HMT Module I Mech Ktu Assist

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ME302 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Module I (12 hours): Modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction: Fourier law of heat conduction-Thermal
conductivity of solids, liquids and gases-Factors affecting thermal conductivity- Most general heat
conduction equation in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates One dimensional steady state
conduction with and without heat generation conduction through plane walls, cylinders and spheres-
variable thermal conductivity, conduction shape factor- heat transfer through corners and edges. Critical
radius of insulation.
INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use,
conversion, and exchange of thermal energy and heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is
classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation,
and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing
chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct
characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
SCOPE AND APPLICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER PRINCIPLES IN ENGINEERING
PRACTICE
Heat transfer may be defined as “The transmission of energy from one region to another as a
result of temperature gradient
In heat transfer the driving potential is temperature difference whereas in mass transfer the
driving potential is concentration difference. In mass transfer we concentrate upon mass motion which
result in changes in composition, and are caused by the variations in concentrations of the various
constituent species. This transfer, in literature, is also known as “diffusion”. The study of heat transfer
is carried out for the following purposes,
1.To estimate the rate of flow of energy as heat through the boundary of a system under studies
(both under steady and transient conditions).
2.To determine the temperature field under steady and transient conditions.
In almost every branch of engineering, heat transfer (and mass transfer) problems are
encountered which cannot be solved by thermodynamic reasoning alone but require an analysis based
on heat transfer principles. The areas covered under the discipline of heat transfer are,
1. Design of thermal and nuclear power plants including heat engines, steam generators,
condensers and other heat exchange equipment, catalytic converters, heat shields for space
vehicles, furnaces, electronic equipment etc.
2. Internal combustion engines, Refrigeration and air conditioning units.
3. Design of cooling systems for electric motors, generators and transformers.
4. Heating and cooling of fluids etc. in chemical operations.
5. Construction of dams and structures; minimization of building-heat losses using improved
insulation techniques.
6. Thermal control of space vehicles and Heat treatment of metals.
7. Dispersion of atmospheric pollutants.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
Thermodynamics Heat transfer

1 It deals with the equilibrium states of Matter, It is inherently a non-equilibrium process (since a
and precludes the existence of a Temperature temperature gradient must exist for Exchange of
gradient. heat to take place).
2 When a system changes from one Equilibrium It helps to predict the distribution of temperature
state to another, Thermodynamics helps to and to determine the rate at which energy is
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determine the quantity of work and heat transferred across a surface of interest due to
interactions. It describes how much heat is to temperature gradients at the surface, and
be exchanged during a process but does not difference of temperature between different
hint how the same could be achieved surfaces.
To understand the difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer, let us consider the
Cooling of a hot steel bar which is placed in a water bath. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the
final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar-water combination; however, it will not help us to find out
how long it takes to reach this equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a
certain length of time before the equilibrium condition is attained. Heat transfer on the other hand, may
be used to predict the temperatures of both the bar and the water as a function of time. Heat transfer
theory combines thermodynamics and rate equations together (to quantify the rate at which heat transfer
occurs in terms of the degree of non-equilibrium).
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer which is defined as the transmission of energy from one region to another as result
of temperature gradient takes place by the following three modes like (i) Conduction; (ii) Convection;
(iii) Radiation.
Heat transmission, in majority of real situations, occurs as a result of combinations of these modes of
heat transfer. Example: The water in a boiler shell receives its heat from the fire-bed by conducted,
convected and radiated heat from the fire to the shell, conducted heat through the shell and conducted
and convected heat from the inner shell wall, to the water. Heat always flows in the direction of lower
temperature. The above three modes are similar in that a temperature differential must exist and the heat
exchange is in the direction of decreasing temperature; each method, however, has different controlling
laws.
Conduction
“Conduction” is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same
substance, or from one substance to another in physical contact with it, without appreciable
displacement of molecules forming the substance. In solids, the heat is conducted by the mechanisms
like, (i) By lattice vibration (the faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part of a body transfer
heat by impacts some of their energy to adjacent molecules).(ii) By transport of free electrons (Free
electrons provide an energy flux in the direction of decreasing temperature. For metals, especially good
electrical conductors, the electronic mechanism is responsible for the major portion of the heat flux
except at low temperature).In case of gases, the mechanism of heat conduction is simple. The kinetic
energy of a molecule is a function of temperature. These molecules are in a continuous random motion
exchanging energy and momentum. When a molecule from the high temperature region collides with a
molecule from the low temperature region, it loses energy by collisions. In liquids, the mechanism of
heat is nearer to that of gases. However, the molecules are more closely spaced and intermolecular
forces come into play.
Fourier law heat conduction
Fourier’s law of heat conduction is an empirical law based on observation and states as follows:
“The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area
of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to change of temperature with respect to
the length of the path of the heat flow”. Mathematically, it can be represented by the equation:
dT
Q ∝ A.
dx
Where, Q = Heat flow through a body per unit time (in watts), W,
A = Surface area of heat flow (perpendicular to the direction of flow), m2,
dT = Temperature difference of the faces of block (homogeneous solid) of thickness
‘dx’ through which heat flows, °C or K, and
dx = Thickness of body in the direction of flow, m.

dT
Thus, Q = - k A.
dx
Where, k = Constant of proportionality and is known as thermal conductivity of the body.
The - ve sign of k is to take care of the decreasing temperature along with the direction of
increasing thickness or the direction of heat flow. The temperature gradient dT/dx is always negative
along positive x direction and, therefore, the value as Q becomes + ve.
Assumptions
The following are the assumptions on which Fourier’s law is based:
1. Conduction of heat takes place under steady state conditions.
2. The heat flow is unidirectional.
3. The temperatures gradient is constant and the temperature profile is linear.
4. There is no internal heat generation.
5. The bounding surfaces are isothermal in character.
6. The material is homogeneous and isotropic (i.e., the value of thermal conductivity is constant in
all directions).
Essential features of Fourier’s law
Following are some essential features of Fourier’s law:
1. It is applicable to all matter (may be solid, liquid or gas).
2. It is based on experimental evidence and cannot be derived from first principle.
3. It is a vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is in the direction of decreasing
temperature and is normal to an isotherm.
4. It helps to define thermal conductivity ‘k’ (transport property) of the medium through which
heat is conducted.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASSES
Q dx
Fromeqn. k= .
A dT
dT
T h e v a l u e o f k = 1w h e n Q = 1, A = 1a n d =1
dx
Q dx 1 m
Now k = . (u n i t o f k : W × 2
× o
= W / m K . o r W / m oC )
1 dT m K(o r C)
Thus, the thermal conductivity of a material is defined as, “The amount of energy conducted
through a body of unit area, and unit thickness in unit time when the difference in temperature between
the faces causing heat flow is unit temperature difference”. It follows from equation that materials with
high thermal conductivities are good conductors of heat, whereas materials with low thermal
conductivities are good thermal insulator. Conduction of heat occurs most readily in pure metals, less so
in alloys, and much less readily in non-metals. The very low thermal conductivities of certain thermal
insulators e.g., cork is due to their porosity, the air trapped within the material acting as an insulator.
Thermal conductivity (a property of material) depends essentially upon the factors like, (i)
Material structure (ii) Moisture content(iii) Density of the material (iv) Pressure (v) Temperature
(operating conditions).Thermal conductivities (average values at normal pressure and temperature) of
some common materials are as

Points regarding thermal conductivity - its variation for different materials and under different
conditions are,
1. Thermal conductivity of a material is due to flow of free electrons (in case of metals) and lattice
vibrational waves (in case of fluids).
2. Thermal conductivity in case of pure metals is the highest (k = 10 to 400 W/m.C). It decreases
with increase in impurity. The range of k for other materials is as follows :
Alloys: k = 12 to 120 W/m oC
Heat insulating and building materials: k = 0.023 to 2.9 W/m oC
Liquids: k = 0.2 to 0.5 W/m oC
Gases and vapours: k = 0.006 to 0.05 W/m oC
3. Thermal conductivity of a metal varies considerably when it (metal) is heat treated or
mechanically processed / formed.
4. Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with the increase in temperature (aluminium and
uranium being the exceptions).
- In most of liquids the value of thermal conductivity tends to decrease with temperature
(water being an exception) due to decrease in density with increase in temperature.
- In case of gases the value of thermal conductivity increases with temperature.
Gases with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal conductivities than with lower
molecular weights. This is because the mean molecular path of gas molecules decreases with
increase in density and k is directly proportional to the mean free path of the molecule.
5. The dependence of thermal conductivity (k) on temperature, for most materials is almost linear;
k = k0 (1+βT)
Where, k0 = Thermal conductivity at 0oC, and
β = Temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity, 1/ oC (It is usually positive for
non-metals and insulating materials (magnetic bricks being the exception) and negative for metallic
conductors (aluminium and certain non-ferrous alloys are the exception)
6. In case of solids and liquids, thermal conductivity (k) is only very weakly dependent on
pressure; in case of gases the value of k is independent of pressure (near standard atmospheric).
7. In case of non-metallic solids:
- Thermal conductivity of porous materials depends upon the type of gas or liquid present in
the voids.
- Thermal conductivity of a damp material is considerably higher than that of the dry material
and water taken individually.
- Thermal conductivity increases with increase in density.
8. The Wiedemann and Franz law (based on experiment results), regarding thermal and electrical
conductivities of a material, states as “The ratio of the thermal and electrical conductivities is
the same for all metals at the same temperature; and that the ratio is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the metal.”

