UNIT – V

GEOTHERMAL

Introduction of Geothermal Energy: Geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo,

meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat. Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and
stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth’s
geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay
of minerals, from volcanic activity, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface.
The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet
and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the
core to the surface.
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and
for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity
generation.
The process of producing energy by utilizing heat trapped inside the earth surface is called Geo
thermal energy. Energy present as heat in the earth’s crust. The more readily accessible heat in
the upper most (10 km) or so, of the crust constitutes a potentially useful and almost
inexhaustible source of energy.
The heat is apparent from the increase in temperature of the earth with increasing depth below
the surface. Although higher and lower temperature occurs, the average temperature at depth of
10 km is about 200oC
Magma is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solid that is found beneath the
surface of the Earth, and is expected to exist on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites.
Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes
gas bubbles.

There are two kinds of geo thermal steams, the one that originates from the magma is called
magmatic steam and that from ground water heated by magma is called meteoritic steam. The
latter is the largest source of geothermal steam.
A fumarole is an opening in a planet’s crust, often in areas surrounding volcanoes, which emits
steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen
sulfide. The steam forms when superheated water condenses as its pressure drops when it
emerges from the ground.
 Flash Steam Power Plants are the most common form of geothermal power plant. The hot water is
pumped under great pressure to the surface. When it reaches the surface the pressure is reduced
and as a result some of the water changes to steam. This produces a ‘blast’ of steam. The cooled
water is returned to the reservoir to be heated by geothermal rocks again.
Geothermal power plants have lower efficiency relative to other thermal power plants, such as
coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear power stations. It is commonly assumed that only 15% of the
energy from the produced geothermal fluid can be converted to electricity.
Geysers are temporary geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic
areas. As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water
to the surface through the geyser’s internal plumbing.
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has
historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances
have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications
such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells
release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per
energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help
mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.

The Earth’s geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity’s
energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and
exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power
depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates.
Generally speaking, the further down one drills, the hotter the temperatures. Most of the
commercial-grade production geothermal energy is harvested along localized “geothermal
systems”, where the heat flow is near enough to the surface that hot water or steam is able to
rise either to the surface, or to depths that we can reach by drilling. Many of these regions
occur within the “ring of fire“, a ring of geothermal sites.

.
Scientists theorize that 15 billion years ago, when the universe was first forming, all matter
exploded and released huge amounts of energy. It is this energy that still fuels the sun. It also
produces the heat energy found inside the earth, which can be harnessed to create what is called
geothermal power.

The earth is in a constant state of change with shifting tectonic plates, erupting volcanoes, and
ongoing modification of its internal structures. There are several methods for utilizing geothermal
power being explored and developed, but the changing nature of the energy source complicates the
process. New technologies are being developed to address these issues, however, which gives new
promise for geothermal power as a viable energy source. When the earth was first forming, about 5
billion years ago, an immense amount of energy was released. Some of this energy was used to
bond molecules together very tightly at the center of the earth.
Earth's heat-called geothermal energy-escapes as steam at a hot springs

Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. Resources of geothermal
energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the
earth's surface, and down even deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called
magma.
History of Geothermal Energy:

The oldest known pool fed by a hot spring, built in the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC.
Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times. The oldest known spa is a
stone pool on China's Lisan mountain built in the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC. In the first
century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis, now Bath, Somerset, England, and used the hot
springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating. The admission fees for these baths
probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power. The world's oldest geothermal
district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th century. 
1. The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric
acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.
2. In 1892, America's first district heating system in Boise, Idaho was powered directly by
geothermal energy, and was copied in Klamath Falls, Oregon in 1900.
3. The first known building in the world to utilize geothermal energy as its primary heat source
was the Hot Lake Hotel in Union County, Oregon, whose construction was completed in 1907. 
4. A deep geothermal well was used to heat greenhouses in Boise in 1926, and geysers were used
to heat greenhouses in Iceland and Tuscany at about the same time.
5. Charlie Lieb developed the first downhole heat exchanger in 1930 to heat his house.
Steam and hot water from geysers began heating homes in Iceland starting in 1943.
6. In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power source.
Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 and g
geothermal acid extraction began. In 1911, the world's first commercial geothermal power plant
was built there.
7. It was the world's only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until New Zealand built a
plant in 1958. In 2012, it produced some 594 megawatts.
8. Lord Kelvin invented the heat pump in 1852.
 9. The technology became popular in Sweden as a result of the 1973 oil crisis.
10. The 1979 development of polybutylene pipe greatly augmented the heat pump's economic
viability.
11. In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric
power plant in the United States at The Geysers in California. The original turbine lasted for
more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power.
12. The binary cycle power plant was first demonstrated in 1967 in the USSR and later introduced
to the US in 1981. This technology allows the generation of electricity from much lower
temperature resources than previously.
13. In 2006, a binary cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, came on-line, producing
electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57 °C .
 In 1904, Italian scientist Piero Ginori Conti invented the first geothermal electric power
plant. On 4 July 1904, at Larderello, Piero Ginori Conti powered five bulbs from a
dynamo driven by a reciprocating steam engine using geothermal energy.  
14. Earth’s crust is Earth’s hard outer layer. It is less than 1% of Earth’s volume. The crust is made
up of different types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
15. Crust is also called as lithosphere. Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal
power generator on 4 July 1904, at the same Larderello dry steam field where geothermal acid
extraction began.
16. New Zealand built a Geothermal plant in 1958

