Introduction

In this unit, we will discuss various economic impacts of IT and Organizational and Behavioral
impacts of IT. Also you will understand the impact of IT on decision making. At the business
level the most common analytic tool is value chain analysis. We will discuss leveraging
technology in the value chain in this unit. A Strategic Information System (SIS) is system that
assists companies change or otherwise alters their business strategy and/or structure.

3.1 Economic Organizational and Behavioural Impacts

3.1.1 Economic Impacts
Information technology helps firms contract in size, because it can reduce transaction costs—the
costs incurred when a firm buys on the marketplace what it cannot make itself. According to
transaction cost theory, firms and individuals seek to economize on transaction costs, much as
they do on production cost. Using markets is expensive because of costs such as locating and
communicating with distant suppliers monitoring contract compliance, buying insurance,
obtaining information on products and so fort.
Information technology also can reduce internal management costs. According to agency theory,
the firm is viewed as a “nexus of contracts” among self-interested individuals rather than as a
unified, profit-maximizing entity. A principle (owner) employs “agents” (employees) to perform
work on his or her behalf. However agents need constant supervision and management, because
they otherwise will tend to pursue their own interests rather than those of the owners.

3.1.2 Organizational and Behavioral Theories

Behavioral researchers have theorized that information technology could change the hierarchy
of decision making in organizations by lowering the costs of information acquisition and
broadening the distribution of information. Information technology could bring information
directly from operating units to senior managers, thereby eliminating middle managers and
their clerical support workers. Alternatively, information technology could distribute
information directly to lower- level workers, who could then make their own decisions based on
their own knowledge and information without any management intervention.
As firms grow in size and complexity, traditionally they experience rising agency costs. IT shifts
the agency cost curve down and to the right, allowing firms to increase size while lowering
agency costs. Implementing information systems has consequences for task arrangements,
structures, and people.

3.2 IT Impact on Decision-making/Role of Information Technology

Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board of Directors may
make the grand strategic decisions about investment and direction of future growth, and managers
may make the more tactical decisions about how their own department may contribute most
effectively to the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are increasingly
expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own tasks, responses to customers and
improvements to business practice. This needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened.
3.2.2 Implications for System Design
The decision-making process is much different in today’s organization than it was just a few
years ago. The danger of building a system to accommodate today’s process is that it will not
take these changes into account. Understanding how people and organizations make decisions
will help build a system that can accommodate the organization and the employees.
Information systems should be created not only to help mangers and employees make decisions,
but also help them better communicate between all levels and units of the organization.
Remember, decisions are not made in isolation. More important, decisions affect a wide range
of people, and the system should accommodate this fact.
The real danger in using information systems to help make decisions is that the decisionmaking
Process will be based on the wrong information.
Because managers may assume that the situation is similar to one they experienced before, they may
not be as careful as they would be if it were an entirely new situation. For instance, management may decide that
the new packaging materials are as good as the old ones because they are the same color.
Therefore managers won’t be as careful in studying all the data, all the possible outcomes and
the alternatives when making the decision to change suppliers. They make the decision based
on the first available alternative that moves them toward their ultimate goal. They find out too
late that the packaging materials are not as good as the old ones and they end up with more
damaged goods and irate customers.
Information systems should have these characteristics:
They are flexible and provide many options for handling data and evaluating information.
They are capable of supporting a variety of styles, skills, and knowledge.
They are powerful in the sense of having multiple analytical and intuitive models for the
evaluation of data and the ability to keep track of many alternatives and consequences.
They reflect the bureaucratic and political requirements of systems.
They reflect an appreciation of the limits of organizational change and an awareness of what information systems
can and cannot do.

DATABASE
Introduction:

Corporate database is the data related to any enterprise from starting the enterprise to the wind up
off. It contains all the information related to all the activities of any business. It contains the data
about the history of related industry.