k k
M a t h e m a t i c a l l y, ∝T or =C
σ σT
Where, k = Thermal conductivity of metal at temperature T (K),
σ = Electrical conductivity of metal at temperature T (K), and
C = Constant (for all metals), referred to as Lorenz number (=2.45×10-8 WΩ/K2)
This law conveys that the materials which are good conductors of electricity are also go
conductors of heat.
FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity, also called heat conduction, is the flow of energy from something of a
higher temperature to something of a lower temperature. It is different from electrical conductivity,
which deals with electrical currents. Several factors affect thermal conductivity and the rate that energy
is transferred. The flow is not measured by how much energy is transferred, but by the rate it is
transferred. The main factors which affect the thermal conductivity are materials, length, temperature
difference, and type of cross section.
1. Material: The kind of material being used in thermal conductivity can affect the rate of energy
flowing between the two regions. The greater the conductivity of the material, the faster the energy
flows. The material with the greatest conductivity is helium II, a super fluid form of liquid helium,
which exists only at very low temperatures. Other materials with high conductivity are diamonds,
graphite, silver, copper and gold. Liquids have low conductivity levels and gases even lower.
2. Length: The length of the material the energy must flow through can affect the rate at which it
flows. The shorter the length, the faster it will flow. The thermal conductivity may continue to
increase even when the length is increased, it may just increase at a slower pace than it had before.
3. Temperature Difference: Thermal conductivity varies depending on temperature. Depending on
the material of the conductor, as the temperature rises the thermal conductivity of the material often
rises as well, increasing the flow of energy.
4. Type of Cross-Section: The cross-section type, such as round, C- and hollow-shaped, can affect
the thermal conductivity, according to the Journal of Materials Science. The article reports that the
thermal diffusivity factor of C- and hollow-shaped carbon fibre-reinforced composites showed
about two times higher values than those of round-type ones.
COMMON CONDUCTING AND INSULATING MATERIALS
The electrons of different types of atoms have different degrees of freedom to move around.
With some types of materials, such as metals, the outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely bound
that they move irregularly in the space between the atoms of that material by nothing more than the
influence of room-temperature heat energy. Because these virtually unbound electrons are free to leave
their respective atoms and float around in the space between adjacent atoms, they are often called free
electrons. In other types of materials such as glass, the atoms' electrons have very little freedom to
move around. While external forces such as physical rubbing can force some of these electrons to leave
their respective atoms and transfer to the atoms of another material, they do not move between atoms
within that material very easily.
The relative mobility of electrons within a material is known as electric conductivity.
Conductivity is determined by the types of atoms in a material (the number of protons in each atom's
nucleus, determining its chemical identity) and how the atoms are linked together with one another.
Materials with high electron mobility (many free electrons) are called conductors, while materials with
low electron mobility (few or no free electrons) are called insulators.“Most familiar conductors are
metallic. Copper is the most common material used for electrical wiring. Silver is the best conductor,
but is expensive. Because it does not corrode, gold is used for high-quality surface-to-surface contacts.
However, there are also many non-metallic conductors, including graphite, solutions of salts, and all
plasmas. There are even conductive polymers. See electrical conduction for more information on the

physical mechanism for charge flow in materials. Here are a few common examples of conductors and
insulators
Conductors: silver, copper, gold, aluminium, iron, steel, brass, bronze, mercury, graphite, diamond,
dirty water, and concrete.
Insulators: glass, rubber, oil, asphalt, fibreglass, porcelain, ceramic, quartz, (dry) cotton, (dry) paper,
(dry) wood, plastic, air.
FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL OF TAYLOR SERIES

If there is a parameter m and the value of this parameter changes as a result of a change in
another parameter k ie: dk, then
The initial valueof the parameter= m
k = t h e p a r a m e t e r t h a t m a k e st h ec h a n g ei nt h ev a l u eo f m
dm
T h e f i n a l v a l u e o f t h e p a r a m e t e r , m′ = m + .d k .
dk
dm
C h a n g e i n t h e v a l u e o f m, ∆ m = m′ - m = .d k
dk
dm
.d k
d k dm
U n i t c h a n g ei nt h ev a l u eo f m = =
dk dk
This result is useful while we are doing derivations in the coming sessions.
METHOD FOR FINDING THE GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION
The general heat conduction equation in the any coordinate can be found out by the following
steps
1. Find the heat influx = Qi
2. Heat efflux = Qo [Use tailors first order differential for this purpose]
3. Find the difference of the heat influx and the heat efflux. This gives the value of the heat that is
accumulated in the system due to the heat flow.
H e a t a c c u m u l a t e d , ∆Q = H e a t i n f l u x [ Qi ] − H e a t e f f l u x [ Qo ]
4. Heat generated by the body, Qg
5. Net heat content change, ∆Qnet = Qi − Qo + Qg
6. The net change in the heat content is given by, ∆Qn e t = m′.C.∆T
7. [5] and [6] gives the value of the same ones .equate them and simplify. This will give the value of
the equilibrium equation in that direction for that particular coordinate direction.
8. Find the value of the same for the other directions too.
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES
Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped (volume element) of sides dx, dy and dz
parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying with
location and time as shown in Fig. Let, T = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this temperature may be
assumed uniform over the entire surface, since area of this face can be made arbitrarily small, and

= Temperature changes or rate of change along − direction.

 ∂T 
Then,   d x = Change of temperature through distance dx, and
 ∂x 

 ∂T 
Then, T +   d x = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a distance dx from the left face
∂x 
ABCD)
Further, let, kx, ky, kz, = Thermal conductivities (direction characteristics of the material) along
X, Y and Z axes.
[If the directional characteristics of a material
are same, it is called an “Isotropic material” and if
different “Anisotropic material'.
qg= Heat generated per unit volume per unit time.
Inside the control volume there may be heat
sources due to flow of electric current in electric
motors and generators, nuclear fission etc.
(Note: q may be function of position or time, or both).
ρ= Mass density of material, and c = Specific heat of
the material.]
Fig. 1.1 Elemental volume for three-dimensional -
Energy balance equation for volume element: Cartesian coordinates
Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate direction
considered (1) + heat generated within the element (2) = Energy stored in the element (3) .....(1)
Let, Q = Rate of heat flow in a direction, and
Q' = (Q.dτ) = Total heat flow (flux) in that direction (in time dτ).
1. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the directions considered
Thermal conductivity along X direction = kx, cross-sectional area along X direction = dy × dz,
∂T
change of temperature with respect to the length = , and time period of Heat flow = dτ
∂x
Applying Fourier’s Law, quantity of heat flowing into the element from the left face ABCD
during the time interval dτ in X-direction is given by:
∂T
Heat influx, Q ' x = − k x (d y.d z ) ⋅dτ . . . . (i )
∂x
During the same time interval dτ the heat flowing out of the right face of control volume
(EFGH) will be:
∂
Heat efflux, Q '( x + d x ) = Q ' x + (Q ' x ) d x . . . . (i i )
∂x
Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction, [Subtracting (ii) from (i)
 ∂  ∂
d Q ' x = Q ' x − Q ' x + (Q ' x ) d x  = − (Q ' x ) d x
 ∂x  ∂x
∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T 
d Q 'x = −  − k x ( d y.d z ) .dτ  d x = ∂ x  k x ∂ x  d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂x  ∂x   
Similarly the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y and Z directions in time
dτ will be:
∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T 
d Q 'y =  ky  d x.d y.d z.dτ and d Q 'z = kz d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂y  ∂y  ∂ z  ∂ z 
Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate direction
considered
∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T 
=  kx  d x.d y.d z.dτ +  ky  d x.d y.d z.dτ + kz d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂ z  ∂ z 
 ∂  ∂ T  ∂  ∂ T  ∂  ∂ T 
=   kx + ky  +  kz   d x.d y.d z.dτ
 ∂ x  ∂ x  ∂ y  ∂ y  ∂ z  ∂ z 
2. Total heat generated within the element (Qg’),
Qg ' = q g (d x.d y.d z ) dτ
3. Energy stored in the element:

The total heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow along coordinate axes and the heat
generated within the element together serve to increase the thermal energy of the element/lattice.
This increase in thermal energy or heat stored in the body = Mass of the body × specific heat of
the body material × rise in the temperature of body
∂T
= ρ (d x.d y.d z ) c ⋅ ⋅ dτ
∂τ
Now, substituting the equations:
 ∂  ∂ T  ∂  ∂ T  ∂  ∂ T  ∂T
  kx  + ky +  kz   d x.d y.d z.dτ + q g (d x.d y.d z ) dτ = ρ (d x.d y.d z ) c ⋅ ⋅ dτ
 ∂ x  ∂ x  ∂ y  ∂ y  ∂ z  ∂ z  ∂τ
Dividing both sides by dx.dy.dz.dτ, we have

∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂T
 kx  + ky  +  kz  + qg = ρ c ⋅
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂τ
∂T
O r , u s i n g t h e v e c t o r o p e r a t o r ∇, w e g e t , ∇. (k ∇ T ) + q g = ρ c ⋅
∂τ
This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-homogeneous material’, ‘self-
heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-dimensional heat flow’. This equation establishes in differential
form the relationship between the time and space variation of temperature a t any point of solid through
which heat flow by conduction takes place.
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION FOR CONSTANT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
In case of homogeneous (in which properties e.g., specific heat, density, thermal conductivity
etc. are same everywhere in the material) and isotropic (in which properties are independent of surface
orientation) material, kx = ky = kz = k and diffusion equation Eqn. becomes
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T qg ρ c ∂T 1 ∂T
+ + + = ⋅ = ⋅
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂z2 k k ∂τ α ∂τ
By using Laplacian ∇ 2 ,
qg 1 ∂T
∇ 2T + = ⋅
k α ∂τ
This Equation, governs the temperature distribution under unsteady heat flow through a material
which is homogeneous and isotropic.
k Thermal conductivity
Where, the quantity known as Thermal diffusivity, α = =
ρ .c Thermal capacity

The larger the value of α, the faster will the heat diffuse through the material and its temperature
will change with time. This will result either due to a high value of thermal conductivity k or a low
value of heat capacity ρ.c. A low value of heat capacity means the less amount of heat entering the
element, would be absorbed and used to raise its temperature and more would be available for onward
transmission. Metals and gases have relatively high value of α and their response to temperature
changes is quite rapid. The non-metallic solids and liquids respond slowly to temperature changes
because of their relatively small value of thermal diffusivity. Thermal diffusivity is an important
characteristic quantity for unsteady conduction situations.
Other simplified forms of heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates are:
(i) For the case when no internal source of heat generation is present, Equation reduces to,
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T
+ + = ⋅ or ∇ 2T = ⋅ [F o u r i e r ' s e q u a t i o n]
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂z2 α ∂τ α ∂τ
∂T 
[Unsteady state  ≠ 0  heat flow with no internal heat generation]
 ∂τ 
(ii) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time, the conduction then takes place in
∂T
the steady state ie., = 0 and the eqn. reduces to
∂τ
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T qg qg
+ + + =0 or ∇ 2T + =0 [P o i s s o n ' s e q u a t i o n]
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂z2 k k
In the absence of internal heat generation, Eqn. reduces to
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
2
+ 2
+ 2
=0 or ∇ 2T = 0 [L a p l a c e e q u a t i o n]
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 2T qg
(iii) Steady state and one-dimensional heat transfer: + =0
∂ x2 k
∂ 2T
(iv) Steady state, one-dimensional, without internal heat generation: =0
∂ x2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
(v) Steady state, two dimensional, without internal heat generation: + =0
∂ x2 ∂ y2
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
(vi) Unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation: 2
= .
∂x α ∂τ
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATES
While dealing with problems of conduction of heat through systems having cylindrical geometries (e.g.,
rods and pipes) it is convenient to use cylindrical coordinates. Consider an elemental volume having the
coordinates for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig.
The volume of the element= r dφ. d r.d z
Further, let us assume that k (thermal conductivity), ρ (density), c (specific heat) do not alter with
position.

