce shoddy work.
 She let things get out of hand. - She lets things get out of control.
 I'm going back to the drawing board. - I'm going to start over.
 Hang in there. - Stick with it.
 Don't jump the gun. - Don't do something before the allotted time.
 He decided to let her off the hook. - He decided to release her from her responsibility.
 He missed the boat. - He missed out on an opportunity.
 I go out for walks once in a blue moon. - I go out for walks very rarely.
 Pull yourself together, man! - Calm down.
 She seriously rubbed me the wrong way. - I did not like her at all.
 There he is, speak of the devil. - There he is; we were just talking about him.
 That was the straw that broke the camel's back. - My patience has finally run out.
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 Well, she's got the best of both worlds. - She's receiving benefits from both of her current
situations or opportunities.
 Why are you so bent out of shape? - Why are you so upset?
 I'm feeling under the weather. - I'm feeling sick.
 We'll cross that bridge when we get there. - We'll solve that problem when the time
comes.
 I'm sorry but I just can't seem to wrap my head around it. - I'm sorry but I just can't seem
to understand.
 Wow, you can say that again. - I totally agree.
Some more examples of everyday idioms:
 A grey area - Something unclear
 A rip-off - Too expensive
 Add fuel to the fire - To add more to an existing problem
 As easy as ABC - Something is very easy
 Call it a day - Time to quit
 Cool as a cucumber - To be very calm under stress
 Crack a book - Open up a book and study
 Down to the wire - At the last minute
 Draw a blank - Can't remember
 Fill in the blanks - Provide more information
 Get a kick out of it - Really enjoy/like something
 Get your act together - Behave properly
 Give it a shot - To try to do something
 Have mixed feelings - Be unsure of how you feel
 Have second thoughts - Have doubts
 In hot water - Be in trouble
 In the same boat - Be in the same situation
 It's in the bag - It's a certainty
 I've got your number - To say you can't be fooled by someone since you have them figured
out
 Miss the boat - You missed your chance
 Mumbo jumbo - To call something total nonsense
 Out of the blue - With no warning
 Pass with flying colors - To succeed at something easily
 Piece of cake - Something very easy
 Read between the lines - Find the hidden meaning
 Second to none - The best
 The icing on the cake - Something additional that turns good into great
Body Part Idioms:
 Cross your fingers - For good luck
 Fell on deaf ears - People wouldn't listen to something
 Get cold feet - Be nervous
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 Giving the cold shoulder - Ignore someone
 Have a change of heart - Changed your mind
 I'm all ears - You have my full attention
 It cost an arm and a leg - It was expensive
 Play it by ear - Improvise
 See eye to eye - Agree
 Slipped my mind - I forgot
 Speak your mind - Say what you really feel
Idioms with animal names in it:
 A bull in a china shop - Someone who is very clumsy
 A little birdie told me - Someone told me a secret
 Bee in her bonnet - She is upset
 Birdbrain - Someone who is not very smart
 Busy as a bee - To be very active and working hard at something
 Cat got your tongue? - Why aren't you talking?
 Cry crocodile tears - To pretend to be upset
 Curiosity killed the cat - Asking too many questions may get you in trouble
 Different kettle of fish - Something completely different
 Doggy bag - A bag to take home leftovers from a restaurant
 Fish out of water - Being somewhere you don't belong
 For the birds - Something that is not worth anything
 Get off your high horse - Quit thinking you are better than others
 Goose is cooked - Now you're in trouble
 Hold your horses - Wait a minute
 Horse of a different color - Something that is quite different, a separate issue
 Hot dog - A person doing athletic stunts that are dangerous
 Let the cat out of the bag - Tell a secret
 Make a mountain out of a molehill - Make something unimportant into a big deal
 Night owl - Someone who stays up late
 Pig out - To eat a lot
 Put a bug in his ear - Make a suggestion
 Raining cats and dogs - It is raining very hard
 Snail's pace - To move extremely slow
 Stir a hornet's nest - To cause a lot of trouble
 Teacher's pet - The teacher's favorite student
 The world is your oyster - You can achieve whatever/go wherever you want
 When pigs fly - To say something is impossible
 Wolf in sheep's clothing - A person who pretends to be nice but is not
 You can't teach an old dog new tricks - It's harder for older people to learn new things
# Idioms are a unique way to get your point across, and show just how fun language can be.
Now that you've seen some suitable examples of idioms, you can see that it's a piece of cake to
show your witty side by using an idiom in writing or conversation.
50
SENTENCE TRANSFORMATIONS
a) Although/Though
Tashi is rich but he doesn’t help others.
Although Tashi is rich, he doesn’t help others.
b) ‗so…that‘ with ‗too…to‘.

- Sonam is so wise that she cannot fail her exam.
- Sonam is too wise to fail her exam.
c) ‗too…to’ with ‗so …that’

- The tree is too high for me to climb.
- The tree is so high that I cannot climb.
d) No sooner…than
* Begin with ‗No sooner‘ + [had + Past participle] + than + second clause
Begin with ‗No sooner‘ + [did + Present tense] + than + second clause
- As soon as we reached the station, the train left.

- No sooner had we reached the station than the train left.
- As soon as we reached the station, the train left.

- No sooner did we reach the station than the train left.
e) Hardly …. when
* Begin with ‗Hardly‘ + [had + Past participle] + when + second clause
- Begin with ‗Hardly‘ + [did + Present tense] + when + second clause
- No sooner had I posted the letter that I got a call.

- Hardly had I posted the letter when I got a call.
- As soon as he saw me, he fled.

- Hardly did he see me when he fled.
f) Inspite of
* Begin with ‗In spite of‘ + ing Verb + second clause.
Remove: but / yet / still
- Karma was an ordinary singer but he fought his way to success.

- In spite of being an ordinary singer, Karma fought his way to success.
- It was cold yet we marched on.

- In spite of being cold, we marched on.
g) Despite
* Begin with ‗Despite‘ + noun +ing Verb + second clause
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- Even though the car was old, still it went very fast.
- Despite the car being old, it went very fast.
h) Having
* Begin with ‗Having‘ + past participle
- After she completed her work, she went home happily.

- Having completed her work, she went home happily.
- After he wrote the letter, he burnt it.

- Having written the letter, he burnt it.
i) Not only…but also

- She likes music and reading.
- Not only does she like music but also reading.
- He was fined. He was sent to prison.

- Not only was he fined but also sent to prison.
j) Unless
- If you don’t go immediately, you will not meet him.
- Unless you go immediately, you will not meet him.
- If Sonam does not study, she will fail.

- Unless Sonam studies, she will fail.
k) On
* Begin with ‗On‘ + ing Verb + second clause.
- When he entered the room, he heard a great noise.

- On entering the room, he heard a great noise.
l) neither…nor
- He is not a miser. He is not a spendthrift.
- He is neither neither a miser nor a spendthrift.
- Pema and her friend were not involved in the quarrel.

- Neither Pema nor her friend was involved in the quarrel.
- Both her parents don’t like music.

- Neither of her parents like music.
m) ‗either…or‘
- Nima will come or she will write a letter.
- Nima will either come or she will write a letter.
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- The station is a good place to meet. The park is a good place to meet.
- Either the station or the park is a good place to meet.
n) enough to
- He is tall. He can play basketball.
- He is tall enough to play basketball.
o) Besides
* Begin with ‗Besides‘ + ing Verb + second clause
- He not only robbed the bank, but also killed the manager.
- Besides robbing the bank, he also killed the manager.
- He is not only intelligent, but also handsome.

- Besides being intelligent, he is also handsome.
p) both…and
- He is very foolish. His wife is also as foolish as him.
- Both he and his wife are foolish.
- He is honest. He is dependable.
- He is both honest and dependable.
q) Not withstanding
- He worked hard but he did not succeed.
- Not withstanding his hard work, he did not succeed.
- My mother is very old but she works hard.

- Not withstanding her old age, she works hard.
r) such … that
- He was a gentleman. Everybody respected him.
- He was such a gentleman that everybody respected him.
r) as well as
- She is bright. She is clever.
- She is bright as well as clever.
s) as if/ as though
- Sonam was sleeping. He pretended to be sick.
- Sonam was sleeping as if he was sick.
- Asha talks like a little girl.

- Asha talks as if she is a little girl.
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t) Incase
- Dawa may call. I don’t want to go out today.
- I don’t want to go out today incase Dawa calls.
- Incase Dawa calls; I don’t want to go out today.
u) Even thoughy/ Even if

- I will never sell another record but I will continue to sing.
- Even though I will never sell another record, I will continue to sing.
- Offering them more money for the job wouldn’t make any difference.
- Even if we offer them more money for the job, it wouldn’t make any difference.
v) Scarcely…when
* Begin with ‗Scarcely‘ + [had + past participle] + when + second clause
Begin with ‗Scarcely‘ + [did + present tense] + when + second clause
- As soon as she saw her mother, she began to cry.