Hot spring: A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally

heated groundwater that rises from the Earth's crust. While some of these springs contain water that
is a safe temperature for bathing, others are so hot that immersion can result in injury or death.

Origin of Geothermal Energy :

Geothermal energy is generated in the earth‘s core, almost 4,000 miles beneath  the earth‘s surface.
The double-layered core  is made up of very  hot magma  (melted  rock)  surrounding a  solid  iron
center. Very  high temperatures are continuously produced inside the earth by the slow decay of
radioactive particles. This process is natural in all rocks. Surrounding  the  outer  core  is  the 
mantle, which  is  about  1,800  miles  thick  and  made  of  magma  and rock. The outermost layer
of  the earth,  the land that  forms  the continents and ocean floors, is called the  crust. The crust is
3–5 miles thick under the oceans and 15–35 miles thick on the continents.

The crust of the earth is made up of several broken pieces, which are known as plates. The hot
magma from deep down below rises up close to the surface of the earth at  the junctures of these
plates. These are the places where volcanoes are formed. The lava that spews from volcanoes is
made up partly of magma. The heat from  this  magma  is  absorbed  by  the  water  and  rocks 
that  occur  deep  beneath  the  earth‘s  surface.  The temperature  of  the  water  and  the  rocks 
get  increasingly  hotter  the  deeper  down  you  go  below  the  earth‘s surface.  Superheated 
substances  in  the  form  of  magma,  that  contains  enormous  energy  and  power, which  is
quite  evident  every  time  a  volcano  erupts,  can  be  tapped  for  creating  geothermal  power. 
Some  of  these substances also rise to the surface in the form of hot water and steam, which spew
out from natural vents. When the rising hot water and steam is trapped in permeable and porous
rocks under a layer of impermeable rock, it can form a geothermal reservoir. Therefore, we can
make artificial vents as well as create containment chambers where  the magma can be kept, and 
turn all this geothermal energy into electricity, which  can be used to heat and light our homes. In
order to set up a geothermal power plant, a well will have to be dug where there is a good source
of superheated fluid or magma. Pipes would then be fitted, which would go down into the source,
and then the fluids would be forced  up  to  the  surface  in  order  to  produce  the  required  steam.
This  steam would  then  be  used  to  rotate  a turbine engine, thus generating electricity, or
geothermal power.
There is more than one type of geothermal energy, but only one  kind is widely used to make
electricity. It is called hydrothermal  energy. Currently, hydrothermal energy  is  being
commercially used  for electricity  generation and  for meeting thermal energy requirements. 
Hydrothermal resources have two common ingredients:  water (hydro) and heat (thermal).
Depending on the temperature of the hydrothermal resource, the heat energy can either be used for
making electricity or for heating.

RESOURCES OF GEOTHERMAL

Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or upper 10 feet of the Earth's surface maintains a nearly
constant temperature between 10° and 16°C. Geothermal heat pumps can tap into this resource to
heat and cool buildings.

A geothermal heat pump system consists of a heat pump, an air delivery system (ductwork), and a
heat exchanger-a system of pipes buried in the shallow ground near the building. In the winter, the
heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and pumps it into the indoor air delivery system.

In the summer, the process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the
heat exchanger. The heat removed from the indoor air during the summer can also be used to
provide a free

In the United States, most geothermal reservoirs of hot water are located in the western states,
Alaska, and Hawaii. Wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs for the generation of
electricity. Some geothermal power plants use the steam from a reservoir to power a
turbine/generator, while others use the hot water to boil a working fluid that vaporizes and then
turns a turbine. Hot water near the surface of Earth can be used directly for heat. Direct-use
applications include heating buildings, growing plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water
at fish farms, and several industrial processes such as pasteurizing milk.

Hot dry rock resources occur at depths of 3 to 5 miles everywhere beneath the Earth's surface and
at lesser depths in certain areas.

There are four major types of Geothermal energy resources.

There are four main kinds of geothermal resources: hydrothermal, geopressured, hot dry rock,
and magma. Today hydrothermal resources are the only kind in wide use. The other
three resources are still in the infant stages of development.