Fig. 1.2 Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis - Cylindrical coordinates
(1) Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions
considered:
Thermal conductivity = k and Time period of Heat flow = dτ
Heat flow in radial direction ( z − φ p l a n e) :
Cross-sectional area along radial direction = r dφ × d z
∂T
Change of temperature with respect to the length =
∂r
∂T
Heat influx, Qr' = −k (r dφ .d z ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i)
∂r
∂
Heat efflux, Q(' r + d r ) = Qr' + (Qr' )d r . . . . (i i )
∂r
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in radial direction,
d Qr' = Qr' − Q(' r + d r ) [Subtracting (ii) from (i)]
∂ ∂  ∂T 
=− (Qr' ) d r = −  − k (r dφ .d z ) ⋅ dτ dr
∂r ∂r  ∂r 
∂  ∂T   ∂ 2T ∂ T 
= k ( d r.dφ .d z.dτ ) r ⋅ = k ( d r .d φ .d z .dτ )  r ⋅ 2 + 
∂ r  ∂ r   ∂r ∂ r 
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 
= k ( d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )  2 + ⋅ 
 ∂r r ∂r
 
Heat flow in tangential direction (r − z p l a n e) :
Cross-sectional area along tangential direction = d r × d z
∂T
r .∂ φ
∂T
Heat influx, Qφ' = − k ( d r.d z ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i i i )
r.∂ φ

∂
Heat efflux, Q('φ + dφ ) = Qφ' + (Qφ' )r dφ . . . . (i v)
r.∂ φ
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in tangential direction,
d Qφ' = Qφ' − Q('φ + dφ ) [Subtracting (iv) from (iii)]
∂ ∂  ∂T 
=− (Qφ' )r.dφ = −  − k (d r.d z ) r.∂ φ ⋅ dτ  r.dφ
r.∂ φ r.∂ φ  
∂  1 ∂T  1 ∂ 2T
= k (d r.dφ .d z.dτ )  ⋅  = k ( d r .r d φ .d z.dτ ) ⋅
∂φ  r ∂φ  r2 ∂φ2
Heat flow in axial direction (r − φ p l a n e) :
Cross-sectional area along axial direction = r.dφ × d r
∂T
∂z
∂T
Heat influx, Qz' = −k (r.dφ .d r ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (v )
∂z
∂
Heat efflux, Q(' z + d z ) = Qz' + (Qz' )d z . . . . (v i )
∂z
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in axial direction,
d Qz' = Qz' − Q(' z + d z ) [Subtracting (vi) from (v)]
∂ ∂  ∂T 
=− (Qz' )d z = −  − k (r.dφ .d r ) ⋅ dτ  d z
∂z ∂z  ∂z 
∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )
∂z2
Net heat accumulated within the element
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T  1 ∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )  2 + ⋅  + k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ ) 2 ⋅ 2
 ∂r r ∂r r ∂φ
 
∂ 2T
+ k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )
∂z2
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )  2 + ⋅ + ⋅ + 
 ∂ r r ∂ r r 2 ∂ φ 2 ∂ z 2 
(2) Total heat generated within the element (Qg’),

Qg ' = q g (d r.r dφ .d z ) dτ
(3) Energy stored in the element:

The increase in thermal energy or heat stored in the body = Mass of the body × specific heat of
∂T
= ρ (d r.r dφ .d z ) c ⋅ ⋅ dτ
∂τ
Now, substituting the equations: (1) + (2) = (3) ….[Energy balance/equation]
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  ∂T
k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )  2 + ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2  + q g ( d r.r dφ .d z ) dτ = ρ (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ ) c ⋅
 ∂ r r ∂r r ∂φ ∂ z  ∂τ
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  ∂T
Dividing both sides by d r.r dφ.d z , k 2 + ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2  + qg = ρ.c ⋅
 ∂ r r ∂r r ∂φ ∂ z  ∂τ
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  q g ρ c ∂T 1 ∂T
Or,  2+ ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2+ = ⋅ = ⋅
 ∂ r r ∂r r ∂φ ∂ z  k k ∂τ α ∂τ
This is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates. In case there are no heat
sources present and the heat flow is steady and one-dimensional, then equation reduces to
∂ 2T1 ∂T 1 d  ∂T 
+ ⋅ =0 Or, ⋅ r⋅ =0
∂r 2
r ∂r r d r  ∂ r 
1 d  ∂T  ∂T
Since ≠ 0 , therefore, r⋅  or r ⋅ ∂ r = 0
r d r  ∂ r 
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN SPHERICAL CO-ORDINATES
Consider an elemental
volume having the coordinates
(r, φ ,θ ) , for three dimensional
heat conduction analysis, as shown
in Fig.
The volume of the element =
d r.r dθ .r s i nθ dφ
Let, qg= Heat generation
(uniform) per unit volume per unit
time.
Further let us assume that k
(thermal conductivity), ρ (density),
c (specific heat) do not alter with Fig. 1.3 Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis –
. Spherical co-ordinates
position.
1. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions:
Thermal conductivity = k and Time period of Heat flow = dτ
Heat flow through r − θ p l a n e; φ − direction:
Cross-sectional area along φ − direction = d r × r dθ
∂T
r.s i n θ .∂ φ
∂T
Heat influx, Qφ' = − k (d r.r dθ ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i )
r.s i n θ .∂ φ
∂
Heat efflux, Q('φ + dφ ) = Qφ' + (Qφ' )r.s i n θ .dφ . . . . (i i )
r.s i n θ .∂ φ
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in φ − direction,
d Qφ' = Qφ' − Q('φ + dφ ) [Subtracting (ii) from (i)]

1 ∂
=− ⋅ (Qφ' )r.s i n θ .dφ
r.s i n θ ∂ φ
1 ∂  1 ∂T 
=− ⋅  − k (d r.r dθ ) ⋅ ⋅ dτ  r.s i n θ .dφ
r.s i n θ ∂ φ  r.s i n θ ∂ φ 
1 ∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) ⋅
r 2 .s i n 2 θ ∂ φ 2
Heat flow through r − φ p l a n e; θ − direction:
Cross-sectional area along θ − direction = d r × r s i n θ .dφ
∂T
r∂ θ
∂T
Heat influx, Qθ' = −k (d r.r s i n θ .dφ ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i i i)
r∂ θ
∂
Heat efflux, Q('θ + dθ ) = Qθ' + (Qθ' )r dθ . . . . (i v)
r∂ θ
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in θ − direction,
d Qθ' = Qθ' − Q('θ + dθ ) [Subtracting (iv) from (iii)]
∂ ∂  ∂T 
d Qθ' = − (Qθ' )r dθ = −  − k (d r.r s i n θ .dφ ) r ∂ θ ⋅ dτ  r dθ
r∂ θ r∂ θ  
k d r.r dθ .r dφ .dτ ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T 
= ⋅  s i nθ ⋅  = k ( d r.r dθ .r s i n θ dφ .dτ ) 2 ⋅ s i n θ ⋅ ∂ θ 
r r ∂θ  ∂θ  r s i nθ ∂ θ  
Heat flow through θ − φ p l a n e; r − direction:
Cross-sectional area along r − direction = r dθ × r s i n θ .dφ
∂T
∂r
∂T
Heat influx, Qr' = −k (r dθ ⋅ r s i n θ .dφ ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (v)
∂r
∂
Heat efflux, Q(' r + d r ) = Qr' + (Qr' )d r . . . . (v i )
∂r
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in r − direction,
d Qr' = Qr' − Q(' r + d r ) [Subtracting (vi) from (v)]
∂ ∂  ∂T 
=− (Qr' )d r = −  − k (r dθ ⋅ r s i n θ .dφ ) ⋅ dτ  d r
∂r ∂r  ∂r 
∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂  2 ∂T 
= k (d r.dθ ⋅ s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) ⋅  r ⋅  = k (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ∂ r 
∂r  ∂r  r ∂r  
(1) Net heat accumulated within the element
 1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  2 ∂T 
= k .d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ  2 2
⋅ 2
+ 2 ⋅  s i nθ ⋅ + 2 ⋅ ∂r r ⋅ ∂r 
 r .s i n θ ∂ φ r s i nθ ∂ θ  ∂θ  r   

(2) Total heat generated within the element (Qg’),

Qg ' = q g (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ ) dτ
(3) Energy stored in the element:

The increase in thermal energy or heat stored in the body = Mass of the body × specific heat of
∂T
= ρ (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ ) c ⋅ ⋅ dτ
∂τ
Now, substituting the equations: (1) + (2) = (3) …. [Energy balance/equation]
 1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  2 ∂T 
k (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ )  2 ⋅ 2+ 2 ⋅  s i nθ ⋅ + ⋅ r ⋅ 
2
 r .s i n θ ∂ φ r s i nθ ∂ θ  ∂ θ  r 2 ∂ r  ∂r  
∂T
+ q g (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) = ρ (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) c ⋅
∂τ
Dividing both sides by k.d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ.dτ ,
 1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  2 ∂T  q g ρ c ∂ T 1 ∂ T
 2 2
⋅ 2
+ 2 ⋅  s i nθ ⋅  + 2 ⋅ ∂r r ⋅ ∂r  + k = k ⋅ ∂ τ = α ⋅ ∂ τ
 r .s i n θ ∂ φ r s i nθ ∂ θ  ∂θ  r   
This is the general heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates. This equation can be
derived by transformation of coordinates as, x = r s i n θ s i n φ ; y = r s i n θ c o s φ ; z = r c o s φ therefore,
In case there are no heat sources present and the heat flow is steady and one-dimensional, then
equation reduces to
1 ∂  2 ∂T 
⋅ r ⋅ =0
r 2 ∂ r  ∂r 
THERMAL RESISTANCE (RTH)
When two physical systems are described by similar equations and have similar boundary
conditions, these are said to be analogous. The heat transfer processes may be compared by analogy
with the flow of electricity in an electrical resistance. As the flow of electric current in the electrical
resistance is directly proportional to potential difference (dV), similarly heat flow rate, Q, is directly
proportional to temperature difference (dT), the driving force for heat conduction through a medium. As
per Ohm’s law (in electric-circuit theory),
Potential difference (dV )
As per Ohm’s law (in electric – circuit theory), Current (I) =
Electrical resistance
Temperature difference (dT )
By analogy, Fourier’s equation – Heat flow rate (Q) =
(dx kA)
By comparing eqns. find that I is analogous to Q, dV is analogous to dT and R is analogous to
the quantity (dx/kA). The quantity (dx/kA) is called thermal conduction resistance
Thermal conductance resistance (Rth)cond = (dx/kA)
The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is called thermal
conductance. It may be noted that rules for combining electrical
resistances in series and parallel apply equally well to thermal resistances.
Fig. 1.4
The concept of thermal resistance is quite helpful while making
calculations for flow of heat.