All the activities of any firm from the starting to wind up about what the corporate database is
related

1.      At the time of initializing: When any business started by entrepreneur then it becomes
very important to get the information related to legal requirements and registration related
formalities. Corporate database collect all the data related to these terms at beginning.

a.       Legal requirement to start a business

b.      Mission and Vision statement

c.       Goal and objectives of the business

d.      Principles of the organization

e.       Expansion and diversification related database

2.      At the time of operation: When business comes in operation then all the database is
maintained related to operation. Business is divided into departments for proper control over
activities and database is also maintained according to these departmental activities i.e. Finance,
Marketing, Production, Human Resource etc. Some information related to these activities are

a.       Accounts of business

b.      Employee database

c.       Department’s database

d.      Competitor’s database

e.       Growth database

Corporate database helps entrepreneur and managers to take better decisions and for proper
controlling over market related activities.

Data organization

Data are the principal resources of an organization. Data stored in computer systems form a
hierarchy extending from a single bit to a database, the major record-keeping entity of a firm.
Each higher rung of this hierarchy is organized from the components below it.

Data are logically organized into:

1. Bits (characters)

2. Fields

3. Records

4. Files

5. Databases
 Bit (Character) - a bit is the smallest unit of data representation (value of a bit may be
a 0 or 1). Eight bits make a byte which can represent a character or a special symbol in a
character code.
 Field - a field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a
characteristic or quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event).
 Record - a record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity.
A record consists of fields, with each field describing an attribute of the entity.
 File - a group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for
which they are primarily used (employee file). A primary key in a file is the field (or
fields) whose value identifies a record among others in a data file.
 Database - is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database
consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data
records that provides data for many applications. The data is managed by systems
software called database management systems (DBMS). The data stored in a database is
 independent of the application programs using it and of the types of secondary storage
devices on which it is stored.

File Organization Terms and Concepts

• Entity: Person, place, thing, event about which information is maintained

• Attribute: Description of a particular entity
• Key field: Identifier field used to retrieve, update, sort a record

There are three principal methods of organizing files, of which only two provide the direct access
necessary in on-line systems.

File Organization

Data files are organized so as to facilitate access to records and to ensure their efficient storage.
A tradeoff between these two requirements generally exists: if rapid access is required, more
storage is required to make it possible.

Access to a record for reading it is the essential operation on data. There are two types of access:

1. Sequential access - is performed when records are accessed in the order they are stored.
Sequential access is the main access mode only in batch systems, where files are used and
updated at regular intervals.

2. Direct access - on-line processing requires direct access, whereby a record can be accessed
without accessing the records between it and the beginning of the file. The primary key serves to
identify the needed record.

There are three methods of file organization: [Table 6.1]

1. Sequential organization
2. Indexed-sequential organization

3. Direct organization

Sequential Organization

In sequential organization records are physically stored in a specified order according to a key
field in each record.

Advantages of sequential access:

1. It is fast and efficient when dealing with large volumes of data that need to be processed
periodically (batch system).

Disadvantages of sequential access:

1. Requires that all new transactions be sorted into the proper sequence for sequential access
processing.

2. Locating, storing, modifying, deleting, or adding records in the file requires rearranging the
file.

3. This method is too slow to handle applications requiring immediate updating or responses.

Indexed-Sequential Organization

In the indexed-sequential files method, records are physically stored in sequential order on a
magnetic disk or other direct access storage device based on the key field of each record. Each
file contains an index that references one or more key fields of each data record to its storage
location address.

Direct Organization

Direct file organization provides the fastest direct access to records. When using direct access
methods, records do not have to be arranged in any particular sequence on storage media.
Characteristics of the direct access method include:
1. Computers must keep track of the storage location of each record using a variety of direct
organization methods so that data can be retrieved when needed.

2. New transactions' data do not have to be sorted.

3. It is a Processing that requires immediate responses or updating is easily performed.

TRADITIONAL FILE STRUCTURE:

Traditional file based system is basically a file based system, in which we manually or through
computer handle the database such as updating, insertion ,deletion adding new files to database
etc.

File processing systems was an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system that
we are all familiar with. A file system is a method for storing and organizing computer files and
the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them. File systems may use a storage
device such as a hard disk or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the
files.