- Scarcely had she seen her mother when she began to cry.
- Scarcely did she see her mother when she started to cry.
w) As soon as
- Hardly did we hear the news when we rushed out.
- As soon as we heard the news, we rushed out.
x) Replacing ‗still‘ with ‗nevertheless‘

- Tandin was tired still she continued to work.
- Tandin was tired nevertheless she continued to work.
Sample EXERCISE 1: Rewrite each sentence using the instruction given in brackets.
1. A soon as I arrived in Thimphu, I was to go straight to the hotel. (Begin: on)

· On Arriving in Thimphu, I was to go straight to the hotel.
2. Pema has taken his friend‘s book and spoiled it. (Begin: Not only)
· Not only has Pema taken his friend‘s book but also spoiled it.
3. After they had rested, the men continued their journey. (Use: having)
· Having rested, the men continued their journey.
4. Dorji was not rich. He was not handsome. (Use: neither…nor)

· Dorji was neither rich not handsome.
5. He is intelligent. He can learn it. (Use: enough to)

· He is intelligent enough to learn it.
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6. He is too honest to accept a bribe. (Use: so …that)
· He is so honest that he cannot accept a bribe.
7. He is very old man. He cannot run like you. (Use: such… that)
· He is such an old man that he cannot run like you.
8. He is so sleepy that he could not stay awake. (Use: too…to)

· He is too sleepy to stay awake.
9. As soon as he got the letter, he left for Thimphu. (Begin: No sooner )

· No sooner did he get the letter, than he left for Thimphu.
10. Although it was a cloudy day, the temperature is 40 oC. (Use: In spite of)
· In spite of being a cloudy day, the temperature was 40 oC.
Sample EXERCISE 2: Use the word given in bracket.
1. Dema seldom earns more than Nu. 15,000/- in a month. (income)

· Dema‘s monthly income doesn‘t exceed Nu. 15,000/-
2. My uncle appears from time to time on television. (occasionally)

· My uncle appears on television occasionally.
3. Kuenzang knows nothing of the customs of his people. (ignorant)

· Kuenzang is ignorant of the customs of his people.
4. The Indian museum has borrowed a relic for six months. (loan)
· A relic is on loan to the Indian museum for six months.
5. What do you think about the situation in Nepal? (opinion)

· What is your opinion about the situation in Nepal?
6. Rinzin inherited a lot of money after his father‘s death. (inheritance)

· Rinzin has got a lot of money as inheritance after his father‘s death
7. Deki did not mean to hurt the dog. (intention)

· Deki‘s intention was not to hurt the dog.
8. Few good doctors are to be found in our village. (dearth)

· There is no dearth of good doctors in our village
9. During diwali lights are set up all over our home. (illuminated)
· During diwali lights are illuminated all over our house.
10. Fish is sold according to weight. (depends)
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· Selling of fish depends on its weight.
· Sale of fish depends on its weight.
Sample EXERCISE 3: Use any form of the word given in the brackets.
1. This matter must be investigated very carefully. (require)

· This matter requires a careful investigation.
2. The museum is open to tourists beyond this point. (permit)

· The museum is permitted to tourists beyond this point.
3. Choden has been put in charge of the factory. (management)

· Choden has been put in management of the factory.
4. The two smugglers were arrested by the police. (custody)

· The two smugglers are under custody of the police.
5. I consider Singapore a friendlier city than London. (opinion)

· In my opinion Singapore is a friendlier city that London.
6. Sangay got back his property ten years later. (restored)

· Sangay‘s property was restored ten years later.
7. Both Lhamo and Lhendup look like their father. (resemblance)

· Both Lhamo and Lhendup have a resemblance to their father.
8. I wonder if it was possible to stay here. (thought)

· I thought if it was possible to stay here.
9. Karma is not very keen on western food. (care)

· Karma does not care about western food.
10. Jampel was given more than he could manage. (cope)

· Jampel was given more than he could cope.
Practice exercise 1
(i) It‘s against the rules for players to have a drink. (Use: ‗allowed‘ )
(ii) I haven‘t got any money left. (Use: ‗run out‘ )
(iii) Dorji is strong. He can lift this huge bag. (Use: ‗enough to‘ )
(iv) Wangmo is baking the bread. (Change to passive voice.)
(v) The boys said, ―We are practicing football.‖ (Change to reported speech.)
(vi) He was so tired that he could not complete his work. (Use: ‗too‘)
(vii) This is not the way to talk to your superior. (Change into interrogative sentence.)
(viii) His sacrifice is very remarkable. (Begin: How… )
(ix) She is not only intelligent but also hard-working. (Begin: Besides… )
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(x) It was not necessary for Palden to buy a new cell-phone. (Use: ‗didn‘t‘ )
(xi) I don‘t live in Phuntsholing. (Use: ‗no longer‘)
(xii) Sweep the corridors of that building. (Begin: Let……… )
(xiii) Prem Gurung is strong. He can lift this huge box. (Use: ‗enough to‘ )
(xiv) My mother will like this dress. (Change to passive voice.)
(xv) He said, ―I have written a letter.‖ (Change to reported speech.)
(xvi) The children stood up when they saw their teacher. (Begin: On seeing……….)
(xvii) He is not a coward. He is not a liar. (Use: ‗neither…nor‘)
(xviii) It‘s against the rules for players to have a drink. (Use: ‗allowed')
(xix) She is not only intelligent but also hard-working. (Begin: Besides…….. )
(xx) I couldn‘t attend the class because I was ill. (Begin: As I……….)
Practice exercise: 2
(i) He is too stupid to handle such a situation. (Remove: ‗too‘)
(ii) John is the tallest boy in the class. (Begin: No other…….)
(iii) No sooner did I hear the gunshot than I rushed to the spot. (Begin: As soon
as………..)
(iv) He told his friends, ―I am going home.‖ (Change to reported speech.)
(v) Jamyang was writing an essay.(Change to passive voice)
(vi) The match was cancelled due to the bad weather. (Use: ‗because‘)
(vii) He ran home when he heard the news of his sister‘s arrival from abroad.
(Begin: On…..)
(viii) This is not the way to talk to your superior. (Change to interrogative sentence.)
(ix) Besides being lazy, she is also irresponsible. (Use: not only…but also‘
(x) You are funnier than her. (End: …….as you.)
(xi) Pema gave an angry shout. (Use ‗shouted‘)
(xii) Daniel can lift 90 kilos, but Matthew can lift 120 kilos. (Use ‗stronger than‘ )
(xiii) I don‘t live in Bumthang. (Use ‗no longer‘)
(xiv) A taxi would have been best. But she didn‘t have the money.
(Make one sentence using the word ‗enough‘)
(xv) The shirt is cheaper than the skirt. (Use ‗more expensive‘)
(xvi) My opinion is ________ Spain _________ Germany will win the match.
(Fill in the blanks using appropriate conjunctions.)
(xvii) This book is not interesting. It is not useful.
(use ‗neither…nor‘ to join the sentences.
(xviii) She teaches History. (Change to passive voice.)
(xix) Tenzin said, ―I will come back tomorrow.‖ (Change to indirect/reported speech.)
(xx) coffee/cold/getting/is/your
(Put the words in the right order to form a sentence.
i. He is both a good dancer and a melodious singer. (Use: not only…but also)
ii. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home. (Begin: Having…)
iii. Hurry up. You will be late. (Combine the sentences without using ‘and’ or ‘but’)
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iv. He told his friends, ―I am going home.‖ (Change to reported speech)
v. The hunter killed the lion. (Change to Passive Voice)
vi. As soon as he saw the policeman, he ran away. (Begin with: No sooner…)
vii. Parents have to control their children‘s aggressive behavior.(Begin with:
Children’s…)
viii. It is hard work teaching young kids to spell. (End with: ………. hard work.)
ix. Dawa is too proud to beg for forgiveness. (Remove ‘too’)
x. Both Sonam and Tshering were disqualified for the job. (Use: neither….nor)
xi. She cares little about what he says. (Begin: She doesn’t…………)
xii. Pradeep can lift 90 kilos of rice, but Arun can lift 120 kilos of rice.
(Use ‘stronger than’ )
xiii. I don‘t live in Punakha. (Use ‘no longer’)
xiv. There is no smoke without fire. (End: ……….there is fire.)
xv. All trust an honest man. (Begin: An honest man……………)
xvi. They continued to dance till the end. (Begin: They went on ……….)
xvii. The boys stood up when they saw their father. (Begin: On seeing ……………)
xviii. She is feeding pigeons. (Change to passive voice.)
xix. Tash Pemi said, ―I wrote an essay yesterday. (Change to reported speech.)
xx. It was very silly of me to forget your birthday. (Begin: How…………….)
i. Who has painted the wall? (Begin: By whom…….)

ii. Open the box of chocolate. (Begin: Let……… )
iii. Wangmo is strong. She can lift this huge log. (Use: ‗enough to‘ )
iv. Amrita is cooking a delicious meal. (Change to passive voice.)
v. He said, ―I have written a letter.‖ (Change to reported speech.)
vi. The private hospitals pay doctors a lot of money.(Begin: Doctors are…………)
vii. She did not spend many days in India. (End: ……. a few days in India.)
viii. Is there a shop that sells shoes near here? (Use: shoe-shop)
ix. She is not only intelligent but also hard-working. (Begin: Besides……..)
x. Harish is more intelligent. Sahil is less intelligent. (Use: than )
xi. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home. (Combine the following two
sentences by using a gerund)
xii. Seday said, ―Today is the happiest day of my life!‖ (Change to Reported Speech)
xiii. He told his friends, ―I am going home.‖ (Change to Direct Speech)
xiv. The hunter killed the lion. (Change to Passive Voice)
xv. As soon as he saw the policeman, he ran away. (Use: No sooner)
xvi. I shall never forget you. (End with: …remember you.)
xvii. I am sure that he will succeed. (Rewrite by using the adverb form of the word ‗sure‘)
xviii. A leopard can never change its spots. (Change into interrogative sentence)
xix. You must have doubted his actions. (Change into Negative sentence)
xx. Thimphu is the biggest city in Bhutan. (Begin: No other….)
xxi. Driving at night is dangerous. (End: …..at night.)
xxii. There is nothing better than a busy life. (Change to interrogative sentence.)
xxiii. The plane was twenty-five years old. It crashed. (Combine using ‗that‘)
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Practice exercise: 5 (write in the space provided)
i. He is a resident of Phuntsholing. (Use: ‗lives‘)