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

“Convection” is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of the fluid with
another. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of
medium itself. Convection constitutes the macro form of the heat transfer since macroscopic particles of
a fluid moving in space cause the heat exchange. The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection
depends largely upon the mixing motion of the fluid.
This mode of heat transfer is met with in situations where energy is transferred as heat to a
flowing fluid at any surface over which flow occurs. This mode is basically conduction in a very thin
fluid layer at the surface and then mixing caused by the flow. The heat flow depends on the properties
of fluid and is independent of the properties of the material of the surface. However, the shape of the
surface will influence the flow and hence the heat transfer.
Free or natural convection: Free or natural convection occurs when the fluid circulates by virtue of
the natural differences in densities of hot and cold fluids; the denser portions of the fluid move
downward because of the greater force of gravity, as compared with the force on the less dense.
Forced convection: When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be forced
convection.
Newton’s law of cooling: The rate equation for the convective heat transfer (regardless of particular
nature) between a surface and an adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling (Refer Fig.).
Newton's Law of Cooling states that “the rate of change of the temperature of an object is
proportional to the difference between its own temperature and the ambient temperature” (i.e. the
temperature of its surroundings)
Q = h A(Tw − T∞ )
Where, Q = The rate of convective heat transfer
A = Area exposed to heat transfer
Tw = Wall temperature or surface temperature
T∞ = Fluid temperature
h = Co-efficient of convective heat transfer
The units of h are,
Q W
h= ⇒ 2o o r W / m 2oC o r W / m 2K
A(Tw − T∞ ) m C
Fig. 1.5 Convective heat transfer
The coefficient of convective heat transfer ‘h' (also known as film heat transfer coefficient) may
be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the fluid and
unit area of surface in unit time.” The value of ‘h’ depends on the factors like, (i) Thermodynamic and
transport properties (e.g. viscosity, density, specific heat etc.). (ii) Nature of fluid flow. (iii) Geometry
of the surface. (iv) Prevailing thermal conditions. Since ‘h’ depends upon several factors, it is difficult
to frame a single equation to satisfy all the variations, however, by dimensional Equivalent circuit
analysis an equation for the purpose can be obtained.
Tw − T∞ 1
Convective heat transfer, Q = , and Convective thermal resistance [(Rth) conv]
(1 h A) hA
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
Radiation” is the transfer of heat through space or matter by means other than conduction or
convection. Radiation heat is thought of as electromagnetic waves or quanta (as convenient) an
emanation of the same nature as light and radio waves. All bodies radiate heat', so a transfer of heat by
radiation occurs because hot body emits more heat than it receives and a cold body receives more heat
than it emits. Radiant energy (being electromagnetic radiation) requires no medium for propagation and

will pass through vacuum. The properties of radiant heat in general, are similar to those of light. Some
of the properties are:
(i) It does not require the presence of a material medium for its transmission.
(ii) Radiant heat can be reflected from the surfaces and obeys the ordinary laws of reflection,
(iii) It travels with velocity of light.
(iv) Like light, it shows interference, diffraction and polarization etc.
(v) It follows the law of Inverse Square (Intensity α 1 / Distance2).
The wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves, hence they are invisible to eye.
LAWS OF RADIATION:
1. Wien’s law. It states that the wavelength λm corresponding
to the maximum energy is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature T of the hot body.
1
ie. λmax ∝ or , λmaxT = constant
T
2. Kirchhoff’s law. It states that the emissivity of the body at
a particular temperature is numerically equal to its
absorptivity for radiant energy from body at the same Fig. 1.6 Heat transfer by radiation
temperature.
3. The Stefan-Boltzmann law. The law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly
proportional to fourth power of its absolute temperature.
ie. Eb ∝ T 4 or Eb = σ T 4
Heat transfer due to radiation, Qrad = Fσ A(T14 − T24 ) or Qrad = FA( Eb1 − Eb 2 )
where, F = A factor (shape factor) depending on geometry and surface properties,
σ = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2K4
A = Are, m2
T1, T2 = Temperatures, Kelvin (K)
T1 − T2
The equation can also be rewritten as: Q=
1/ [ Fσ A(T1 + T2 )(T12 + T22 )]
Radiation thermal resistance, ( Rth ) rad = 1/ [ Fσ A(T1 + T2 )(T12 + T22 )]

The values of F are available for simple configurations in the form of charts and tables.
F = 1 ... for simple cases of black surface enclosed by other surface and F = emissivity (ε) ... for
non-black surface enclosed by other surface. [Emissivity (ε) is defined as the ratio of heat radiated by a
surface to that of an ideal surface.]

CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENEOUS PLANE WALL
Case I : Uniform thermal conductivity

Consider a plane wall of homogeneous material through which
heat is flowing only in x-direction. Let, L = Thickness of the plane
wall, A = Cross-sectional area of the wall, k = Thermal conductivity of
the wall material, and T1, T2 = Temperatures maintained at the two
faces 1 and 2 of the wall, respectively. The general heat conduction
equation in Cartesian coordinates is given by,
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T
+ + = ⋅
∂ x 2 ∂ y 2 ∂ z 2 α ∂τ
If the heat conduction takes place under the conditions, steady
state one-dimensional and with no internal heat generation then the
above equation is reduced to,
∂ 2T
=0
∂ x2
By integrating the above differential twice,
Fig. 1.7 Heat conduction plane wall
∂T
= C1 and T = C1x + C 2
∂x
Where C1 and C2 are the arbitrary constants. The values of these constants may be calculated
from the known boundary conditions as, at x = 0 then T = T1 and x = L then T = T2.Substituting the
values in the eqn.
T1 = 0 + C 2 and T2 = C1L + C 2
After simplification, C2 = T1 and C1 = (T2 − T1 ) L
Thus the equation reduced to: T = (T2 − T1 ) L  x + T1
The eqn. indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear and is independent of
thermal conductivity. Now heat through the plane wall can be found by using Fourier’s equation as
follows:
dT dT
Q = −kA (Where, = Temperature gradient)
dx dx
dT d  T2 − T1   T −T
But, =    x + T1  = 2 1
dx dx  L   L
(T2 − T1 ) kA(T1 − T2 )
∴ Q = −kA =
L L
(T1 − T2 ) (T1 − T2 )
The equation can be written as; Q= =
L / kA ( Rth ) cond
Where, (Rth)cond = Thermal resistance to heat conduction. Fig (b) shows the equivalent thermal
circuit for heat flow through the plane wall.
Let us now find out the condition when instead of space, weight is the main criterion for
selection of the insulation of a plane wall.
L
Thermal resistance of the wall, ( Rth ) cond = ....(i)
kA

Weight of the wall, W = ρ AL ....(ii)
Eliminating L from (i) and (ii), W = ρ A( Rth ) cond ⋅ kA = ρ .k . A 2 .( Rth ) cond

The eqn. stipulates the condition that, for a specified thermal resistance, the lightest insulation
will be one which has the smallest product of density (ρ) and thermal conductivity (k).
Case II. Variable thermal conductivity

A. Temperature variation in terms of surface temperatures (T1, T2):
Let the thermal conductivity vary with temperature according to
the relation
k = k 0 (1 + β T )
Where, k0= Thermal conductivity at zero temperature. [In most of
the cases, the thermal conductivity is found to vary linearly with
temperature]. When the effect of temperature on thermal conductivity is
considered, the Fourier’s equation, Fig. 1.8
dT
Q = −kA Can be written as:
dx
dT
Q = −k 0 (1 + β T ) ⋅ A ⋅
dx
Q
Or, ⋅ dx = −k 0 (1 + β T )dT
A
Q L T2
Or,
A ∫0 dx = −k 0
∫T
1
(1 + β T )dT
T
Q.L  β  2
Or, = −k0 T + T 2 
A  2 T
1
Q.L  β 
Or, = −k 0 (T2 − T1 ) + (T22 − T12 ) 
A  2 
Q.L  β 
Or, = k0 (T1 − T2 ) + (T1 − T2 )(T1 + T2 ) 
A  2 
 β 
= k 0 (T1 − T2 ) 1 + (T1 + T2 ) 
 2 
T1 + T2
= k 0 (T1 − T2 ) 1 + β Tm  Where, Tm =
2
A(T1 − T2 )
∴ Q = k 0 (1 + β Tm ) ⋅
L
From eqn. T is replaced by Tm, then k m = k 0 (1 + β Tm )
T − T 
∴ Q = km A  1 2 
 L 
Where, km is known as mean thermal conductivity of the wall material. Further, if t is the
temperature of the surface at a distance x from the left surface (Fig.), then eqn. becomes,

Qx  β 
= −k0 (T − T1 ) + (T 2 − T12 ) 
A  2 
 β 2 2  x  β 2 2 
From eqns. (T2 − T1 ) + 2 (T2 − T1 )  L = (T − T1 ) + 2 (T − T1 ) 
   
1/2
1 x 1
Solving the above equn for T,
β
{
T = (1 + β T1 ) 2 − (1 + β T1 ) 2 − (1 + β T2 ) 2 
L
} −
β
B. Temperature variation in terms of heat flux (Q):
Fourier’s equation for heat conduction is given by
dT dT
Q = −kA = −k0 (1 + β T ) A ⋅
dx dx
Or, Q.dx = − k 0 (1 + β T ) A.dT
β
Integrating both sides, Q.x = −k 0 A(T + T 2) + C (i)
2
Where, C = Constant of integration
To evaluate C, applying the conditions: At x = 0; T = T1
β
C = k0 A(T1 + T12 )
2
β β
Substituting the values of the constant C in (i), Q.x = −k 0 A(T + T 2 ) + k0 A(T1 + T12 )
2 2
β β
Substituting the values of the constant C in (i), Q.x = −k 0 A(T + T 2 ) + k0 A(T1 + T12 )
2 2
β  Q.x  β 
Dividing both sides by k0A and rearranging, T 2 +T +  −  T1 + T12   = 0
2  k0 A  2 
β  Q.x  β 
−1 + 1 − 4 ×  −  T1 + T12  
2  k0 A  2 
By solving the above quadratic equation, T =
β 
2× 
2
1/2
 1 2  Q.x
1 β 
Or, T =− + 2 −  − T1 − T12  
β  β β  k0 A 2  
1/2
1 1 2 2Q.x 
= − +  2 − T1 + T12 − 
β β β β k0 A 
1/2
1 1
2
2Q.x 
Hence, T = − +  T1 +  − 
β  β  β k0 A 
 