In our own home, we probably have some sort of filing system, which contains receipts,
guarantees, invoices, bank statements, and such like. When we need to look something up, we go
to the filing system and search through the system starting from the first entry until we find what
we want. Alternatively, we may have an indexing system that helps to locate what we want more
quickly. For example we may have divisions in the filing system or separate folders for different
types of item that are in some way logically related.
The manual filing system works well when the number of items to be stored is small. It even
works quite adequately when there are large numbers of items and we have only to store and
retrieve them. However, the manual filing system breaks down when we have to cross-reference
or process the information in the files. For example, a typical real estate agent's office might have
a separate file for each property for sale or rent, each potential buyer and renter, and each
member of staff.

Clearly the manual system is inadequate for this' type of work. The file based system was
developed in response to the needs of industry for more efficient data access. In early processing
systems, an organization's information was stored as groups of records in separate files.

In the traditional approach, we used to store information in flat files which are maintained by the
file system under the operating system's control. Here, flat files are files containing records
having no structured relationship among them. The file handling which we learn under C/C ++ is
the example of file processing system. The Application programs written in C/C ++ like
programming languages go through the file system to access these flat files as shown.
Characteristics of File Processing System

Here is the list of some important characteristics of file processing system:

• It is a group of files storing data of an organization.

• Each file is independent from one another.

• Each file is called a flat file.

• Each file contained and processed information for one specific function, such as accounting or
inventory.

• Files are designed by using programs written in programming languages such as COBOL, C,
C++.

• The physical implementation and access procedures are written into database application;
therefore, physical changes resulted in intensive rework on the part of the programmer.

• As systems became more complex, file processing systems offered little flexibility, presented
many limitations, and were difficult to maintain.
Limitations of the File Processing System I File-Based Approach

There are following problems associated with the File Based Approach:

1. Separated and Isolated Data: To make a decision, a user might need data from two separate
files. First, the files were evaluated by analysts and programmers to determine the specific data
required from each file and the relationships between the data and then applications could be
written in a programming language to process and extract the needed data. Imagine the work
involved if data from several files was needed.

2. Duplication of data: Often the same information is stored in more than one file. Uncontrolled
duplication of data is not required for several reasons, such as:

• Duplication is wasteful. It costs time and money to enter the data more than once

• It takes up additional storage space, again with associated costs.

• Duplication can lead to loss of data integrity; in other words the data is no longer consistent.
For example, consider the duplication of data between the Payroll and Personnel departments. If
a member of staff moves to new house and the change of address is communicated only to
Personnel and not to Payroll, the person's pay slip will be sent to the wrong address. A more
serious problem occurs if an employee is promoted with an associated increase in salary. Again,
the change is notified to Personnel but the change does not filter through to Payroll. Now, the
employee is receiving the wrong salary. When this error is detected, it will take time and effort to
resolve. Both these examples, illustrate inconsistencies that may result from the duplication of
data. As there is no automatic way for Personnel to update the data in the Payroll files, it is
difficult to foresee such inconsistencies arising. Even if Payroll is notified of the changes, it is
possible that the data will be entered incorrectly.

3. Data Dependence: In file processing systems, files and records were described by specific
physical formats that were coded into the application program by programmers. If the format of a
certain record was changed, the code in each file containing that format must be updated.
Furthermore, instructions for data storage and access were written into the application's code.
Therefore, .changes in storage structure or access methods could greatly affect the processing or
results of an application.
In other words, in file based approach application programs are data dependent. It means that,
with the change in the physical representation (how the data is physically represented in disk) or
access technique (how it is physically accessed) of data, application programs are also affected
and needs modification. In other words application programs are dependent on the how the data
is physically stored and accessed.

If for example, if the physical format of the master/transaction file is changed, by making he
modification in the delimiter of the field or record, it necessitates that the application programs
which depend on it must be modified.

Let us consider a student file, where information of students is stored in text file and each field is
separated by blank space as shown below:

I Rahat 35 Thapar

Now, if the delimiter of the field changes from blank space to semicolon as shown below:

1; Rahat; 35; Thapar

Then, the application programs using this file must be modified, because now it will token the
field on semicolon; but earlier it was blank space.

4. Difficulty in representing data from the user's view: To create useful applications for the
user, often data from various files must be combined. In file processing it was difficult to
determine relationships between isolated data in order to meet user requirements.