………………………………………………………………………………….
ii. The men are playing archery. (Change to passive voice. )
……………………………………………………………………………………..
iii. Sangay is intelligent. He can solve this sum. (Combine using: ‗enough to‘ )
……………………………………………………………………………………..
iv. My cousin Wangyel will like this new book. (End: ….by my cousin Wangyel)
………………………………………………………………………………….
v. I couldn‘t sleep. I was tired. (Begin: Despite….)
………………………………………………………………………………….
vi. The man ran away when he saw the police. (Begin: On seeing……….)
…………………………………………………………………………………..
vii. He is not a coward. He is not a liar. (Use: ‗neither…nor‘)

…………………………………………………………………………………..
viii. Is there a shop that sells shoes near here? (Use: ‗shoe-shop‘ )
……………………………………………………………………………………
ix. I need a dog. It guards the house. (Combine using: ‗to‘)

……………………………………………………………………………………
x. Unless you pay your bills, you will have to leave. (Begin: If…)
…………………………………………………………………………………….
xi. The teacher will give us a project work. (Begin: A project work…)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
xii. It is extremely foolish to waste time playing video games. (End: …foolish. )
…………………………………………………………………………………………
xiii. This knife is blunt. (Use: ‗not‘)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
xiv. Wangmo is cooking dinner. (Change to passive voice.)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
xv. ―I don‘t believe it!‖ he exclaimed. (Change to reported speech.)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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xvi. Was that picture painted by Ugyen? (Begin: Did …)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
xvii. She is so weak that she cannot walk. (Use: ‗too‘)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
xviii. It was half-past one when the fire broke out. (Begin: The fire …)
………………………………………………………………………………………….
xix. You will enjoy the journey. (Begin: You will find … )
………………………………………………………………………………………….
xx. Unless you pay your bills, you will have to leave. (Begin: If …)
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
(xxi) Karma is helping Jigme. (Change to passive voice.)
………………………………………………………………………………………
(xxii) He is too stupid to handle such a situation. (Remove: ‗too‘)
………………………………………………………………………………………
(xxiii) The rain was very heavy. It caused a major landslide in the nearby village. (Combine
using ‗enough to‘)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
(xxiv) Was that picture painted by you? (Begin: Did…….)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
(xxv) Parents have to control their children‘s aggressive behavior. (Begin: Children‘s…)
………………………………………………………………………………………
(xxvi) The match was cancelled due to the bad weather. (Use: ‗because‘)
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(xxvii) One should have sympathy for the handicapped. (Use the verb form of ‗sympathy.‘)
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
(xxviii)There is nothing better than a busy life. (Change to interrogative sentence.)
………………………………………………………………………………………
(xxix) Tagore was a poet. He was a painter. (Begin: Besides…)
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(xxx) All trust an honest man (End: …….by all.)
………………………………………………………………………………………
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THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
Language
Every creature strives to communicate with its own kind. One of the ways in which this need is
fulfilled is by expressing thoughts in the medium of language. Language is the bridge between
individuals that tells them they are needed, that they are not alone. Language thus gives self-
expression and by extension identity. Language is a systematic and conventional means of
human communication by way of vocal sounds.
Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech sounds combined into words. Words are
combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.
Language is a system of communication which consists of a set of sounds and written symbols which
are used by people for talking and writing. Language is quintessentially a human trait.
It is the peculiar possession of humans. Other animals interact by means of sounds and body
movements only. So in these terms, humans may be described as the talking animals. The most
important dividing line between humans and animals is speech.
Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound
or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others. There are thousands of human
languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though every shared property has
exceptions.
One of the main basic human urges is to communicate.
Language- a means of communication

Language is the medium of communication. Communication happens when the decoder receives,
decodes and understands the meaning of the encoder. The encoder and the decoder are called the
interlocutors (persons who take part in a conversation)
A Communication Model
Encoding Transmission Reception Decoding
Human language is more a complex and sophisticated form of communication. No animal

communication matches or even comes close to the variety, complexity and creativity of human
languages.
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Language is not only human phenomenon. Animals cry, hoot, bleat, coo, dance, sing…….to
communicate their message.
Sounds are basic units of language. But not sounds in them or in a jumble sounds have to be
meaningful. They acquire meaning when they organize themselves in an intelligible
combinations and forms.
Sound Forms Meaning
Sounds >> Forms >> Meaning give us an intelligible (that can be understood), sensible
structure to understand the world around us.
*Purpose/functions of Language
I - For Inter-Personal Communication:

~ Comprehending and internalizing or conveying personal experience.
~ Expressing judgements.
~ Constructing, following or expressing reasoned argument.
~ Defending and challenging ideas, attitudes, feelings and options.
II – For Learning
~ Gaining tolerance through experiencing a wide range of new and different viewpoints.
~ Transforming abstract concept into concrete reality.
~ Speculating about possibilities.
~ Trying ideas on for size and thinking them through.
~ Revising and reshaping personal ideas and attitudes based on the responses of other persons.
~ Devising and asking questions of the other person.
~ Initiating activities about personal work and the work of others.
III – For Entertainment:

~ Enjoying the sound and beauty of language.
~ Understanding the power of the spoken word.
~ Stimulating the imagination.
*Features of language
a)Duality patterning:
: Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. This property is called duality or
double articulation. Individual sounds such as n, b and i when combined can produce new sounds
and meaning as ‗bin‘ or ‗nib‘. So at one level, we have distinct sounds, and at another level, we
have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is one of the most economical features of human
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language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large
number of sound combinations (eg. Words) which are distinct in meanings.This duality (a finite
number of components combining to produce an infinite arrangement of novel utterances) is an
important property of human languages, since it allows for the expression of a potentially infinite
number of meaningful language sequences
b) Displacement:
Human language can be used to refer to any dimension of space and time. We can use language
to refer to the past, the present and the future. It can also be used to refer to any place here or
elsewhere. In neither case does the language user have to move from his or her place to refer to
time and place.
Another explanation can be that, in contrast to other animals, humans have a sense of the past
and the future. A gorilla, for example, cannot tell his fellows about his parents, his adventures in
the jungle, or his experience of the past. The use of language to talk about things other than "the
here and now‖ is a characteristic of humans. Displacement is thus our ability to convey a
meaning that transcends the immediately perceptible sphere of space and time
c) Open-endedness/productivity:
The sounds, words and sentences in a language may be finite or limited, but the combinations
and constructions are infinite or unlimited. This creative or productive potential of language
enables its user to manipulate and make an infinite variety of constructions to express himself or
herself. Or in other words,
: It is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created. A child
learning language is especially active in forming and producing words which he or she has never
heard of before. With adults, new situations arise or new objects have to be described, so the
language-users manipulate their linguistic resources to produce new expressions and new
sentences. This property of human language is termed as ‗productivity‘ or creativity or open-
endedness. It is an aspect of language which is linked to the fact that the potential number of
utterances in any human language is infinite. Animal communication on the other hand appears
to have very little flexibility.
d) Arbitrariness:
Human language is an arbitrary (illogical) phenomenon. There is no natural connection or
relationship between a word and its meaning. The signifier and the signified are brought together
arbitrarily.
Why a table is called "table"? Obviously, the thing never told us its name. And tables do not
produce a sound similar to the word. The same applies to most of the words of our language.
Hence, words and their meanings have no a priori connection. We cannot tell from the sound
structure which meaning is behind it. Language is not motivated, as we can also put it.
e)Cultural Transmission:
Human beings may be born with innate predispositions to acquire language, but they are not born
with the ability to produce utterances in a specific language. Language is not genetically
transmitted. It is culturally transmitted and has to be consciously learned. : While we may inherit
brown eyes and dark hair from our parents, we do not inherit their language. We acquire a
language in a culture with other speakers and not frm parental genes. An infant born to Korean
parents but adopted by an English couple may speak English fluently although he may look like
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his Korean parents. This process where language is passed on from one generation to the next is
described as cultural transmission.
f) Meta-Linguistic System:
Human language can be used to talk about itself, its features, varieties and levels of
sophistication.
g) Language is a system:
It is a system of systems. Language is not a collection of sounds and forms at random, but a
highly organized system in which each unit has its place and value. Each sound is related to other
sounds, each word is related to other words to make meaning.
h) Language is an individual and social phenomenon:

Language serves to express individual needs and urges; it also brings an individual into
relationship with the external world.
i)Human Language is species-specific and species- uniform:

Language is specific to human of the species and all human beings are capable of learning the
language in which they are born.
What is Etymology?
The Etymology of a word refers to its origin and the historical roots of the term as a linguistic
form. Etymology, in general, is the theory and study of the origins and history of linguistic form.
A dictionary etymology tells us what is known of an English word before it became the word
entered in that dictionary. If the word was created in English, the etymology shows, to whatever
extent is not already obvious from the shape of the word, what materials were used to form it. If
the word was borrowed into English, the etymology traces the borrowing process backward from
the point at which the word entered English to the earliest records of the ancestral language.
Where it is relevant, an etymology notes words from other languages that are related (‗akin‘) to
the word in the dictionary entry, but that are not in direct line of borrowing.
*Where do new words come from? How do you figure out their
histories?(word-formation)
a)Borrowing: A majority of the words used in English today are of foreign origin. English still
derives much of its vocabulary from Latin and Greek, but we have also borrowed words from
nearly all of the languages in Europe. Therefore,borrowing means the taking over of words from
other languages.Ex.tycoon,tsunami (Japan), crops,picnic,canteen(French),
zero,sofa,sultan(Arabic), yoga,pundit, jungle, pajamas(Indian)
bShortening or Clipping: Clipping is a process whereby an appreciable chunk of an existing

word is omitted; leaving what is called a stump word. Ex:Ad(Advertisement),
phone(telephone),gym(gymnasium),lab(laboratory),etc.
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c)Back-Formation: It usually occurs when a noun is reduced to a verb.Ex: ‗television‘ becomes
‗televise‘, ‗donation‘ becomes ‗donate‘, ‗editor‘ as ‗edit‘,etc.
d)Blends/blending: A blend is a word made by combining other words or parts of words in such
a way that they over-lap or one is infixed into the other. The term blend is also sometimes used
to describe words like brunch, from breakfast plus lunch, ‗ smog‘formed from smoke+fog,
‗telecast‘ formed from television+broadcast, etc in which pieces of the word are joined but there
is no actual overlap.
e)Transfer of personal or place names: Over time, names of people, places, or things may
become generalized vocabulary words. Thus did Forsythia develop from the name of botanist
William Forsyth, Silhouette from the name of Etienne de‘ Silhouette, a parsimonious French
Controller General of Finances, and Denim from Serge de‘ Nimes (a fabric made in Nimes,
France)
f)Imitation of sounds: Words can also be created by Onomatopoeia (a figure of speech), the
naming of things by a more or less exact reproduction of the sound associated with it. Words
such as buzz, hiss, guffaw, whiz,crash,bang,hush and pop are of imitative origin, meaning these
words have come into existence after the sounds that they have produced.
g)Compounding: It is the combination of two words to create a new

word.Ex:hand+bag=handbag, wall+paper=wallpaper, sun+burn=sunburn,etc.
h)Affixation: When the prefixes and suffixes are added to the root words to form a new word.
EX:by adding prefixes- un-usual, un-happy, dis-respect, dis-honesty,etc
By adding suffixes- care-less, use-less, faith-ful, use-ful, etc.
i)Coinage: It is an invention of new terms nor words. It happens in rapidly changing cultures.
Ex: jeans from Genoa, Italy where the cloth was first made, ‗Sony‘ from Sonay companies,etc.
Theories of Language Acquisition:
The nature versus nurture debate extends to the topic of language acquisition. Today, most
researchers acknowledge that both nature and nurture play a role in language acquisition.
However, some researchers emphasize the influences of learning on language acquisition, while
others emphasize the biological influences.
1.Behaviouristic Theory: (Environmental Influences on Language Acquisition)

A major proponent of the idea that language depends largely on environment was the behaviorist
B. F. Skinner. He believed that language is acquired through principles of conditioning,
including association, imitation, and reinforcement. According to this view, children learn words
by associating sounds with objects, actions, and events. They also learn words and syntax by
imitating others. Adults enable children to learn words and syntax by reinforcing correct speech.
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Critics of this idea argue that a behaviorist explanation is inadequate. They maintain several
arguments:
*Learning cannot account for the rapid rate at which children acquire language.
*There can be an infinite number of sentences in a language. All these sentences cannot be
learned by Imitation.
*Children make errors, such as over regularizing verbs. For example, a child may say Billy hitted
me, incorrectly adding the usual past tense suffix -ed to hit. Errors like these can‘t result from
imitation, since adults generally use correct verb forms.
*Children acquire language skills even though adults do not consistently correct their syntax.
2.Rationalistic Theory: (Biological Influences on Language Acquisition)

The main proponent of the view that biological influences bring about language development is
the well-known linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argues that human brains have a language
acquisition device (LAD), an innate mechanism or process that allows children to develop
language skills. According to this view, all children are born with a universal grammar, which
makes them receptive to the common features of all languages. Because of this hard-wired
background in grammar, children easily pick up a language when they are exposed to its
particular grammar.
Evidence for an innate human capacity to acquire language skills comes from the following
observations:
*The stages of language development occur at about the same ages in most children, even though
different children experience very different environments.
*Children‘s language development follows a similar pattern across cultures.
*Children generally acquire language skills quickly and effortlessly.
*Deaf children who have not been exposed to a language may make up their own language.
These new languages resemble each other in sentence structure, even when they are created in
different cultures.
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FORMAL LETTERS
A formal letter has a format which needs to be followed. A typical formal letter format is
1. Sender‘s address
2. Date
3. Name / Designation of Addressee
4. Address of the Addressee
5. Salutation
6. Subject
7. Body – Introduction, Content, Conclusion
8. Complimentary Close
9. Signature / Name of the Sender
10. Designation of the Sender
Sample 1
Shari Higher Secondary School
Paro
Bhutan
December 15, 2019
The Sports Incharge

Department of Youth and Sports
Thimphu
Bhutan
Enquiry about Basketball Coaching classes
Sir,
This is with reference to your advertisement in the ‗The Kuensel about the Basketball Coaching classes. I
have completed my class 10 board exam and during my winter break I am keen on joining your program for
the coaching classes.
Kindly let me know about the procedure of applying for the qualifying test and its date. I would also like to
know the duration of the coaching programme, the duration and the number of classes per week along with
the available mode of practices provided. Information about the fees payable and the other required materials
is highly appreciated.
I would like to enroll as soon as possible. Your early response will enable me to decide fast.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely,
sign
Ugyen Peljor
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Sample 2
New Era Business

16 Ring Road
Delhi
November 30, 2019
The Manager
Woods and Worlds
35 Patel Street
Delhi
Placing order for furniture.
Dear Sir,
As we have discussed through phone calls, on behalf of our company I would like to place an immediate
order for the supply of the following set of furniture:
Model No. Name of the Item Quantity
1254 Chair 25
1478 Chair 12
2148 Conference Table 03
4615 Table 50
2418 Sofa 02
As we have discussed, we are sending a demand draft of Rs. 20,000 as advance payment. The rest will be
paid at the time of delivery. Kindly ship the above order at the above-mentioned address.
Kindly adhere to the terms of the agreement. We hope to receive the order in four working days.
Thanking You.
Yours truly,
XYZ
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Sample 3
Q. You are Dheyang, a student of Motithang Higher Secondary School, Thimphu. Write a letter to
The Managing Director, BBS. Thimphu, requesting for a chance to participate in the weekly quiz
programme.
Motithang Higher Secondary School,

Thimphu,
Bhutan.
2nd June, 2020
To,
The Managing Director,
Bhutan Broadcasting Service,
Thimphu,
Bhutan.
Requesting for a chance to participate in the weekly quiz programme.
Sir,
I am Dheyang, a class X student of Motithang Higher Secondary School. I usually watch BBS
programmes, especially the news and the weekly quiz program. I like the quiz program very
much. The various rounds, the presentation of the quiz master and the performance of the
participants from various schools all look really wonderful. The program is very useful to the
students and it is highly informative.
I shall be absolutely grateful to you, if you give me a chance to participate in the weekly quiz
programme broadcasted by BBS. Hoping to get a favourable reply.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely,
Sign
Dheyang.
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Sample 4
Q. You are Deki Selden,School Captain of Changangkha Middle Secondary School, Thimphu. Write a
letter to the Director of Royal Education Council, Thimphu requesting him/her to be a judge to the Inter-
House English Debate Competition in your school. Mention the time and venue of the programme.
Changangkha Middle Secondary School,