In most of the practical applications where the variation of temperature is small, the average
value of k for the given temperature range is commonly used as given in the eqn. If the variation of k
with temperature is not linear and then,

k = k 0 f (T )
Q L T2
A ∫0 dx = ∫T
1
k 0 f (T )dT
A T2 
Or , Q=
L 
− ∫T
1
k0 f (T )dT 

 T −T 
But, Q = km A 1 2 
 L 
1 T2
Equating these equns., k m = ∫
(T1 − T2 ) T1
k 0 f (T )dT
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

Refer to Fig.1.9 (a). Consider the transmission of heat
through a composite wall consisting of a number of slabs.
Let, LA, LB, LC= Thicknesses of slabs A, B and C
respectively (also called path lengths),
kA, kB, kC= Thermal conductivities of the slabs A, B, and C
respectively,
T1, T4 (T1>T4) = Temperatures at the wall surfaces 1 and 4
respectively,
T2, T3= Temperatures at the interfaces 2 and 3 respectively.
Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through
each slab/layer is same, Fig 1.9 Steady state conduction-composite wall
k A . A(T1 − T2 ) k B . A(T2 − T3 ) kC . A(T3 − T4 )

Q= = =
LA LB LC
(Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no temperature drop occurs
across the interface between the materials). Rearranging the above expression,
Q.L A
T1 − T2 = ....(i)
k A.A
Q.LB
T2 − T3 = ....(ii)
k B .A
Q.Lc
T3 − T4 = ....(iii)
kc . A
Adding (i), (ii) and (iii),
 L L L  Fig. 1.10 Series and parallel one-dimensional heat
(T1 − T4 ) = Q  A + B + C  transfer through a composite wall & electrical analogy.
 k A.A k B . A kC . A 
A(T1 − T4 )
Or , Q=
 L A LB LC 
 + + 
 k A k B kC 

(T1 − T4 ) (T1 − T4 )
Or , Q= =
 LA L L  Rth− A + Rth− B + Rth−C 
 + B + C 
 k A.A k B . A kC . A 
T1 − T( n+1) 
If the composite wall consists of n slabs/layers, Q =
 
n
L
∑ kA
1
In order to solve more complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal resistances,
the electrical analogy may be used. A typical problem and its analogous electric circuit are shown in
Fig. 1.10.
∆Toverall
Q=
∑ Rth
THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE
In a composite (multi-layer) wall, the calculations of
heat flow are made on the assumptions: (i) the contact between
the adjacent layers is perfect, (ii) At the interface there is no
fall of temperature, and (iii) At the interface the temperature is
continuous, although there is discontinuity in temperature
gradient. In real systems, however, due to surface roughness
and void spaces (usually filled with air) the contact surfaces
touch only at discrete locations. Thus there is not a single plane
of contact, which means that the area available for the flow of Fig. 1.11 Temperature drops at interface
heat at the interface will be small compared to geo metric face
area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large resistance to heat flow at the interface
occurs. This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance and it causes temperature drop between
two materials at the interface as shown in Fig. 1.11 The contact resistances are given by,
T2 − T3 T4 − T5
( Rth − AB ) cont = and ( Rth− BC ) cont =
Q/ A Q/ A
THE OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
While dealing with the problems of fluid to fluid heat
transfer across a metal boundary, it is usual to adopt an overall heat
transfer coefficient U which gives the heat transmitted per unit area
per unit time per degree temperature difference between the bulk
fluids on each side of the metal. Refer to Fig. Let, L = Thickness of
the metal wall, k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, T1=
Temperature of the surface-1, T2 = Temperature of the surface-2, Ta=
Temperature of the hot fluid, Tb = Temperature of the cold fluid, ha =
Heat transfer coefficient from hot fluid to metal surface, and hb =
Heat transfer coefficient from metal surface to cold fluid. (The
suffices a and b stand for hot fluid and cold fluid respectively.)The
equations of heat flow through the fluid and the metal surface are
given by, Fig 1.12 Overall heat transfer-Plane wall
Q = ha A (Ta − T1 ) (i)
Q = k. A
(T1 − T2 ) (ii)
L
Q = hb A (T2 − Tb ) (iii )

By rearranging (i), (ii) and (iii),

Q
Ta − T1 = (iv)
ha . A
Q.L
T1 − T2 = ( v)
k.A
Q
T2 − Tb = (vi )
hb A
 1 L 1 
By rearranging (iv), (v) and (vi), Ta − Tb = Q  + + 
 ha . A k . A hb . A 
A(Ta − Tb )
Or, Q=
1 L 1
+ +
ha k hb
I
If the overall heat transfer coefficient, U =
1 L 1
+ +
ha k hb
Then, Q = UA(Ta − Tb )
It may be noticed from the above equation that if the individual coefficients differ greatly in
magnitude only a change in the least will have any significant effect on the rate of heat transfer.
CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENEOUS CYLINDERS
Case I. Uniform thermal conductivity:
Consider a hollow cylinder made of material having constant thermal conductivity and insulated
at both ends. Let, r1, r2 = Inner and outer radii; T1, T2 = Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and k
= Constant thermal conductivity within the given temperature range. The general heat conduction
equation in cylindrical coordinates is given by,
 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  q g 1 ∂ T
 2+ ⋅ + ⋅ + + = ⋅
 ∂ r r ∂ r r 2 ∂ φ 2 ∂ z 2  k α ∂ τ
For steady state, unidirectional heat flow in radial

direction and with no internal heat generation (q = 0), the
above equation reduces to
d 2T1 dT
+ ⋅
2
=0
dr r dr
1 d  dT 
Or, ⋅ r =0
r d r  d r 
1 d  dT 
Since, ≠ 0, Therefore, r =0
r d r  d r 
dT
Or, r =C (a constant)
dr Fig. 1.13 Conduction through homogeneous cylinders
Integrating the above equation, T = C l n (r ) + C1 (i )
(Where C1 = Constant of integration)
Using the following boundary conditions,

At r = r1 , T = T 1; At r = r2 , T = T2
∴ T1 = C l n (r1 ) + C1 (i i )
T2 = C l n (r2 ) + C1 (i i i )
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T )
Eqn (i) – (ii), C = − , substituting value of C in eqn (ii), C1 = T1 + 1 2 l n (r1 )
l n (r2 r1 ) l n (r2 r1 )
Substituting the values of these constants in eqn (i)
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T )
T = T1 + l n (r1 ) − 1 2 l n (r )
l n (r2 r1 ) l n (r2 r1 )
The above equation is the expression for temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder.
1
Or, T − T1 =
l n (r2 r1 )
[(T1 − T2 ) l n (r1) − (T1 − T2 ) l n (r )] ,
(T − T1 ) l n (r2 r1 ) = (T1 − T2 ) l n (r1 ) − (T1 − T2 ) l n (r )
= (T2 − T1 ) l n (r ) − (T2 − T1 ) l n (r1 ) = (T2 − T1 ) l n (r r1 )

T − T1 l n (r r1 )
= (Dimensionless form)
T2 − T1 l n (r2 r1 )
From the above equation, the following points are worth noting:
(i) The temperature distribution is logarithmic (not linear as in the case of plane wall).
(ii) Temperature at any point in the cylinder can be expressed as a function of radius, only.
Isotherms (or lines of constant temperatures) are then concentric circles lying between the
inner and outer boundaries of the hollow cylinder.
(iii) The temperature profile is nearly linear for values of (r2/r1) of the order of unity, but
decidedly non-linear for large values of (r2/r1)
Determination of conduction heat transfer rate (Q):
The conduction heat transfer rate is determined by utilizing the temperature distribution in
conjunction with Fourier’s equation as follows:
dT
Q = −k A
dr
d  (T1 − T2 ) (T − T ) 
Substituting the value of T, Q = −k A T1 + l n (r1 ) − 1 2 l n (r ) 
dr  l n (r2 r1 ) l n (r2 r1 ) 
 (T − T )  (T − T )
Q = −k (2π r.L)  − 1 2  = 2π k L 1 2
 r l n (r2 r1 )  l n (r2 r1 )
(T1 − T2 ) ∆ T
Q= =
l n (r2 r1 ) Rt h
2π k L
l n (r2 r1 )
Where, Rt h =
2π k L
Case II. Variable thermal conductivity:
dT
The heat flux equation is given by, Q = −kA Where, k = k 0 (1 + β T )
dr

dT
Q = −k 0 (1 + β T )2π rL
dr
dr
Or, Q⋅ = −k 0 .2π L(1 + β T )dT
r
r2 dr T2
Integrating both sides, Q ∫ = −k 0 .2π L ∫ (1 + β T ) dT
r1 r T1
r2 dr T2
Q∫ = −k 0 .2π L ∫ (1 + β T ) dT
r1 r T1
T
r2  T2
2
Q [ ln(r )] r1
= − k 0 .2π L T + β ⋅ 
 2 
T1
 β 
Q ln(r2 r1 ) = −k 0 .2π L (T2 − T1 ) + ⋅ (T22 − T12 ) 
 2 
 β 
= −k 0 .2π L (T2 − T1 ) + ⋅ (T2 + T1 )(T2 − T1 ) 
 2 
 β 
= k 0 .2π L 1 + ⋅ (T1 + T2 )  (T1 − T2 )
 2 
 β 
k 0 .2π L 1 + ⋅ (T1 + T2 )  (T1 − T2 )
∴ Q=  2 
ln(r2 r1 )
 β 
k 0 .2π L 1 + (T1 + T )  (T1 − T )
Integrating between r,- r1 and T-T1, Q=  2 
ln(r r1 )
 β   β 
k 0 .2π L 1 + (T1 + T2 )  (T1 − T2 ) k 0 .2π L 1 + (T1 + T )  (T1 − T )
Equating the both equations,  2  =  2 
ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r r1 )
12
1 1ln(r r1 ) 
Then after solution and simplification, T = − ± (1 + β T1 ) 2 −
β β ln(r2 r1 )
{
(1 + β T1 ) 2 − (1 + β T2 ) 2 

}
Since, T = T2, where r = r2, therefore, only the +ve sign in the above expression can be used
12
1 ln(r r1 )  1
Hence, simplification, T = (1 + β T1 ) 2 −
β ln(r2 r1 )
{
(1 + β T1 ) 2 − (1 + β T2 ) 2 

} −
β
LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE HOLLOW CYLINDER

Invariably it is considered convenient to have an expression for the heat flow through a hollow
cylinder of the same form as that for a plane wall. Then thickness will be equal to (r2– r1) and the area
A will be an equivalent area Am as shown in the Fig. Now, expressions for heat flow through the hollow
cylinder and plane wall will be as follows:

(T1 − T2 )
Q= ..Heat flow through cylinder
l n (r2 r1 )
2π k L
(T1 − T2 )
Q= ..Heat flow through plane wall
(r2 − r1 )
k Am
Am is so chosen that heat flow through cylinder
and plane wall will be equal for the same thermal
potential. Fig. 1.14 Logarithmic mean area for hollow cylinder
(T1 − T2 ) (T1 − T2 ) l n (r2 r1 ) (r2 − r1 )

∴ = Or =
l n (r2 r1 ) (r2 − r1 ) 2π k L k Am
2π k L k Am
2π L (r2 − r1 ) 2π L r2 − 2π L r1
Or Am = =
l n (r2 r1 ) l n (2π L r2 2π L r1 )
Ao − Ai
Or Am =
l n ( Ao / Ai )
Where Ai and Ao are inside and outside surface areas of cylinder, The expression is known as
logarithmic mean area of the plane wall and the hollow cylinder. By the use of this expression a
cylinder can be transformed into a plane wall and the problem can be solved easily.
Ao A + Ao
If < 2 , then we can take, Aa v = i , which is within 4% of Am (where, Aav = Average
Ai 2
area)
2π L(r2 − r1 )
Further, Am = 2π rm L =
l n (r2 / r1 )
(r2 − r1 )
Obviously, logarithmic mean radius of hollow cylinder, rm =
l n ( r2 / r1 )
CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE CYLINDERS

Consider a composite cylinder with three layers as shown. r3
There is convection at the beginning and at the end and also r4
conduction on each layer of the wall. It can be seen that same amount h1
T1
of heat is flowing through all the sections. T2
Let, T1= The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside the
h2 T4 T3 r1
T5 r2
cylinder,T6= The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric air), ka = T6 ka
Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A, kb = Thermal conductivity Q kb
kc
of the outside layer B,T2, T3 , T4, T5= Temperatures at the interface and
L= Length of the composite cylinder Fig. 1.15
Q
Q = h1 2π r1L. (T1 - T2 ) or (T1 - T2 ) = (i )
h1 2π r1L
(T2 - T3 ) Q r
Q = 2π k a L.
r
or (T2 - T3 ) = ln 2 (i i )
ln 2 2π k a L. r1
r1

(T3 - T4 ) Q r
Q = 2π k b L.
r
or (T3 - T4 ) = ln 3 (i i i )
ln 3 2π kb L. r2
r2
(T4 - T5 ) Q r
Q = 2π k c L.
r
or (T4 - T5 ) = ln 4 (i v)
ln 4 2π k c L. r3
r3
Q
Q = h2 2π r4 L. (T5 - T6 ) or (T5 - T6 ) = (v)
h2 2π r4 L
Adding the above equations (i) + (ii) + (iii) + (iv) + (v)
(T1 - T2 ) + (T2 - T3 ) + (T3 - T4 ) + (T4 - T5 ) + (T6 - T5 )
Q Q r Q r Q r Q
= + ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 +
h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L
 1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 
(T1 - T6 ) = Q + ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 + 
 h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π kb L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L 
Q=
(T1 - T6 )
 1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 
 + ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 + 
 h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L 
∆T 1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
But, Q = , W h e r e , Rt h = + ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 +
Rt h h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L
Total thermal resistance is the sum of individual resistances. If inside and outside heat transfer
coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be written as,
Q=
(T1 - T6 )
 1 r 1 r 1 r 
 ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 
 2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3 
CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENEOUS SPHERES
Consider a hollow sphere made of material having constant thermal
conductivity. Let ri and ro= Inner and outer radii, Ti and To =
Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and k = Constant thermal
conductivity of the material with the given temperature range.
The basic equilibrium equation is given by
1 ∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂ 2T q 1 ∂ T
r +
 2  s i n θ + + =
r2 ∂r  ∂r  r s i nθ ∂ θ  ∂ θ  r 2 s i n 2 θ ∂ φ 2 k α ∂ τ
When one dimensional steady state without heat generation is taken

1 ∂  2 ∂T 
r =0 . . . . (i )
r2 ∂r  ∂r  Fig. 1.16
∂  2 ∂T 
r
∂ r  ∂ r =0

dT C1
Integrating twice the eqn (i) twice, r 2 = C1 ⇒ dT = dr
dr r2
 1
T = C1  −  + C 2 . . . . (i i )
 r
The boundary conditions are, a t r = ri t h e n T = Ti a n d r = ro t h e n T = To . Applying
boundary conditions to the eqn: (ii)
 1  1
Ti = C1  −  + C 2 and To = C1  −  + C2
 ri   ro 
C1 C1
Thus the equation (ii) reduces to the form Ti − To = − −
ri ro
(Ti − To ) ri.ro  1  (T − T ) r r
Then, C1 = , and C2 = Ti +   i o i. o
( ri − ro )  ri  ( ri − ro )
(Ti − To ) ri.ro  1   1  (T − T ) r r (T − T ) r r  1 1 
Now, T=  −  + Ti +   i o i. o = Ti + i o i. o  − 
( ri − ro )  r   ri  ( ri − ro ) ( ri − ro )  ri r 
T − Ti  1 1   1 1 
and = −   − 
Ti − To  ri r   ro ri 
From the eqn. it is evident that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction
through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.
Determination of conduction heat transfer rate, Q
dT d  Ti − To  1 1 
Q = −k A ⇒ Q = − k . 4π r 2 Ti +  − 
dr d r  (1/ ro − 1 / ri )  ri r  
Ti − To  1  (T − T )  1 
Q = − k . 4π r 2 . × −  − 2  = − k . 4π r 2 . i o ×  2 
(1 / ro − 1 / ri )  r   ri − ro   r 
 
 ri .ro 
(Ti − To )ri .ro (Ti − To )ri .ro
Q = − 4π .k . = 4π .k .
ri − ro ro − ri
(Ti − To )
Q=
( ro − ri ) 4π k.ri .ro
Where the term ( ro − ri ) 4π k.ri .ro is the thermal resistance (Rth) for heat conduction through a
hollow sphere.
CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE SPHERES
Consider a composite sphere with three layers as shown.
r3
There is convection at the beginning and at the end and also
conduction on each layer of the wall. It can be seen that same r4
h1
amount of heat is flowing through all the sections. T1
T2
Let, T1= The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside h2 T4 T3 r1
the cylinder, T6= The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric T5 r2
T6 ka
air), ka= Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A, kb= Thermal
Q kb
conductivity of the outside layer B, T2, T3, T4, T5= Temperatures at kc
the interface, r1, r2, r3, r4 are the radii from inside to outside. Same
amount of heat is flowing through all the sections. Fig. 1.17

Q
Q = h 1 4π r12 . (T1 − T2 ) = (T1 − T2 ) = (i )
h 1 4π r12
(T2 − T3 ) Q
Q = 4π k a .r2 r1 = (T2 − T3 ) = ( r2 − r1 ) (i i )
r2 − r1 4π k a r2 r1
(T3 − T4 ) Q
Q = 4π kb .r2 r3 = (T3 − T4 ) = ( r3 − r2 ) (i i i )
r3 − r2 4π k b r2 r3
(T4 − T5 ) Q
Q = 4π k c .r3r4 = (T4 − T5 ) = ( r4 − r3 ) (i v)
r4 − r3 4π k c r3r4
Q
Q = h2 4π r42 . (T5 − T6 ) = (T5 − T6 ) = (v )
h2 4π r42
Adding the above equations (i) + (ii) + (iii) + (iv) + (v)
(T1 − T2 ) + (T2 − T3 ) + (T3 − T4 ) + (T4 − T5 ) + (T5 − T6 )
Q Q Q Q Q
= + ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r3 − r2 ) + ( r4 − r3 ) +
h1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 h2 4π r42
 1 1 1 1 1 
( 1 6)
T − T = Q  + ( 2 1)
r − r + ( 3 2)
r − r + ( 4 3)
r − r + 
 h 1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 h2 4π r42 
Q=
(T1 − T6 )
 1 1 1 1 1 
 + ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r − r ) + ( r − r ) +
 h1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π kb r2 r3 3 2 4π k c r3r4 4 3 h2 4π r42 
 
∆T
But, Q=
Rt h
1 1 1 1 1
Thus, Rt h = + ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r3 − r2 ) + ( r4 − r3 ) +
h1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 h2 4π r42
Total thermal resistance is the sum of individual resistances.If inside and outside heat transfer
coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be written as,
Q=
(T1 − T6 )
 1 1 1 
 ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r3 − r2 ) + ( r4 − r3 ) 
 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 
CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION
A material which retards the flow of heat with reasonable effectiveness is known as ‘Insulation’.
Insulation serves the following two purposes:
1. It presents the heat flow from the system to the surroundings.
2. It prevents the heat flow from the surroundings to the system.
Applications:
1. Boilers and steam pipes;
2. Air-conditioning systems;

3. Food preserving stores and refrigerators;

4. Insulating bricks (employed in various types of furnaces);
5. Preservation of liquid gases etc.
Factors affecting thermal conductivity of insulators:
Some of the important factors which affect thermal conductivity (k) of the insulators (the value
of k should be always low to reduce the rate of heat flow) are as follows:
1. Temperature. For most of the insulating materials, the value of k increases with increase in
temperature.
2. Density. There is no mathematical relationship between k and ρ (density). The common
understanding that high density insulating materials will have higher values of k is not always
true.
3. Direction of heat flow. For most of the insulating materials (except few like wood) the effect of
direction of heat flow on the values of k is negligible.
4. Moisture. It is always considered necessary to prevent entering of moisture in the insulating
materials, during service, it is, however, difficult to find the effect of moisture on the values of k
of different insulating materials.
5. Air pressure. It has been found that the value of k decreases with decrease in pressure.
6. Convection in insulators. The value of k increases due to the phenomenon of convection in
insulators
We have already seen that in case of the cylindrical and spherical conductions the equation for
the heat transfer is given by
Q = −k. A.(∂ T ∂ r )
This shows that an increase in the area will result in the increase in the heat transfer rate where
as an increase in the radius will result in the decrease in the heat transfer rate.
But as the radius increases the area also increases. It can
be seen that the heat transfer increases first as the outer radius is
increased and reaches a maximum conductive thermal resistance.
But when the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal Qmax
resistance [(Rth)cond] and convective thermal resistance [(Rth)conv]
addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convective thermal
resistance due to increase in surface area, as in the case of a cylinder
and sphere, and the total thermal resistance may actually decrease Q
resulting in Increased heat flow. It may be shown that the thermal
resistance actually decreases and then increases in some cases. Fluid
film thickness up to which heat flow increases and after which heat rc radius, r
flow decreases is termed as Critical thickness. In case of cylinders and
spheres it is called Critical radius. Fig. 1.18
.
Critical thickness of insulation of cylinders
Consider a solid cylinder of radius ri, insulated with an
insulation of thickness (ro – ri) as shown in Fig. Let L= length of the
cylinder, Ti = surface temperature inside the cylinder, To= surface
temperature outside the cylinder, h = heat transfer coefficient at the
outer surface of the insulation, and k = thermal conductivity of
insulating material.Here there will be conduction and then
convection outside. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of
the solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by