5. Data Inflexibility: Program-data interdependency and data isolation, limited the flexibility of
file processing systems in providing users with ad-hoc information requests

6. Incompatible file formats: As the structure of files is embedded in the application programs,
the structures are dependent on the application programming language. For example, the
structure of a file generated by a COBOL program may be different from the structure of a file
generated by a 'C' program. The direct incompatibility of such files makes them difficult to
process jointly.

7. Data Security. The security of data is low in file based system because, the data is maintained
in the flat file(s) is easily accessible. For Example: Consider the Banking System. The Customer
Transaction file has details about the total available balance of all customers. A Customer wants
information about his account balance. In a file system it is difficult to give the Customer access
to only his data in the· file. Thus enforcing security constraints for the entire file or for certain
data items are difficult.

8. Transactional Problems. The File based system approach does not satisfy transaction
properties like Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability properties commonly known as
ACID properties.

For example: Suppose, in a banking system, a transaction that transfers Rs. 1000 from account A
to account B with initial values' of A and B being Rs. 5000 and Rs. 10000 respectively. If a
system crash occurred after the withdrawal of Rs. 1000 from account A, but before depositing of
amount in account B, it will result an inconsistent state of the system. It means that the
transactions should not execute partially but wholly. This concept is known as Atomicity of a
transaction (either 0% or 100% of transaction). It is difficult to achieve this property in a file
based system.

9. Concurrency problems. When multiple users access the same piece of data at same interval
of time then it is called as concurrency of the system. When two or more users read the data
simultaneously there is ll( problem, but when they like to update a file simultaneously, it may
result in a problem.

10. Poor data modeling of real world. The file based system is not able to represent the
complex data and interfile relationships, which results poor data modeling properties.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Database approach is a computer based storage technology in which related data is shared by
various application programs. It is an improvement of traditionally file-based approach of storing
data or information. It is characterized by a database management system and one or more
databases.
The Database is a shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. A database is a computer based record keeping system whose over all
purpose is to record and maintains information. The database is a single, large repository of data,
which can be used simultaneously by many departments and users. Instead of disconnected files
with redundant data, all data items are integrated with a minimum amount of duplication.

The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate resource. The
database holds not only the organization's operational data but also a description of this data. For
this reason, a database is also defined as a self-describing collection of integrated records. The
description of the data is known as the Data Dictionary or Meta Data (the 'data about data'). It is
the self-describing nature of a database that provides program-data independence.
FEATURES:

• Creates and maintains databases

• Eliminates requirement for data definition statements
• Acts as interface between application programs and physical data files
• Separates logical and physical views of data

A database implies separation of physical storage from use of the data by an application program
to achieve program/data independence. Using a database system, the user or programmer or
application specialist need not know the details of how the data are stored and such details are
"transparent to the user". Changes (or updating) can be made to data without affecting other
components of the system. These changes include, for example, change of data format or file
structure or relocation from one device to another.

In the DBMS approach, application program written in some programming language like Java,
Visual Basic.Net, and Developer 2000 etc. uses database connectivity to access the database
stored in the disk with the help of operating system's file management system.

The file system interface and DBMS interface for the university management system is shown.
                         

Building blocks of a Database

The following three components form the building blocks of a database. They store the data that
we want to save in our database.

Columns. Columns are similar to fields, that is, individual items of data that we wish to store. A
Student' Roll Number, Name, Address etc. are all examples of columns. They are also similar to
the columns found in spreadsheets (the A, B, C etc. along the top).

Rows. Rows are similar to records as they contain data of multiple columns (like the 1, 2, 3 etc.
in a spreadsheet). A row can be made up of as many or as few columns as you want. This makes
reading data much more efficient - you fetch what you want.

Tables. A table is a logical group of columns. For example, you may have a table that stores
details of customers' names and addresses. Another table would be used to store details of parts
and yet another would be used .for supplier's names and addresses.

It is the tables that make up the entire database and it is important that we do not duplicate data at
all.
                              

Characteristics of database

The data in a database should have the following features:

 Organized/Related. It should be well organized and related.