Hydrothermal Power Plants: Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources that have both
water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Geothermal power plants require high-temperature (300°F to
700°F) hydrothermal resources that come from either dry steam wells or from hot water wells.
People use these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then piping steam or hot water to the
surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine that generates electricity. Some geothermal wells
are as much as two miles deep. Therefore, the hydrothermal energy harnessed by following
methods:

1. Types of wells
2. Dry Steam Plants
3. Flash Steam Plants
4. Binary Cycle Plants
5. geothermal heat pumps
6. Dry Steam Reservoirs
7. Wet Steam Reservoirs
8. Hot Water Reservoirs

Types of wells: The wells may be drilled wells, driven wells, and dug wells.
Drilled wells : It is constructed by either cable tool (percussion) or rotary-drilling machines.
Drilled wells that penetrate unconsolidated material require installation of casing and a screen to
prevent inflow of sediment and collapse. They can be drilled more than 1,000 feet deep. The space
around the casing must be sealed with grouting material of either neat cement or bentonite clay to
prevent contamination by water draining from the surface downward around the outside of the
casing.

Driven Wells: Driven wells are constructed by driving a small-diameter pipe into shallow water-
bearing sand or gravel. Usually a screened well point is attached to the bottom of the casing before
driving. These wells are relatively simple and economical to construct, but they can tap only
shallow water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface sources because they are not sealed
with grouting material. Hand-driven wells usually are only around 30 feet deep; machine-driven
wells can be 50 feet deep or more.

Dug Wells : Historically, dug wells were excavated by hand shovel to below the water table until
incoming water exceeded the digger’s bailing rate. The well was lined with stones, bricks, tile, or
other material to prevent collapse, and was covered with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete tile.

Because of the type of construction, bored wells can go deeper beneath the water table than can
hand-dug wells. Dug and bored wells have a large diameter and expose a large area to the aquifer.
These wells are able to obtain water from less-permeable materials such as very fine sand, silt, or
clay.
Disadvantages of this type of well are that they are shallow and lack continuous casing and
grouting, making them subject to contamination
Dry Steam Plants : Dry steam plants use steam directly from a geothermal reservoir to turn
generator turbines. The first geothermal power plant was built in 1904 in Tuscany, Italy, where
natural steam erupted from the earth.
These use geothermal steam directly. Dry steam power plants use very hot >235 °C steam and little
water from the geothermal reservoir.

The steam goes directly through a pipe to a turbine to spin a generator that produces electricity.
This type of geothermal power plant is the oldest, first being used at Lardarello, Italy, in 1904. An
example of a dry steam generation operation is at the Geysers in North California, shown at right
(Green Jobs, 2002).
Flash Steam Plants : Flash steam plants take high-pressure hot water from deep inside the earth
and convert it to steam to drive generator turbines. When the steam cools, it condenses to water and
is injected back into the ground to be used again. Most geothermal power plants are flash steam
plants.
These use high pressure hot water to produce steam when thepressure is reduced. Flash steam
power plants use hot water >182 ºC from the geothermal reservoir. When the water is pumped to
the generator, it is released from the pressure of the deep reservoir. The sudden drop in pressure
causes some of the water to vaporize to steam, which spins a turbine to generate electricity. Both
dry steam and flash steam power plants emit small amounts of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and
sulfur, but generally 50 times less than traditional fossil-fuel power plants.16 Hot water not flashed

into steam
is returned to the geothermal reservoir through injection wells (Green Jobs, 2002).

Binary Cycle Plants: Binary cycle power plants transfer the heat from geothermal hot water to
another liquid. The heat causes the second liquid to turn to steam, which is used to drive a generator
turbine.
These use moderate-temperature water 107 to 182 ºC) from the geothermal reservoir. In binary
systems, hot geothermal fluids are passed through one side of a heat exchanger to heat a working
fluid in a separate adjacent pipe. The working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low
boiling point such as Iso-butane or Iso-pentane, is vaporized and passed through a turbine to
generate electricity. An ammonia-water working fluid is also used in what is known as the Kalina
Cycle. Makers claim that the Kalina Cycle system boosts geothermal plant efficiency by 20-40%
and reduces plant construction costs by 20-30%, thereby lowering the cost of geothermal power
generation (Green Jobs, 2002). The Mammoth Pacific binary geothermal power plant, located at the
Casa Diablo geothermal field, is pictured at right (Idaho National Engineering and Environmental
Laboratory, 2004).

Geothermal Heat Pumps: The earth’s surface layer remains at an almost constant temperature
between 10 to 16 0C. In this method, geothermal heat pumps use a system of buried pipes linked to
a heatexchanger and ductwork into buildings. In winter the relatively warm earth transfers heat into
the buildings and in summer the buildings transfer heat to the ground or uses some of it to heat
water. These heat pumps function as both air-conditioning and heating systems in one (Green Jobs,
2002)

Dry Steam Reservoirs: Dry steam reservoirs use the water in the earth's crust, which is heated by
the mantle and released through vents in the form of steam. Dry steam reservoir geothermal plants
have pipes that are drilled into the site and used to trap the steam.