Q=
∆T
=
(Ti - To ) =
2π l (Ti - To ) Fig. 1.19
Rt h  1 r 1   1 ro 1 
 ln o +   ln + 
 2π k L ri h 2π ro L  k ri h ro 
 1 r 1 
W h e r e, Rt h =  ln o + 
 2π k L ri h 2π ro L 
−1
 1  1  r  1 
Q = ∆T   l n  o  + 
 2π L  k  ri  ro h  
l n ( ro ri ) 1
It is evident that as rO increases, the factor increases but the factor decreases. Thus
k h ro
l n ( ro ri ) 1
Q becomes maximum when the denominator + becomes minimum. The required
k h ro
condition is that,
dQ
Maximum heat transfer occurs at =0
d ro
  1  1  r  1  
−1
d 
∆T .  o
 l n   +    = 0 (ro b e i n g t h e o n l y v a r i a b l e)
d ro   2π L  k  ri  ro h   
 
1 1 1 1  1 1 k
. + − =0 and − =0 ⇒ ro =
k ro h  ro2  k h. ro h
The above relation represents the condition for minimum resistance and consequently maximum
heat flow rate. The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called the’ critical
radius' (rc). The critical radius rC is dependent on the thermal quantities k and h and is independent of ri,
(i.e. cylinder radius).This is the value of the critical radius of insulation for cylinders.
Critical thickness of insulation of spheres
Consider a hollow solid sphere of radius r, insulated
with an insulation of thickness (ro – ri) as shown in Fig. Let Ti =
surface temperature inside the sphere, To = surface temperature
outside the sphere, h = heat transfer coefficient at the outer
surface of the insulation, and k = thermal conductivity of
insulating material.
Here there will be conduction and then convection
outside. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the
solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by,
(Ti − To )
Q=
(
( ro − ri ) 4π k.ri .ro  + 1 4π ro 2 h 
  ) Fig. 1.20
1  ( ro − ri ) 1 
Rt h =  + 2 
4π  k ro ri ro h 
−1
 1  ( ro − ri ) 1 
Q = ∆T .   + 2 
 4π  k ro ri ro h  

dQ
Maximum heat transfer occurs at =0
d ro
−1
d  1  ( ro − ri ) 1 
∆T .   + 2  =0
d ro  4π  k ro ri ro h  
−1 −1
d  ( ro − ri ) 1  d  1 1 1 
 + 2  = 0 and  − + 2  = 0
d ro  k ro ri ro h  d ro  k ri k ro ro h 
−2
 1 1 1   1 2 
− + 2  × 
 k r 2 r 3h 
− − = 0
 k ri k ro r h 
 o   o o 
2
 1 1 1   1 2 
− 1 − + 2  ≠ 0 and  − 3 = 0
 k ri k ro r h 
 o   k ro
2
ro h 
1 2 2k
2
= 3
⇒ 2k = ro h ⇒ ro =
k ro ro h h
2k
Where, ro = rc = , is the value of the critical radius of insulation for spheres.
h
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION WITH HEAT GENERATION
In many practical cases there will be situations where there will be heat generation taking place
in the body. In a real situation this heat along with the conducted heat will be flowing in any direction
under consideration. Some of the main places where heat sources are present are,
(1) Electric heater, (2) Fuel rods – nuclear reactor, (3) Resistance heating, (4) Chemical and
Combustion processes, (5) Drying and setting of concrete etc.
There are different types of cases that may arise due to the difference in the different parameters
associated. They are
1. Plane wall with internal heat generation, 2. Cylinder with internal heat generation, 3. Sphere
with internal heat generation
Plane wall with internal heat generation

Consider a plane wall of thickness ‘L’ (small in
comparison with other dimension) of uniform thermal
conductivity k and in which heat sources are uniformly
distributed in the whole volume. Let the wall surfaces are
maintained at temperatures T1, and T2.Let us assume that heat
flow is one dimensional, under steady state conditions, and
there is a uniform volumetric heat generation within the wall.
Consider an element of thicknessdx at a distance x from the
left hand face of the wall. Heat conducted in at distance x,
from the Fourier’s law
dT
Heat influx, Qx = −k A
dx
dT d  dT 
Heat efflux, Qx+ d x = −k A +  −k A dx
dx dx  d x  Fig. 1.21 Plane wall with internal heat generation

dT d 2T
= −k A − kA 2 dx
dx dx
Heat generated within the element, Qg = q. A.d x
Where q = heat generated per unit volume per unit time in the element.
The total energy balance equation for the elemental area can be written as
Qx + Qg = Qx+ d x
dT dT d 2T
−k A + q. A.d x = −k A − kA 2 dx
dx dx dx
d 2T d 2T q.
q. A. = −k A 2
and 2
+ =0
dx dx k
This is the general differential equation for this case. Integrating this expression twic
dT q.
= − x + C1
dx k
q x2
T =− × + C1 x + C 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i )
k 2
Case I. Both the surfaces have the same temperature
Considering that the surfaces have the same temperature, then boundary conditions are,
At x = 0 t h e n , T = T1 = Tw
At x = L t h e n , T = T2 = Tw
Applying boundary conditions,
qL
C1 = , a n d C2 = Tw
2k
Supplying this value in (i) we get
q x2 q L x
T =− + + Tw
2k 2k
qx
T= ( L − x ) + Tw ……………….. (ii)
2k
In order to determine the location of the maximum temperature, differentiating the eqn. w.r.t x
and equating to zero, we have
d  qx
( L − x ) + Tw  = 0
dT
= 
d x d x  2k 
dT q
= ( L − 2x ) = 0
d x 2k
q L
Since, ≠0 Then, ( L − 2x) = 0 or, x =
2k 2
The maximum temperature occurs at x = L/2 and its value equals
q x   q L L 
Tm a x =  ( L − x )  + Tw or Tm a x =  ×  L −   + Tw
 2k  x =L /2  2k 2  2 

q
or Tm a x = × L2 + Tw
8k
Heat transfer then takes place towards both the surfaces, and for each surface it is given by,
 dT 
Q = −k A  
 d x  x =0 o r x= L
q  ALq
= − k A  ( L − 2 x ) Then, Q =
 2k  x=0 o r x= L 2
ALq
When both the surfaces are considered, T h e n , Q = 2× = ALq
2
Also heat conducted to each wall surface is further dissipated to the surrounding atmosphere at
temperature Ta,
AL q
T h en , Q = = h A(Tw − Ta )
2
L.q
Tw = Ta +
2h
Substituting this value of twin eqn., we obtain
qx L.q
T= ( L − x ) + Ta +
2k 2h
At x = L/2 i.e., at the mid plane,
q L2 L.q  L L2 
Tm a x = Ta + q 
 2 h 8k 
T = Tm a x = Ta + + and, +
8k 2h  
Case II. Both the surfaces of the wall have different temperatures
The total energy balance equation for the elemental area can
be written as
Qx + Qg = Qx+d x
dT dT d 2T
−k A + q. A.d x = −k A − kA 2 dx
dx dx dx
2 2
d T d T q.
q. A. = −k A 2 and + =0
dx d x2 k
This is the general differential equation for this case.
Integrating this expression twice, we get
Fig. 1.22 Plane wall with internal heat
dT q. generation Both the surfaces of the wall
= − x + C1
dx k have different temperatures
q x2
T =− × + C1 x + C 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i )
k 2
The boundary conditions are: At x = 0 then T = Tw1 and At x =Ll then T = Tw1. where Tw=
temperature of the wall surface. Using these boundary conditions in eqn,
T −T q
C 2 = Tw1 , C1 = w2 w1 + L
L 2k
Substituting these values of C1and C2 in eqn, (i)

q x 2 Tw 2 − Tw1 qL
T =− + x+ .x + Tw1
2k L 2k
⇒ T=
q L x q x2
−
(T − T )
+ x w2 w1 + Tw1
2k 2k L
q T −T 
T =  ( L − x ) + w2 w1  x + Tw1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i i)
 2k L 
The temperature distribution, in dimensionless form can be obtained by making the following
transformations,
ql2  x  x 2  x
T − Tw2 =  −    + (Tw2 − Tw1 ) + Tw1 − Tw 2
2k  L  L   L
T − Tw 2 ql2  x  x 2  x
=  −    + (Tw2 − Tw1 )
Tw1 − Tw 2 2k  L  L   L
T − Tw2 ql2  x  x 2  x
=  −  − +1
Tw1 − Tw2 2k (Tw1 − Tw 2 )  L  L   L
 
T − Tw2 ql2 x  x  x
= ⋅ 1 −  + 1 − 
Tw1 − Tw2 2k (Tw1 − Tw2 ) L  L   L 
q L2
Replacing the parameter, (a constant) by a factor Z,
2k (Tw1 − Tw2 )
T − Tw2 Z .x  x   x 
= 1− + 1−
Tw1 − Tw2 L  L   L 
T − Tw2  x  Z .x 
= 1 −   + 1
Tw1 − Tw2  L   L 
In order to get maximum temperature and its location, differentiating the above Eqn. w.r.t ‘x/L’
and equating the derivative to zero, we have
dt  x Z x 
= 1 −  Z +  + 1 (− 1) = 0
d ( x / L)  L   L 
Zx Zx
⇒ Z− − −1 = 0
L L
2Z x
= Z −1
L
x Z −1
⇒ =
L 2Z
x Z −1
Thus the maximum value of temperature occurs at, = and its value is given by,
L 2Z
Tm a x − Tw2   Z − 1     Z − 1  
= 1− Z +1
Tw1 − Tw2   2Z     2 Z  

Tm a x − Tw 2  Z + 1   Z 2 − Z + 2 Z 
⇒ =  
Tw1 − Tw2  2 Z   2Z 
Tm a x − Tw2  Z + 1   Z + 1
=
Tw1 − Tw2  2Z   2 
2
Tm a x − Tw2 ( Z + 1)
⇒ =
Tw1 − Tw 2 4Z
Fig. 1.23 Effect of factor Z on the temperature
distribution in the plane wall
Case III. Current carrying electrical conductor