 Shared. Data in a database are shared among different users and applications.
 Permanent or Persistence. Data in a database exist permanently in the sense the data
can live beyond the scope of the process that created it.
 Validity/integrity/Correctness. Data should be correct with respect to the real world
entity that they represent.
 Security. Data should be protected from unauthorized access.
 Consistency. Whenever more than one data element in a database represents related real
world values, the values should be consistent with respect to the relationship.  
 Non-redundancy: No two data items in a database should represent the same real world
entity.  
 Independence. Data at different levels should be independent of each other so that the
changes in one level should not affect the other levels.  
 Easily Accessible. It should be available when and where it is needed i.e. it should be
easily accessible.
 Recoverable. It should be recoverable in case of damage.
 Flexible to change. It should be flexible to change.
 To create, manage and manipulate data in databases, a management system known as
database management system was developed.

Comparison of Traditional File-Based Approach and Database Approach

At the beginning, you should understand the rationale of replacing the traditional file-based
system with the database system.
File-based System

File-based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system. File-based
system is a collection of application programs that perform services for the end-users. Each
program defines and manages its data.

However, five types of problem are occurred in using the file-based approach:

1. Separation and isolation of data

When data is isolated in separate files, it is more difficult for us to access data that should be
available. The application programmer is required to synchronize the processing of two or more
files to ensure the correct data is extracted.

2. Duplication of data

When employing the decentralized file-based approach, the uncontrolled duplication of data is
occurred. Uncontrolled duplication of data is undesirable because:

i. Duplication is wasteful

ii. Duplication can lead to loss of data integrity

3. Data dependence
4. Using file-based system, the physical structure and storage of the data files and records
are defined in the application program code. This characteristic is known as program-data
dependence. Making changes to an existing structure are rather difficult and will lead to
a modification of program. Such maintenance activities are time-consuming and subject
to error.
5. Incompatible file formats

The structures of the file are dependent on the application programming language. However file
structure provided in one programming language such as direct file, indexed-sequential file
which is available in COBOL programming, may be different from the structure generated by
other programming language such as C. The direct incompatibility makes them difficult to
process jointly.

Fixed queries / proliferation of application programs

File-based systems are very dependent upon the application programmer. Any required queries
or reports have to be written by the application programmer. Normally, a fixed format query or
report can only be entertained and no facility for ad-hoc queries if offered.

Database Approach:

In order to overcome the limitations of the file-based approach, the concept of database and the
Database Management System (DMS) was emerged in 60s.

Advantages

A number of advantages of applying database approach in application system are obtained

including:

1. Control of data redundancy

The database approach attempts to eliminate the redundancy by integrating the file. Although
the database approach does not eliminate redundancy entirely, it controls the amount of
redundancy inherent in the database.

2. Data consistency

By eliminating or controlling redundancy, the database approach reduces the risk of

inconsistencies occurring. It ensures all copies of the data are kept consistent.

3. More information from the same amount of data

With the integration of the operated data in the database approach, it may be possible to derive
additional information for the same data.

4. Sharing of data

Database belongs to the entire organization and can be shared by all authorized users.

5. Improved data integrity

Database integrity provides the validity and consistency of stored data. Integrity is usually
expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that the database is not permitted
to violate.
6. Improved security

Database approach provides a protection of the data from the unauthorized users. It may take the
term of user names and passwords to identify user type and their access right in the operation
including retrieval, insertion, updating and deletion.

7. Enforcement of standards

The integration of the database enforces the necessary standards including data formats, naming
conventions, documentation standards, update procedures and access rules.

8. Economy of scale

Cost savings can be obtained by combining all organization's operational data into one database
with applications to work on one source of data.

9. Balance of conflicting requirements

By having a structural design in the database, the conflicts between users or departments can be
resolved. Decisions will be based on the base use of resources for the organization as a whole
rather that for an individual entity.

10. Improved data accessibility and responsiveness :By having an integration in the database
approach, data accessing can be crossed departmental boundaries. This feature provides
more functionality and better services to the users.
11. Increased productivity

The database approach provides all the low-level file-handling routines. The provision of these
functions allows the programmer to concentrate more on the specific functionality required by
the users. The fourth-generation environment provided by the database can simplify the database
application development.