Thimphu,
Bhutan.
24.08.16
To,
The Director,
Royal EducationCouncil,
Thimphu, Bhutan.
Invitation for Inter-House English Debate Competition.
Respected Sir,
This is to inform your good self that Changangkha Middle Secondary is going to have its Inter
House English Debate competition on 1st September,2020 at YDF hall. The programme will start
from 9.30 A.M. I am the school captain and I have been directed by our Principal to approach
your good self to grace our occasion as the Guest of Honour and the main judge of the
competition.
Further, as desired by the Principal of the school, the prizes are also to be distributed by your
good self. The prizes shall be meant for the winners, runners up and the best debater of the year.
Please join us on this important event of our school.
Hoping that Sir will agree to our humble request.
Yours faithfully,
sign
Deki Selden,
School captain
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EXPOSITORY ESSAYS
The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate
evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and
concise manner. This can be accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition,
example, the analysis of cause and effect, etc.
The structure of the expository essay is held together by the following.
 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of
the essay: It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the
guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the
essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.
 Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion:
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical
progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay‘s argument, and the
structure will collapse.
 Body paragraphs that include evidential support: Each paragraph should be limited to
the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the
essay. What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one‘s audience. It
is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical
connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph.
 Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal): Often times,

students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation; therefore,
such essays do not typically allow for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence.
 A bit of creativity!: Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with
essay writing, it is an art form nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the formulaic nature of
expository writing at the expense of writing something interesting. Remember, though
you may not be crafting the next great novel, you are attempting to leave a lasting
impression on the people evaluating your essay.
 A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the
evidence provided: It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to
struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on
the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any
new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize and come to a conclusion
concerning the information presented in the body of the essay.
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Types of Expository Essay
1. Cause and Effect Essays:
Such essays delve into the reasons that cause something and then, discuss its results or effects.
They are the most popular types of academic essays. Types of Expository essay writing
examples that come under this category are:
 Discuss the causes of deterioration of Murray-Darling Basin and its effects on Australian
economy. (Covers both ‗causes‘ and ‗effects‘)
 5 Main Causes of Dementia (Delves only into the ‗causes‘)
 Why are oil spills a serious threat to marine environment? (Discuses only the ‗effects‘)
2. Problem and Solution Essays:

Problem-solution essays are a popular type for short essays and subject exams. They consider all
the problems related a particular situation or topic, and suggest solutions to those problems. It
usually has four components – Situation, Problem, Solution, and Evaluation.
The ‗Situation‘ is often stated in the essay prompt and you may touch upon it in the
‗Introduction‘. ‗Evaluation‘ can be a part of the ‗Conclusion‘ of your Expository Essay or may
be omitted altogether in shorter essays.
Types of Expository essay writing examples that come under this category might include
situations like:
 Junk food is causing lifestyle diseases. How to avoid it?
 Bullying in schools should be stopped immediately. Discuss.
 Refugees should be accepted with restrictions. Is it necessary?
3. Classification Essays:
In Classification essays, we sort out things into different categories on the basis of pre-defined
criteria for each category. Each category in which we put things should have features unique to it
and ideally, should not overlap with other categories.
Such essays can be very useful when we are trying to study unique features of certain set of
things in a specialized subject area.
4. Comparison or Contrast Essays:

Compare-and-contrast essays are often assigned to students to gauge their understanding about a
subject. It is possible that in shorter essays, you might be required to discuss just similarities or
differences between two topics.
5. Definition Essays:
Definition essays seem simple but they are not. They have to be thorough and are often quite
lengthy. When you choose to ‗define‘ a word, be sure to choose something on which you can get
lots of information easily.
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To add depth to your definition essay, you can discuss about the word‘s history and origins, and
add your own perspective to it. Words that are disputable or controversial are good for writing
definition essays.
6. Process Essays:
The process essay is, in simple terms, a HOW-TO essay. This type of paper serves to inform the
reader on how something is done, i.e. teach him the steps for reaching a certain goal. The goal
can be everything – starting from how something is built or manufactured, to how you cook a
delicious meal.
A proper process essay should serve to lead its reader through the task and ensure certain
success. In most cases, it is used to inform people who are new or inexperienced in the task.
Transition Words (to be used in your expository essay writings)
Words that can be used to show location:

above behind by near throughout
across below down off to the right
against beneath in back of onto under
along beside in front of on top of
among between inside outside
around beyond into over
Words that can be used to show time:

while first meanwhile soon then
after second today later next
at third tomorrow afterward as soon as
before now next week about when suddenly
during until yesterday finally
Word that can be used to compare two things:

likewise also while in the same way
like as similarly
Words that can be used to contrast two things:

but still although on the other hand
however yet otherwise even though
Words that can be used to emphasize a point:

again truly especially for this reason
to
to repeat in fact emphasize
Words that can be used to conclude or summarize:

finally as a result to sum up in conclusion
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lastly therefore all in all because
Words that can be used to add information:

again another for instance for example
also and moreover additionally
as well besides along with other
next finally in addition
Words that can be used to clarify:

that is for instance in other words
Sample 1:
Meghan Markle: Actress to Duchess
2018 was a big year for the royal family of the United Kingdom: Prince Harry married
Meghan Markle, an American Actress. It caused a social media and news storm that caught
the attention of almost every person in the world. But how much do we know about Meghan
Markle? This essay will expound on the life of Markle and her rise to fame.
She was born as Rachel Meghan Markle on August 4, 1981, in Los Angeles, California. Her
mother, Doria Ragland, is a social worker and yoga instructor, and her father, Thomas Markle
Sr., is a television director of photography lighting director. However, the marriage did not
last long after Meghan was born, as they divorced when she was six years old (John, Tara).
Meghan has mixed heritage, as her mother is African-American and her father is Caucasian.
With her father working in television, she essentially grew up and is a product of Hollywood.
Meghan often visited the set of Married… with Children. Besides being on television sets, she
attended school in the area as well. Her first form of education started at the Hollywood Little
Red Schoolhouse, which is a private school (Goulet, Matt). Around this time, at age 11, she
made a successful campaign to make Procter & Gamble change one of their television
commercials due to its sexist content. This was her first bit of fame, as Nick News picked up
the story (Boedeker, Hal).
Despite being raised Protestant, she went to an all-girl Catholic school, Immaculate Heart
High School, in Los Angeles. After graduating from high school, she attended Northwestern
University, and became a part of the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority, did community service,
and worked on charity projects. During this time, she took up an internship at the American
embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In addition, she studied one semester in Madrid,
Spain. Ultimately, she received a bachelor‘s degree with a double major in theater and
international studies (―Meghan Markle Exclusive‖).
A year before she graduated, Meghan got her first on-screen appearance on television on the
show General Hospital as a nurse. Subsequently, she had guest roles on the television shows
Century City (2004), The War at Home (2006), and CSI: NY (2006). In between these
opportunities, she did some contract acting and modeling—notably, as a ―briefcase girl‖ on
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the gameshow Deal or No Deal. In 2008, she appeared in two episodes of the television series
Fringe as a junior agent. But these early years were difficult for her in terms of her career, as
she said, ―Being ‗ethnically ambiguous‘, as I was pegged in the industry, meant I could
audition for virtually any role … Sadly, it didn‘t matter: I wasn‘t black enough for the black
roles and I wasn‘t white enough for the white ones, leaving me somewhere in the middle as
the ethnic chameleon who couldn‘t book a job‖ (France, Lisa Respers).
However, she started to get more work in 2010, making appearances in the film Get Him to
the Greek, and Remember Me. In the following year, she was in the film Horrible Bosses.
During this time, she also was in episodes of Cuts; Love, Inc.; 90210; Knight Rider; Without
a Trace; The League; and Castle. She landed a pivotal role in the series Suits in 2011 as a
paralegal that eventually became an attorney. She was a part of the show up until the seventh
season in 2017. The portrayal of her character won her fame and a stable income. While on
the show, she started her own lifestyle website called The Tig, writing about various feminine
topics. This endeavor proved to be lucrative, as she was earning $80,000 annually from her
sponsors and endorsements (Town & Country).
To backtrack a bit, she started a relationship with actor and producer Trevor Engleson in
2004, and they eventually married in 2011 in Jamaica. But in only two years, the couple
divorced. After this first marriage, she had about a two-year relationship with chef Cory
Vitiello. By June of 2016, Meghan had begun a relationship with Prince Harry. Meghan and
Harry met through a blind date set up by a mutual friend. Though rumors about their
relationship were swirling around the internet and on the news, in September of 2017, the
couple made their first public appearance together at the Invictus Games in Toronto, Canada
(―Meghan Markle Attends as Prince Harry Launches Invictus Games‖).
As a sidetrack, it is important to mention that Meghan has been involved in a vast array of
charity work. At the 2014 summit One Young World, Meghan spoke about gender equality
and modern-day slavery. In the same year, she went to Afghanistan and Spain with the United
Service Organizations. Two years after, in 2016, she became a global ambassador for World
Vision Canada. In this capacity, she travelled to Rwanda to participate in the Clean Water
Campaign. In the same year, she went to India for raising awareness of women‘s issues, and
later wrote an op-ed for Time magazine about the stigmatization of menstrual health. In
addition, she worked as an advocate for the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and
the Empowerment of Women (Shepherd, Jack).
Back to her relationship with British royalty, by November, 2017, Prince Harry and Meghan
announced their engagement by Clarence House and Kingston Palace. Overall, there was a
positive reception to their engagement, and the black community in the UK and around the
world were generally happy to have the possibility of someone of African descent be in the
royal family. Shortly after the engagement, Meghan announced that she would retire from
acting and she started the process of becoming a British citizen. She then got baptized into the
Church of England in order to be in the upcoming wedding. To much excitement and press,
the wedding between Prince Harry and Meghan happened on May 19th of 2018 at St.
George‘s Chapel, Windsor Castle (NBCNews.com). With her marriage, she became a
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princess of the United Kingdom, the Duchess of Sussex, Countess of Dumbarton, and
Baroness Kilkeel. She is formally called ―Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Sussex.‖
After the wedding, the first engagement she participated in as a Duchess was on May 22,
celebrating the charity of work of Prince Charles. In July, The British Government requested
her to visit Dublin, Ireland. Meghan is now a youth ambassador to the Commonwealth
alongside Harry. In this capacity, she visited Australia, Fiji, Tonga, and New Zealand in
October of 2018. Though the royal family has a low level of support in these regions, Meghan
was well-received in these areas. At present, Meghan and Harry live at Nottingham Cottage in
London, where they are expecting their first child.
Meghan Markle was born into the lap of Hollywood, graduated from university with a degree
in theater and international studies, to later become a famous actress after struggling for about
10 years to land a feature role on television. After a failed marriage and another unsuccessful
relationship, she went on a blind date with Prince Harry, and they soon got engaged and
married. The well-known American television actress is now the first person of the royal
family of the United Kingdom of African heritage, being the Duchess of Sussex, the wife of
the Duke of Sussex, Prince Harry.
Sample 2:
Fidget Spinner
A fidget spinner is a toy that became extremely popular in 2017, and has continued to be in
use. It has been promoted as a helper for people with ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder) and other psychological issues dealing with anxiety. However, these claims have not
been substantiated by science. The following paragraphs will discuss the origin, design,
marketing and sales, and cultural significance of the fidget spinner in depth.
The beginnings of fidget spinners is a bit unclear. Based on the information from Fidget
Spinner Review, ―According to many, the spinner‘s inventor is Catherine Hettinger. However
a good explanation on the true inventor, as in who would be able to patent the invention with
the United States Patent and Trademark Office, reveals that the typical fidget spinner‘s
embodiment is outside the patent claims of Catherine‘s and a thorough patent search by David
Miller revealed many fascinating toys with nearly identical structures but the ability for
engaging the user‘s fingertips on both sides of the device simultaneously may have existed
previously, including rotationally symmetrical lobes and bearing hubs on both sides such as
shown in figure five of US patent 8,727,630‖ (Fidget Spinner Review). Thus, despite many
claims, Hettinger was not the original creator of the fidget spinner.
Now that we have gone over the origin of this toy, it is vital to go over its design. Its ball
bearing core allows the arms of the spinner to spin freely. The bearing is contained within a
circular pad, and this is where the user holds the fidget spinner with one hard, usually. The
spinners are made from a variety of materials, such as brass, plastic, copper, aluminum,
stainless steel, and more. The bearings are composed of ceramic metal and different metals.
Besides the bearing, the weights contained within the arms make spinning practically
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effortless and keeps the momentum going. Each bearing can be adjusted to vary the spin time,
noise, and vibration of the spinner. The design makes the fidget spinner not only easy to use,
but almost hypnotic in its movement (Arnett, Dugan).
Since we have gone over the basics of the origin and design of this toy, it is time to discuss
the marketing and sales of the fidget spinner. It has been marketed in a variety ways, despite
its simple design. It has been described as a health product for eliminating the tension and
anxiety of children, as a product that produces calming fun, and as a business tool for people
who are overworking and need relief. The sales have been high and the reselling value is
sometimes astronomical. According to Startup Mindset, ―Companies are buying them from
China for $1.40 and reselling them for $20. The cheap fidget spinners that retail for about $20
in North America are an out of control success. The Chinese continue to manufacture and
send abundant supplies into the U.S., and Canada and stores still can‘t hold onto them‖
(―Here‘s How Brilliant Marketing Helped the Fidget Spinner Rise in Popularity‖). In fact,
there were so many sales, that in some schools, they were banned due to their ubiquitousness
in classrooms.
Lastly, the cultural significance of the fidget spinner is essential to tackle when discussing this
toy. According to The Atlantic, ―It is a toy for the hand alone—for the individual. Ours is not
an era characterized by collaboration between humans and earth—or Earth, for that matter.
Whether through libertarian self-reliance or autarchic writ, human effort is first seen as
individual effort—especially in the West‖ (Bogost, Ian). So, before, tops toys made a
connection with the earth and humanity, but now these types of toys are increasingly
individual-centric.
Fidget spinners became a global phenomenon in 2017. It is a simple toy or tool that spins by
the flick of a finger. It has been promoted as a thing that can calm people down, soothe
anxiety, and be used as a source of entertainment. Though science has not proven any of their
benefits, people continue to use them for stress reduction and an escape from boredom.
Sample 3:
How to Lose Weight
―How to lose weight‖ is one of the top search questions on Google. There is a definite reason
for this: not only do many people feel unsatisfied with their weight, but there is a global
obesity epidemic happening now. There are also definite ways to cut down on your weight:
eat less sugars and starches, lift weights three times a week and be physically active in
general, get enough sleep, eat regular meals with a focus on less carbs, and increase your
metabolism through appropriate foods.
Cutting down on sugars and starches is difficult, but it is perhaps the best first step. These
elements are very tasty and common, but controlling your intake of these factors will
significantly reduce your weight. According to Heathline, ―The most important part is to cut
back on sugars and starches (carbs). When you do that, your hunger levels go down and you
end up eating much fewer calories. Now instead of burning carbs for energy, your body starts
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feeding off of stored fat‖ (―How to Lose Weight Fast: 3 Simple Steps, Based on Science‖). It
is said that within the first week of this diet, one can lose up to 10 pounds. This reflects both
body fat and water weight.
Speaking of weight, it is important to lift them in order to shed some pounds. Being
physically active in general helps, but lifting weights can work on body fat more intensely.
According to My Fitness Pal, ―Your best bet for fat loss will be to perform a combination of
cardio and strength training. After all, one study in BMC Public Health found overweight and
obese adults who followed a 12-week cardio and resistance-training program lost more
weight than those who only did cardio‖ (―Can Lifting Weights Help You Lose Fat?‖). Also of
note is that lifting weights increases testosterone and growth hormone, which makes you lose
fat easier eventually. Besides, these hormonal effects increases your good mood and promotes
a more positive body image.
In fact, short sleep duration is one of the strongest risk factors for obesity. In one extensive
review study, children and adults with short sleep duration were 89% and 55% more likely to
become obese, respectively‖ (―10 Reasons Why Good Sleep Is Important‖). As it can be seen,
sleep has a large impact on our weight gain and loss. Besides, it is nice to feel well-rested.
It is also important to eat well. There is no need to starve yourself to lose weight. In fact, this
is a rather unhealthy way to lose weight. It is best to eat regular meals that are focused on a
low-carb diet. This way, your body will receive the nourishment it needs, and also your
metabolism can be stable (―How to Lose Weight Fast: 3 Simple Steps, Based on Science‖).
Furthering on the topic of metabolism, it has a significant impact on how we lose and gain
weight. Eating the right foods that will increase our metabolism undoubtedly helps us to lose
some pounds. Foods such as almonds, beans, berries, bone broth, celery, chia seeds,
chocolate, apple cider vinegar, cinnamon, coconut oil, coffee, curry, fish, grapefruit, green
tea, hot peppers and jalapenos, lean turkey, seaweed, spinach, watermelon, and water are all
sources of nourishment that boosts metabolism (Monaco, Emily). Of course we should not
overindulge in these foods. However, eating these items regularly will increase our
metabolism and promote weight loss.
Weight loss can be a difficult journey. However, by consuming less sugars and starches,
lifting weights a few times a week, getting great sleep, eating regular meals with less carbs,
and increasing metabolism through the foods we take in, we can manage to lose weight and
be healthy at the time. Losing weight should not be suffering, but rather a conscious decision
we stick to.
Sample 4:
Waste Management: Facts and Future
The world has a waste problem. This is known by virtually everyone on the planet, but hardly
anyone cares to look at the exact figures and to face the reality of what is coming in terms of
the condition of our home: Earth. In order to highlight how much waste us humans produce,
the following paragraphs will be written in detail.
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First, let us start with the yearly count. According to The World Counts, ―Every year we
dump a massive 2.12 billion tons of waste. If all this waste was put on trucks they would go
around the world 24 times‖ (―Tons of Waste Dumped – Globally, This Year‖). Not only is
this amount unprecedented and is only getting worse every year due to population growth, the
majority of countries are not dealing with waste properly. For instance, the United States is
known for producing the largest amount of garbage in the world. ―The U.S. consumes 30
percent of the world‘s resources despite making up only 5 percent of the world‘s population.
It also produces 30 percent of the world‘s waste. In only a year, Americans throw away
around 26,800,000 tons of food, 8,550,000 tons of furniture and furnishings, 6,330,000 tons
of clothing and footwear, and tons of other waste‖ (―Top 10 Countries that Produce the Most
Waste‖). Therefore, it can be said that the United States is the main problem-country to
regulate in terms of waste production.
Another disturbing note is that 99 percent of the materials we purchase our thrown away
within six months (―Tons of Waste Dumped – Globally, This Year‖). This is caused by the
capitalist idea of wanting to always have something new and fashionable, instead of
something old. Also, producers of materials sometimes make sure that products do not last
long. This phenomenon is called planned obsolescence (The Economist).
With this much being thrown away and at such a rapid rate, the future looks dim. The World
Bank reports that, ―Without urgent action, global waste will increase by 70 percent on current
levels by 2050, according to the World Bank‘s new What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of
Solid Waste Management to 2050 report‖ (World Bank). This is important to take in, as all
this waste harms human health, natural environments, and speeds up climate change. The
poorest nations, unfortunately will be hit the hardest by the increasing amount of garbage due
to their lack of proper waste management systems, population growth, and uninformed
populace about how to handle waste.
Looking farther into the future, when will be the peak of our waste? In other words, when will
waste production be so high, that its effects will be irreversible? Around the year 2100, the
peak of our waste production is estimated to come. By this time, the world will be covered in
trash, with no more space for landfills, and the burning of waste either being too harmful for
the environment or not enough to combat the exponential growth of garbage (Stromberg,
Joseph).
All that trash will not only be unsightly, but also harmful to humans, animals, and plants.
Plastics and other materials are ingested by animals, and the chemicals these materials contain
can easily get inside our bodies, and affect our hormones and overall health. In addition, the
spread of garbage hinders plant growth (―How Our Trash Affects the Whole Planet‖).
Waste management is more pertinent than ever. By 2050, the exponential production of trash
will result in a 70% increase of waste. Furthermore, by 2100, the world will be so covered in
trash, that it will be a common sight wherever we go. Governments and organizations have to
curtail this increase, or else Earth will be swallowed by human garbage, and disease, death,
and a lack of living space will come as if a nightmare.
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Sample 5:
Causes of Unemployment
Though employment worldwide seems to be rising, unemployment is still a serious issue.