In some cases there is heat generated due to the passage of electrical current through a conductor
which is given by,
ρ.L
Qg = I 2 R An d R=
A
Where, I = current (amp, A), R= electrical resistance (ohm, Ω), ρ = specific resistance or
resistivity, L = length of conductor and A= area of cross-section of conductor.
Also, Qg = qg × A × L
ρL ρL 1 I 2ρ
qg × A × L = I 2 × o r qg = I 2 × × =
A A A× L A2
2
I J2
o r qg =   ρ = J 2ρ o r qg =
 A ke
Where, J = Current density
ke = Electrical conductivity (reciprocal of ρ)
Cylinder with heat generation

Consider a cylindrical rod in which one-dimensional radial
conduction is taking place under steady state conditions. Let, R = radius
of the rod, L = length of the rod, k = thermal conductivity (uniform), qg
= uniform volumetric heat generation per unit volume per unit time, h =
heat transfer coefficient, and Ta= ambient temperature. In order to
obtain temperature distribution, consider an element of radius r and
thickness dr as shown in Fig. From the Fourier’s law of conduction for
cylindrical coordinates, assuming steady state uni-directional heat
conduction in radial direction,
∂ 2T qg r
r 2
+ =0
∂r k
Integrating the above equation twice,
∂T qg r 2
r = − . + C1
∂r k 2
∂T qg r C
or =− . + 1 . . . . (i)
∂r k 2 r
Fig. 1.24 Heat conduction in a solid

cylinder with uniform heat generation

qg r 2
T =− + C1 l n r + C2 . . . . (i i )
4k
Boundary conditions are
(1) A t r = R t h e n T = Tw
(2) Heat generated = Heat lost by conduction at the rod surface
 dT 
i e , π R 2 L q g = −k . 2π R L  
 d r r =R
π R2L qg  d T 
ie, =
− k . 2π R L  d r  r = R
 dT  qg
ie,   = − R
 d r  r =R 2k
dT
(3) Al s o , r = 0 t h en =0
dr
Applying first boundary condition in eqn (i),
 ∂T  qg R C
 ∂r  =− . + 1 . . . . (i i i)
  r =R k 2 R
 dT  qg
 
Applying second boundary condition  d r  = − R
r=R 2 k
qg C1 qg
− R+ =− R or C1 = 0
2k R 2k
Applying first boundary condition in eqn (ii)

qg R 2 qg R2
Tw = − + 0 + C2 Then, C 2 = Tw +
4k 4k
Then the general solution becomes,
qg r 2 qg R 2 qg
T =−
4k
+ Tw +
4k
or, T = Tw +
4k
(R 2
− r2 )
The maximum temperature occurs at the centre of the rod (r = 0) and its value is given by
qg
Tma x = Tw + R2
4k
By combining eqns. for T and Tmax, we will get dimensionless form of temperature distribution.
qg
T − Tw
= 4 k
(
R2 − r 2 ) ⇒
T − Tw
=
R2 − r 2( )
Tm a x − Tw qg 2 Tm a x − Tw R2
R
4k
2
T − Tw r
∴ = 1−  
Tm a x − Tw R

Also, energy generated within the rod (per unit time) = energy dissipated (per unit time) by
convection at the rod boundary
qg
( )
q g π R 2 L = h ( 2π R L ) (Tw − Ta ) ⇒ (Tw − Ta ) =
2h
R
qg
∴ Tw = Ta + R
2h
Inserting the value of Twin eqn., we obtain the temperature distribution (in terms of Ta) as:
qg qg
T = Ta +
2h
R+
4k
(R 2
− r2 )
The value of Tmax at r = 0, is given by
qg qg
Tma x = Ta + R+ R2
2h 4k
Sphere with uniform heat generation

Consider one dimensional radial conduction of heat, under steady
state condition, through a sphere having uniform heat generation. Let R
= Outside radius of sphere, k = thermal conductivity, qg = uniform heat
generation per unit volume, per unit time within the solid. Tw =
temperature of the outside surface (wall) of sphere and Ta = ambient
temperature. Consider an element of at radius r and thickness, dr
dT
Heat conducted in the element at radius ‘r’, Qr = − k . 4π r 2
dr
2
Heat generated in the element, Qg = q g . A.d r = q g . 4π r .d r
d
Heat conducted in the element at radius (r + dr), Q( r + d r ) = Qr + ( Qr ) d r Fig.1.25 Sphere with uniform heat
generation
dr
d
Under steady state conduction, Qr + Q g = Q( r + d r ) = Qr + ( Qr ) d r
dr
d d  dT 
Qg = ( Qr ) d r ⇒ q g 4π r 2 .d r =  − k . 4π r 2 dr
dr dr  d r 
d  2 dT  qg 1 d  2 dT 
q g 4π r 2 .d r = − 4π k r dr ⇒ =− r 
d r  d r  k r2 dr  dr 
1 d  2 d T  qg 1  2 d 2T d T  qg
r + =0 ⇒  r . + 2 r . + =0
r2 dr  dr  k r 2  dr2 d r  k
d 2T 2 d T qg d 2T d T qg . r
+ . + =0 ⇒ r. +2. + =0
dr2 r dr k dr2 dr k
d  d T  d T qg .r
 r. + + =0 . . . . (i )
dr  d r  dr k
dT qg r 2
r. +T + . = C1
Integrating both sides, dr k 2

d qg r 2
or ( r.T ) + . = C1 . . . . (i i )
dr k 2
Integrating both sides again,
qg r 3
r.T + . = C1.r + C 2 . . . . (i i i )
k 6
Where, C1 and C2 are the constants of integration.
Boundary conditions (1) at the centre of sphere, ie. r = 0 and applying in eqn. (iii)
q g 03
0×T + . = C1 × 0 + C 2 Then C2 = 0
k 6
Boundary condition (2) at r = R, then T = Tw. and applying in eqn. (iii),
qg R 3 qg
R.T + . = C1. R + 0 C1 = Tw + .R 2
k 6 6k
By substituting the values of C1and C2 in eqn. (iii), we have the temperature distribution as:
qg r 3  qg  qg qg
r.T + . =  Tw + . R 2 .r + 0 ⇒ T+ r 2 = Tw + .R 2
k 6  6k  6k 6k
qg qg qg
T = Tw +
6k
. R 2−
6k
r2 ⇒ T = Tw +
6k
(R 2
− r2 )
qg
The maximum temperature occurs at the centre (r = 0) and its value, Tma x = Tw + R2
6k
From the above eqns,

T − Tw
=
R 2− r 2 ( ) ⇒
T − Tw  r
= 1−  
2
Tm a x − Tw R2 Tm a x − Tw R 
This is the temperature distribution in dimensionless form. Invoking Fourier’s equation (to
evaluate heat flow),’ we have
 dt 
Q = −k A  
 d r  r=R
d  qg 
Substituting the value of T from eqn., Q = −k × 4π R 2 × Tw +
dr  6k
(
R 2− r 2 
 r =R
)
 qg  qg
Q = − k × 4π R 2  ( − 2r )  ⇒ Q = k × 4π R 2 × .R
6k  r =R 3k
4
∴Q = π R 3 × q g = volume of sphere × heat generation capacity
3
Thus heat conducted is equal to heat generated. Under steady state conditions the heat conducted
(or generated) should be equal to the heat converted from the outer surface of the sphere.

4
i e.π R 3 × q g = h × 4π R 2 (Tw − Ta )
3
4
⇒ π R 3 × q g = h × 4π R 2 × Tw − h × 4π R 2 × Ta
3
qg R qg R
= h × Tw − h × Ta ⇒ = Tw − Ta
3 3h
qg R
Tw = Ta +
3h
Inserting this value of Tw in eqn. for T and Tmax then,
qg R qg
T = Ta +
3h
+
6k
(R 2
− r2 )
qg R qg
And Tma x = Ta + + R2 (a t r = 0)
3h 6k
This is the maximum temperature of Sphere with uniform heat generation where internal radius r = 0.
CONDUCTION SHAPE FACTOR
This approach applied to 2-D conduction involving two isothermal surfaces, with all other surfaces
being adiabatic. The heat transfer from one surface (at a temperature T1) to the other surface (at T2) can
be expressed as:
q = S k (T1 - T2)
Where “k” is the thermal conductivity of the solid and “S” is the conduction shape factor.
The shape factor can be related to the thermal resistance as
q = S k (T1 - T2) = (T1 - T2) / (1 / k S) = (T1 - T2) / Rth
Where Rth = 1 / (k S)

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ME302 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Thermodynamics Heat transfer

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FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL OF TAYLOR SERIES

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Qg ' = q g (d x.d y.d z ) dτ

3. Energy stored in the element:

Dividing both sides by dx.dy.dz.dτ, we have

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d Qr' = Qr' − Q(' r + d r ) [Subtracting (ii) from (i)]

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d Qφ' = Qφ' − Q('φ + dφ ) [Subtracting (iv) from (iii)]

d Qz' = Qz' − Q(' z + d z ) [Subtracting (vi) from (v)]

(2) Total heat generated within the element (Qg’),

(3) Energy stored in the element:

d Qφ' = Qφ' − Q('φ + dφ ) [Subtracting (ii) from (i)]

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d Qθ' = Qθ' − Q('θ + dθ ) [Subtracting (iv) from (iii)]

d Qr' = Qr' − Q(' r + d r ) [Subtracting (vi) from (v)]

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(2) Total heat generated within the element (Qg’),

(3) Energy stored in the element:

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HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

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Radiation thermal resistance, ( Rth ) rad = 1/ [ Fσ A(T1 + T2 )(T12 + T22 )]

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CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENEOUS PLANE WALL

Case I : Uniform thermal conductivity

After simplification, C2 = T1 and C1 = (T2 − T1 ) L

Thus the equation reduced to: T = (T2 − T1 ) L  x + T1

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Weight of the wall, W = ρ AL ....(ii)

Eliminating L from (i) and (ii), W = ρ A( Rth ) cond ⋅ kA = ρ .k . A 2 .( Rth ) cond

Case II. Variable thermal conductivity

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HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

k A . A(T1 − T2 ) k B . A(T2 − T3 ) kC . A(T3 − T4 )

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By rearranging (i), (ii) and (iii),

For steady state, unidirectional heat flow in radial

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= (T2 − T1 ) l n (r ) − (T2 − T1 ) l n (r1 ) = (T2 − T1 ) l n (r r1 )

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LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE HOLLOW CYLINDER

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(T1 − T2 ) (T1 − T2 ) l n (r2 r1 ) (r2 − r1 )

CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE CYLINDERS

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When one dimensional steady state without heat generation is taken

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3. Food preserving stores and refrigerators;