12. Improved maintenance

Database approach provides a data independence. As a change of data structure in the database
will be affect the application program, it simplifies database application maintenance.

13. Increased concurrency

Database can manage concurrent data access effectively. It ensures no interference between
users that would not result any loss of information nor loss of integrity.

14. Improved backing and recovery services

Modern database management system provides facilities to minimize the amount of processing
that can be lost following a failure by using the transaction approach.

DBMS Architecture:

1. External view: This is a highest level of abstraction as seen by user. This level of abstraction
describes only the part of entire database. It is based on the conceptual model, is the end user
view of data environment. Each external view described by means of a schema called an external
schema or subschema.

2. Conceptual level: At this level of database abstraction all the database entities and the
relationships among them are included. One conceptual view represents the entire database. the
conceptual schema defines ths conceptual view.

3. Internal(physical) level : This lowest level of abstraction. it closest to physical storage device.
It describes how data are actually stored on the storage medium. The internal schema, which
contains the definition of the stored record, the method representing the data fields, expresses the
internal view and the access aids used.
Data Independence:

1. The ability to modify a scheme definition in one level without affecting a scheme
definition in a higher level is called data independence.
2. There are two kinds:
o Physical data independence
 The ability to modify the physical scheme without causing application
programs to be rewritten
 Modifications at this level are usually to improve performance
o Logical data independence
 The ability to modify the conceptual scheme without causing application
programs to be rewritten
 Usually done when logical structure of database is altered
3. Logical data independence is harder to achieve as the application programs are usually
heavily dependent on the logical structure of the data. An analogy is made to abstract data
types in programming languages.
Components of DBMS

A database management system (DBMS) consists of several components. Each component plays
very important role in the database management system environment. The major components of
database management system are:

 Software
 Hardware
 Data
 Procedures
 Database Access Language

Software

The main component of a DBMS is the software. It is the set of programs used to handle the
database and to control and manage the overall computerized database

1. DBMS software itself, is the most important software component in the overall system
2. Operating system including network software being used in network, to share the data of
database among multiple users.
3. Application programs developed in programming languages such as C++, Visual Basic
that are used to to access database in database management system. Each program
contains statements that request the DBMS to perform operation on database. The
operations may include retrieving, updating, deleting data etc . The application program
may be conventional or online  workstations or terminals.

Hardware

Hardware consists of a set of physical electronic devices such as computers (together with
associated I/O devices like disk drives), storage devices, I/O channels, electromechanical devices
that make interface between computers and the real world systems etc, and so on. It is impossible
to implement the DBMS without the hardware devices, In a network, a powerful computer with
high data processing speed and a storage device with large storage capacity is required as
database server.

Data
Data is the most important component of the DBMS. The main purpose of DBMS is to process
the data. In DBMS, databases are defined, constructed and then data is stored, updated and
retrieved to and from the databases. The database contains both the actual (or operational) data
and the metadata (data about data or description about data).

Procedures

Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that help to design the database and to use the
DBMS. The users that operate and manage the DBMS require documented procedures on hot use
or run the database management system. These may include.

1. Procedure to install the new DBMS.

2. To log on to the DBMS.
3. To use the DBMS or application program.
4. To make backup copies of database.
5. To change the structure of database.
6. To generate the reports of data retrieved from database.

Database Access Language

The database access language is used to access the data to and from the database. The users use
the database access language to enter new data, change the existing data in database and to
retrieve required data from databases. The user write a set of appropriate commands in a
database access language and submits these to the DBMS. The DBMS translates the user
commands and sends it to a specific part of the DBMS called the Database Jet Engine. The
database engine generates a set of results according to the commands submitted by user, converts
these into a user readable form called an Inquiry Report and then displays them on the screen.
The administrators may also use the database access language to create and maintain the
databases.

The most popular database access language is SQL (Structured Query Language). Relational
databases are required to have a database query language.

Users
The users are the people who manage the databases and perform different operations on the
databases in the database system.There are three kinds of people who play different roles in
database system

1. Application Programmers
2. Database Administrators
3. End-Users

Application Programmers

The people who write application programs in programming languages (such as Visual Basic,
Java, or C++) to interact with databases are called Application Programmer.