Also, there are many workers that can easily be fired and with positions that are unstable. But
what are the main causes of employment? Recessions, outsourcing, low consumer demand,
rising minimum wages, and criminal history are all elements that contribute to employment
rates.
Recessions are common in every country, including the United States of America. According
to Mary Hall of Listopedia, ―A recession has a domino effect, where increased unemployment
leads to less growth and a drop in consumer spending, affecting businesses, which lay off
workers due to losses. A recession occurs when there are two or more consecutive quarters of
negative gross domestic product (GDP) growth. In other words, economic growth slows
during a recession‖ (―Why Does Unemployment Rise during a Recession?‖). Some recessions
are so severe that even highly educated individuals cannot obtain jobs.
Recessions can also lead to outsourcing. Stated by Chron, ―…an outsourced job doesn‘t get
replaced by anything. The work has moved to another country. Meanwhile, these unemployed
workers find themselves hard-pressed to get work in their field, because other companies are
following suit and outsourcing‖ (Fredman, Josh). This mostly refers to foreign outsourcing,
whereas domestic outsourcing can also affect wages negatively.
Sometimes, besides recessions and outsourcing, unemployment is caused by low consumer

demand. According to economicshelp.org, ―Demand deficient unemployment occurs when
there is insufficient demand in the economy to maintain full employment: in a recession (a
period of negative economic growth) consumers will be buying fewer goods and services;
selling fewer goods, firms sell less and so reduce production; if firms are producing less, this
leads to lower demand for workers – either workers are fired, or a firm cuts back on
employing new workers. In the worst case scenario, the fall in demand may be so great a firm
goes bankrupt, and everyone is made redundant‖ (Pettinger, Tejvan). As you can see, a chain
reaction happens when low consumer demand takes place.
Another factor involving people is higher minimum wages. At first, having higher minimum
wages sounds like a fantastic idea. However, there are some drawbacks in the workplace, and
in the organization of companies in particular, that happen when a minimum wage is raised.
According to Greg DePersio from Investopedia, ―…minimum wages can actually raise
unemployment by giving employers less incentive to hire and more incentive to automate and
outsource tasks that were previously performed by low-wage employees. Higher mandated
minimum wages also force businesses to raise prices to maintain desired profit margins.
Higher prices can lead to less business, which means less revenue and therefore less money to
hire and pay employees‖ (―Minimum Wages Can Raise Unemployment‖). Once again, we see
that chain reactions are common when it comes to causes of unemployment.
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And lastly, another cause of unemployment that is pinned on individuals are criminal records.
According to the University of Pennsylvania, ―The criminal justice system often takes
working age men out of communities where they would normally be a household‘s primary
earner in mass and, when they are released, severely inhibits their ability to regain a strong
footing in the labor force helps to propel the ―cycle of poverty‖. In fact, studies have found
that in large urban centers as many as one in four black men who live in that community are
incarcerated at any given time‖ (―Criminal Records and Unemployment: The Impact on the
Economy‖). But criminal records also affect all demographics—it is just that they put
pressure on the African-American community disproportionately.
Unemployment is not as straightforward as it seems. There are various factors that cause this
phenomenon. Economic recessions, domestic and foreign outsourcing, low consumer
demand, higher minimum wages, and the criminal histories of workers are factors that
strongly influence unemployment. Though economies are cyclical, unemployment is still an
unfortunate circumstance.
Sample 6:
The Effects of a Lack of Sleep
A lack of sleep seems pervasive. We are sleeping less than ever before, some studies have
shown. Our lives are becoming more and more busy with each passing era, and even children
are suffering from sleep deprivation due to all the activities they are engaging in. In light of
these issues, it is important to know the effects of a lack of sleep. The most common effects
of sleep deprivation are drowsiness during the day, experiencing microsleeps, a difficulty
concentrating, impulsive behavior, a difficulty learning, and lower physical immunity.
Drowsiness is a noticeable effect of a lack of sleep. In fact, it is quite dangerous, as according

to WebMD, ―Drowsiness can slow reaction time as much as driving drunk. The National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates that fatigue is a cause in 100,000 auto
crashes and 1,550 crash-related deaths a year in the U.S. The problem is greatest among
people under 25 years old‖ (Peri, Camille). Therefore, we have to be careful not to become
sleepy during the day in order to not harm others.
In addition to regular drowsiness, we can experience microsleeps due to sleep deprivation.