Database Administrators 

A person who is responsible for managing the overall database management system is called
database administrator or simply DBA.

End-Users

The end-users are the people who interact with database management system to perform
different operations on database such as retrieving, updating, inserting, deleting data etc.

DATA MODEL

It is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data semantics, and
consistency constraints.

 Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of previous models

 Common characteristics:
 Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic completeness of the database
 Represent the real world as closely as possible
 Representation of real-world transformations (behavior) must be in compliance with
consistency and integrity characteristics of any data model

TYPES OF DATA MODELS:

The data model can be divided as follows:
1. Hierarchical model
2. Network model
3. Relational model
4. E-r modeling
5. Semantic models
 Object-oriented
 Object relational model

1) THE HIERARCHICAL DATA MODEL

The Hierarchical Data Model is a way of organizing a database with multiple one to many
relationships.  The structure is based on the rule that one parent can have many children but
children are allowed only one parent.  This structure allows information to be repeated through
the parent child relations created by IBM and was implemented mainly in their Information
Management System. (IMF), the precursor to the DBMS. 
Advantages:
The model allows easy addition and deletion of new information.  Data at the top of the
Hierarchy is very fast to access.  It was very easy to work with the model because it worked well
with linear type data storage such as tapes.  The model relates very well to natural hierarchies
such as assembly plants and employee organization in corporations.  It relates well to anything
that works through a one to many relationship.  For example; there is a president with many
managers below them, and those managers have many employees below them, but each
employee has only one manager. 

Disadvantages:
This model has many issues that hold it back now that we require more sophisticated
relationships.  It requires data to be repetitively stored in many different entities.  The database
can be very slow when searching for information on the lower entities.  We no longer use linear
data storage mediums such as tapes so that advantage is null.  Searching for data requires the
DBMS to run through the entire model from top to bottom until the required information is
found, making queries very slow.  Can only model one to many relationships, many to many
relationships are not supported.  Clever manipulation of the model is required to make many to
may relationships.  For example; what if a professor teaches classes, and is also a graduate
student? 

2) The Network Model

The Network Model replaces the hierarchical tree with graph thus allowing more general
connection with the nodes. The more difference between this model to hierarchical model is in
case of handling N :N relation . in other words it allows to have more than 1 parent.

Advantages and disadvantages of Network Model:

 Conceptual Simplicity: just like hierarchical model it also simple and easy to
implement.
 Capability to handle more relationship types: the network model can handle one to
one1:1 and many to many N: N relationship.
 Ease to access data: the data access is easier than the hierarchical model.
 Data Integrity: Since it is based on the parent child relationship, there is always a link
between the parent segment and the child segment under it.
 Data Independence: The network model is better than hierarchical model in case of data
independence.

Disadvantages of Network Model:

 System Complexity: All the records have to maintain using pointers thus the database
structure becomes more complex.
 Operational Anomalies: As discussed earlier in network model large number of pointers
is required so insertion, deletion and updating more complex.
 Absence of structural Independence: there is lack of structural independence because
when we change the structure then it becomes compulsory to change the application too.
3) The relational data model:
 The relational database organizes data in a series of tables. Each table has its own field’s
specific to the type of data being stored. The database management system (DBMS)
designed around the relationships between tables has survived more than two decades
because of its flexibility. Once the user enters data into a table and saves it in the massive
database, a query will recall the information at any time.

ADVANTAGES:

 Ease of use: The revision of any information as tables consisting of rows and columns is
much easier to understand.
 Flexibility: Different tables from which information has to be linked and extracted can
be easily manipulated by operators such as project and join to give information in the
form in which it is desired.
 Precision: The usage of relational algebra and relational calculus in the manipulation of
the relations between the tables ensures that there is no ambiguity, which may otherwise
arise in establishing the linkages in a complicated network type database.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Performance: A major constraint and therefore disadvantage in the use of relational

database system is machine performance. If the number of tables between which
relationships to be established are large and the tables themselves effect the performance
in responding to the sql queries.
 Physical Storage Consumption: With an interactive system, for example an operation
like join would depend upon the physical storage also. It is, therefore common in
relational databases to tune the databases and in such a case the physical data layout
would be chosen so as to give good performance in the most frequently run operations. It
therefore would naturally result in the fact that the lays frequently run operations would
tend to become even more shared.
 Slow extraction of meaning from data: if the data is naturally organized in a
hierarchical manner and stored as such, the hierarchical approach may give quick
meaning for that data
4) THE ENTITY- RELATIONSHIP DATA MODEL:

The Entity-Relationship (ER) model was originally proposed by Peter in 1976 as a way to unify
the network and relational database views. Simply stated, the ER model is a conceptual data
model that views the real world as entities and relationships. A basic component of the model is
the Entity-Relationship diagram, which is used to visually represent data objects. For the
database designer, the utility of the ER model is:

• It maps well to the relational model. The constructs used in the ER model can easily be
transformed into relational tables.

• It is simple and easy to understand with a minimum of training. Therefore, the model can be
used by the database designer to communicate the design to the end user.

• In addition, the model can be used as a design plan by the database developer to implement a
data model in specific database management software.

Three Basic Operations in a Relational Database

 Select: Creates subset of rows that meet specific criteria

 Join: Combines relational tables to provide users with information

 Project: Enables users to create new tables containing only relevant information

ADVANTAGES:
Following are advantages of an E-R Model:

 Straightforward relation representation: Having designed an E-R diagram for a

database application, the relational representation of the database model becomes
relatively straightforward.
 Easy conversion for E-R to other data model: Conversion from E-R diagram to a
network or hierarchical data model can· easily be accomplished.
 Graphical representation for better understanding: An E-R model gives graphical
and diagrammatical representation of various entities, its attributes and relationships
between entities. This is turn helps in the clear understanding of the data structure and in
minimizing redundancy and other problems.

Disadvantages of E-R Data Model

Following are disadvantages of an E-R Model:

• No industry standard for notation: There is no industry standard notation for developing an
E-R diagram.

• Popular for high-level design: The E-R data model is especially popular for high level.

5) THE SEMANTIC DATA MODEL

The Semantic Data Model (SDM), like other data models, is a way of structuring data to
represent it in a logical way. SDM differs from other data models, however, in that it focuses on
providing more meaning of the data itself, rather than solely or primarily on the relationships and
attributes of the data.

It is a conceptual data model that includes the capability to express information that enables
parties to the information exchange to interpret meaning (semantics) from the instances, without
the need to know the meta-model. Such semantic models are fact oriented (as opposed to object
oriented). Facts are typically expressed by binary relations between data elements, whereas
higher order relations are expressed as collections of binary relations. Typically binary relations
have the form of triples: Object-Relation Type-Object. For example: the Eiffel Tower <is located
in> Paris.
 SEMANTIC DATA MODEL

The object oriented data model:

Definition: realization of the discrete model of real world using an object centered approach in which an
object has both physical (attribute) and geometric characteristics. Different types of objects can interact
because they are not confined to separate layers.
Object relational data model

An object relational database management system (ORDBMS) is a database management system

with that is similar to a relational database, except that it has an object-oriented database model.
This system supports objects, classes and inheritance in database schemas and query language.

Object relational database management systems provide a middle ground between relational and
object-oriented databases. In an ORDBMS, data is manipulated using queries in a query
language. These systems bridge the gap between conceptual data modeling techniques such as
entity relationship diagrams and object relational mapping using classes and inheritance.
ORDBMSs also support data model extensions with custom data types and methods. This allows
developers to raise the abstraction levels at which problem domains are viewed.

DATA SECURITY:

Data security refers to protective digital privacy measures that are applied to prevent
unauthorized access to computers, databases and websites. Data security also protects data from
corruption. Data security is the main priority for organizations of every size and genre.

Data security is also known as information security (IS) or computer security.

Database security:
Database security concerns the use of a broad range of information security controls to protect
databases (potentially including the data, the database applications or stored functions, the
database systems, the database servers and the associated network links) against compromises of
their confidentiality, integrity and availability. It involves various types or categories of controls,
such as technical, procedural/administrative and physical. Database security is a specialist topic
within the broader realms of computer security, information security and risk management.