Once again, these occurrences are hazardous, as HealthLine states that, “During these
episodes, you‘ll fall asleep for a few seconds or minutes without realizing it. Microsleep is out
of your control and can be extremely dangerous if you‘re driving. It can also make you more
prone to injury due to trips and falls‖ (―11 Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Your Body‖). In
order to avoid microsleep, you must get at least six hours of sleep a night.
In the same vein, concentration becomes more difficult with a lack of sleep. According to
Healthline, ―Sleep deprivation leaves your brain exhausted, so it can‘t perform its duties as
well. You may also find it more difficult to concentrate or learn new things. The signals your
body sends may also come at a delay, decreasing your coordination skills and increasing your
risks for accidents‖ (―11 Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Your Body‖). A lack of
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concentration can also affect us seriously at work, where this function is often the name of the
game.
With a lack of concentration can come impulsive behaviour. A study on the link between this
characteristic and sleep deprivation noted that, ―Patients with impulse control disorders often
report sleep problems, and sleep deprivation even in healthy individuals impairs cognition,
decision-making, and perhaps impulse control‖ (Acheson, A, et al.). In general, neglecting
sleep can cause harmful, impulsive behaviour.
Not only does not getting enough sleep make us impulsive, but also not as smart. According
to WebMD, ―Sleep plays a critical role in thinking and learning. First, it impairs attention,
alertness, concentration, reasoning, and problem solving. This makes it more difficult to learn
efficiently‖ (Peri, Camille). So, if you want to learn and have all the engines firing up there,
so to speak, it is best to sleep the minimum amount to perform well mentally.
Sometimes people wonder why they get sick so often. The reason might be that you are not
sleeping enough. In fact, sleep deprivation has been linked to acquiring sickness easier
through a deficiency in immunity. According to Healthline, ―Sleep deprivation prevents your
immune system from building up its forces. If you don‘t get enough sleep, your body may not
be able to fend off invaders. It may also take you longer to recover from illness‖ (―11 Effects
of Sleep Deprivation on Your Body‖). It is also known that long-term sleep deprivation
causes one to be more prone towards getting diabetes and heart disease.
There are many other effects that could be listed when speaking about how a lack of sleep
affects our well-being. However, these examples are the most apparent. Ponder them the next
time you want to sleep less, or you have scheduled only a short time for sleep.
Sample 7:
The Effects of Social Media on Communication Skills
With the emergence of Facebook, the way people communicate with each other changed
forever. A social network allowing users to share the events of their lives through posting
photos and status updates, to monitor the lives of their friends, and to communicate directly
via a built-in messenger has revolutionized Internet communication, causing millions of
people all over the world to share all kinds of information about themselves. There were, of
course, other social networks before Facebook, but none of them garnered such a significant
user base, remained as persistent, and continued to act as an effective form of communication
as much as Facebook did. Along with Facebook, currently there are many other social
networks, each with their own features and purposes; what unites them all, though, is the idea
of sharing. Seemingly, this should positively impact the communication skills of users, since
it allows communication even for people far away from each other, or who are unable to
communicate live. However, there have been numerous research studies proving the opposite:
social media platforms not only impair a user‘s ability to share thoughts, but distort
communication processes, creating more problems than they solve.
82
Speaking of the positive effects of social networks, they lie on the surface. According to
surveys, 39% of respondents reported feeling closer to their friends because of social media,
while 26% of the sample felt that they had more friends because of social media (NR
Media). Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and other similar services make daily communications
between family members, friends, and business partners easier, more accessible, and
independent of circumstances, such as distance. Communities existing on such platforms
unite people sharing similar interests or concerns, and allow the representatives of various
cultural backgrounds to reach each other with no constraints. Helping strangers meet and
enabling initial communication between them—this is what social networks are definitely
good for.
At the same time, numerous research studies prove that social media platforms negatively
affect people‘s social skills. Probably the most alarming phenomenon connected to the
extensive use of social media services is the decrease in quality of interpersonal
communication. One of the big problems in modern interpersonal communication is the lack
of interest people have for face-to-face communication; even today, there are many people
(especially millennials, or younger) who prefer to solve work or personal problems via social
messaging systems. Approximately 93 percent of communication today is already nonverbal,
and thus requires an additional means of helping people understand each other (such as
smileys or emojis), since text does not convey the total palette of intonations or facial
expressions. This brings up several problems; for example, without these means, it is often
more difficult to understand another person in a messenger system (the classical ―he/she did
not insert smileys, so I thought he/she is mad at me‖); or, in real life, it may become harder to
differentiate and understand real emotions. According to some experts, even families prefer
texting over face-to-face chat. All this leads to difficulties in professional and personal
relationships (Rampages.us).
Substituting real life experiences and events with Facebook-format online updates is another
problem. Studies show that about 11 percent of adults prefer to stay at home on weekends and
make posts on Facebook about how much fun they are having, instead of going out and
acquiring real-life experiences. According to Hussein Chahine, the founder of the service
Yazino, ―Communication is constantly evolving. Some people are as used to seeing their
friends‘ online avatar as they are their face […] People increasingly prefer quick and frequent
engagement with instant updates on news than a prolonged chat and are also finding new
ways to catch up with friends from the comfort of their sofa.‖ Mark Clennon, a graduate of
the University of South Florida, says that ―People tend to want to show others that they are
having fun than actually having fun themselves […] There‘s a greater desire to share with
other people you barely know, than actually hanging out with friends and making memories‖
(USA Today College). This is directly connected to another problem: ―Facebook depression.‖
Generally speaking, it is the sense of inferiority occurring when people (teenagers, mostly)
compare their real lives to the lives of their Facebook friends—based on the posts these
friends make online—completely missing out on the fact that what they see is not necessarily
true (NYBH). As a result, an interesting and alarming phenomenon emerges: many people sit
at home, busy creating visibility of living fulfilled, happy lives, and suffer when they see how
fulfilled the lives of other people are—who, in their turn, sit at home, busy creating visibility
of living fulfilled, happy lives. This is a poignant example of a vicious circle.
83
Yet another impairment of communication skills caused by the extensive use of social media
platforms is the impoverishment of language. Using messengers, people often use shorthand
and shortened versions of words in order to type and deliver their messages as quickly as
possible. However, such means of communication are much less effective than conventional
ones (or rather, traditional, since contractions, slang, and abbreviations such as ―brb,‖ ―u r,‖
―m8,‖ ―dunno,‖ and so on have already become almost conventional), and people getting used
to them can experience difficulties in real-life interpersonal communication (Rampages.us).
This is not to mention illiteracy, which is already becoming a scourge of this generation
communicating through messengers.
Although social media may help people establish initial contact and aid people in uniting into
groups under certain interests, they also cause a number of problems. In particular, nonverbal
communication is gradually becoming one of the dominant forms of interpersonal interaction,
negatively affecting people‘s ability to deal with personal contact and meet the reactions and
emotions of other people in real life. A significant percent of adults (up to 11 percent) prefer
staying at home and communicating via their devices rather than going out and acquiring real-
life experiences. This, along with ―Facebook depression‖ and the overall impoverishment of
language and communication skills, is alarming, and requires adequate and timely measures.
Sample 8:
How to Simplify Your Life
People often want to simplify their lives. It is a lot of stress to have a complicated life, full of
schedules, meetings, possessions, and so forth. Usually, a simpler life translates to less
anxiety, stress, frustration, and worry. So, how do we simplify our lives? Follow the step-by-
step process below to bare down your lifestyle piece by piece.
First, get rid of all the possessions you haven‘t used in the last year. If you haven‘t put a thing
to use in one year, it is most likely to not worth to keep. Get a big garbage bag (even several
of them) and walk around your living space. Put anything you haven‘t used in one year in that
bag and dispose of it. Some items might be more sensitive in nature, like gifts or emergency
items. Figure out if you can give them away, or truly need them.
Next, manage your social media and electronics usage. We spend more time on our devices
than we imagine, usually. These days, people can spend the majority of their days on social
media and electronic devices, such as phones, music players, and computers. Though these
all-in-one devices are great tools, they should not become the prime focus of our life. In
addition, there are so many mobile and computer applications that we are slavishly using.
Some people download so many social platform applications that it is almost impossible to
keep up with the interactions. For instance, a person might have WhatsApp, Facebook, Viber,
Skype, Google+ all together, and he or she struggles to keep up with all the messages.
Therefore, it is important to allocate a certain amount of time per day that is necessary to
employ these devices. If your work is connected to these devices, make sure you cut down
your time on them at home and outside of work in general.
84
Also linked to our social life are our friends and acquaintances. It is sad, but many of us spend
time with friends that we do not want to be associated with or do not want to spend time with.
Sometimes we get together with people out of sheer habit. Therefore, it is good to write a list
of friends you do not want to be with anymore or acquaintances you do not want to meet up
with. You can either distance yourself from them, or even tell them as diplomatically as
possible that you want to break ties with them. The best option is to show distance, however,
as confronting a friend or acquaintance in hopes of dashing the relationship can be stressful
and even dangerous.
Another important factor in simplifying our lives is getting rid of commitments that are no
longer of use or that you do not deem important. A lot of people are too nice, and say yes to
appointments, responsibilities, and work that they do not want to do or they deem
unimportant. Though it is well and good to be kind to others, give yourself respect and allow
yourself to be free of commitments that you do not believe are essential in your life. For
instance, maybe you have been volunteering at a local hospital for a few years, but now you
only derive stress from this work instead of satisfaction. Or, you may be feeling like you are
being used with some commitments rather than compensated enough. You can also write a
list of commitments you have and determine which ones are non-essential.
On a deeper level, we can simplify our thinking. Most of our thinking is not necessary. The
great spiritual teacher Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi said that, ―No thought is important.‖ If you
do not want to go that far, try to ignore or witness the thoughts that are not pertinent for the
present. Mostly, are thoughts are about the past or future, and involve worry, guilt, shame,
nostalgia, and other attached emotions. These feelings can be left out by dealing with our
constant thoughts. A continuous stream of thoughts is not necessary, especially since attention
to the present is more important than the past or the future. Sure, some planning should be
done for the future, but there is no need to over-think. Most of our plans do not come out
exactly as we wrote them down or thought about them. Commonly, our plans change so
drastically that they hardly resemble what was initially thought of.
Simplifying our lives is a complex task. We can get rid of possessions that are non-essential,
manage our social media and electronics usage, distance ourselves from relationships that are
no longer working or are not important, eliminate commitments that are not necessary or are
not valuable, and also clean up our thinking so that we are more in the present and do not
engage in unnecessary worry, anxiety, or rumination. All these things take energy and time,
of which we have only a limited amount.
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THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as adjectives:

Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as adverbs:

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE

Q2. Correct the following sentences:

i. I lived in Calcutta since 1930.

Omission of the article a/an

1. I bought pair of shoes.

3-4. Is fencing popular sport in world? No, it isn‘t.

5. I'd like glass of orange juice please.

6. Can you give me envelope, please?

7. Certainly. Oh! Where‘s envelope?

8. Is there post office near here?

10. My brother is in classroom.

11. Would you like hamburger?

12. Selena has got cat.

14-15. school is very cold. Hasn‘t it got central heating

16. It has, but central heating is broken down.

. 1-2.. We have a beautiful garden. The garden is full of roses.

3-4.. Is fencing a popular sport in the world? No, it isn’t.

5. I'd like a glass of orange juice please.

6. Can you give me an envelope, please?

7. Certainly. Oh! Where’s the envelope?

8. Is there a post office near here?

9. They’re at the cinema.

10. My brother is in the classroom.

11. Would you like a hamburger?

12. Selena has got a cat.

13. What is the cat’s name?

16.. It has, but the central heating is broken down..

above higher than, or over The sun is above the clouds.

after - following something - The boy ran after the ball.

against - in opposition to - Stealing is against the law.

among surrounded by Peter was among the spectators.

around - in a circle - He walked around the table.

before - earlier than - The day before yesterday.

behind at the back of Passengers sit behind the driver.

below lower than His shorts are below his knees.

beneath under The pen was beneath the books.

beside next to The bank is beside the cinema.

by - near, at the side of - The restaurant is by the river.

close to near The school is close to the church.

down from higher to lower She pulled down the blind.

for what is intended I bought this book for you.

in at a point within an area The pen is in the drawer.

inside on the inner part of The bird is inside the cage.

near close to The school is near the church.

next to beside The bank is next to the cinema.

off down or away from He fell off the horse.

on in a position touching a surface The plate is on the table.

out of - move from a closed space - He got out of the taxi.

outside - opposite of inside The garden is outside the house.

over - above/across - The plane flew over the Atlantic.

past beyond She drove past the supermarket.

round in a circular movement The earth moves round the sun.

throughout in every part of The virus spread throughout the country.

to in the direct of; towards On the way to the station.

towards in the direction of The child ran towards her father.

under beneath, below Water flows under the bridge.