The steam is then used to turn turbines connected to a generator to produce electricity. This is a
highly efficient system for making electricity and has been used by humans for many decades.
A large dry steam reservoir near Larderello, Italy, has powered local electric railroads for about one
hundred years.

Wet Steam Reservoirs: Sometimes, however, dry steam reservoirs do not refill themselves in a
very consistent manner. They can also have a lower temperature, which results in a less effective
combination of water droplets and steam mixed together. Geothermal operators have found a
solution to these problems by building wet steam reservoirs.

For a wet steam reservoir to work, a well is drilled into the geothermal site to release the steam,
which can be anywhere from six hundred to fifteen hundred feet deep. After the steam that is piped
up passes through and turns the turbines in the power plant on the surface, it is sent into a
condenser, which cools it.

This cooled water can then be pumped back into the wells. The water is heated again by the mantle
and released as steam. The steam turns the turbines again and produces more electricity. This
process can happen over and over with a

Hot Water Reservoirs: Geothermal plants built over hot water reservoirs are more common than
either dry steam or wet steam reservoir plants. Although the water in a hot water reservoir does not
reach high enough temperatures to become steam, it is still valuable. The water itself does not
produce electricity, but instead is piped through a network of pipes into the walls of nearby homes
and businesses. The heat from the pipes radiates into the rooms, heating the air. Pipes return the
water to the hot water reservoir to be reheated and introduced back into the system.

Reykjavik, Iceland, is surrounded by hot water reservoir sites and is also home to about eighty-five
thousand people. Almost 80 percent of the homes in this town are heated using hot water reservoir
water.

vbbfftgrfedThere are about 180 locations in the United States that use hot water reservoirs to heat
homes, as well as places such as the Utah State

Potentials in India : Geothermal power plants operated in at least 24 countries in 2010, and
geothermal energy was used directly for heat in at least 78 countries. These countries currently
have geothermal power plants with a total capacity of 10.7 GW, but 88% of it is generated in just
seven countries: the United States, the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, Italy, New Zealand, and
Iceland.

The most significant capacity increases since 2004 were seen in Iceland and Turkey. Both
countries doubled their capacity. Iceland has the largest share of geothermal power contributing to
electricity supply (25%), followed by the Philippines (18%).

The number of countries utilizing geothermal energy to generate electricity has more than doubled.
Although geothermal power development slowed in 2010, with global capacity reaching just over
11 GW, a significant acceleration in the rate of deployment is expected as advanced technologies
allow for development in new countries.
Heat output from geothermal sources increased by an average rate of almost 9% annually over the
past decade, due mainly to rapid growth in the use of ground-source heat pumps. Use of geothermal
energy for combined heat and power is also on the rise.

India has reasonably good potential for geothermal; the potential geothermal provinces can produce
10,600 MW of power (but experts are confident only to the extent of 100 MW).
Magneto-telluric investigations in Tattapani geothermal area in Madhya Pradesh
Magneto-telluric investigations in Puga geothermal area in Ladakh region, Jammu & Kashmir.

 Exploration of geothermal fields needs knowledge of geology, geochemistry, seismology,

hydrology and reservoir engineering.

In India, exploration and study of geothermal fields started in 1970. The GSI (Geological Survey
of India) has identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the country. The most promising of
these is in Puga valley of Ladakh. The estimated potential for geothermal energy in India is about
10000 MW.

There are seven geothermal provinces in India : the Himalayas, Sohana, West coast, Cambay, Son-
Narmada-Tapi (SONATA), Godavari, and Mahanadi.
The important sites being explored in India are shown in the map of India (Figure 2) .

Figure 2 :
But yet geothermal power projects has not been exploited at all, owing to a variety of reasons, the
chief being the availability of plentiful coal at cheap costs.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy:

It is a renewable source of energy.
It does not depend on environment like other resources.
It   does  not create any pollution.  It may once  in a while  release  some gases  from deep down
inside the earth, that may be slightly harmful, but  these can be contained quite easily. Geothermal
power plants have sulphur-emissions rates that average only a few percent of those from fossil
-fuel alternatives. The  newest  generation  of  geothermal  power  plants  emits  only  ~135  gm 
of  carbon  (as  carbon  dioxide)  per megawatt-hour  (MW-hr) of electricity  generated. This 
figure compares with 128  kg  /MW-hr of carbon  for a plant  operating  on  natural  gas 
(methane)  and  225  kg/MW-hr  of  carbon  for  a  plant  using  bituminous  coal.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are much lower in geothermal power plants  than  in  fossil power plants.
Nitrogen-oxides combine with hydrocarbon vapours in the atmosphere to produce ground-level
ozone, a gas  that causes adverse health effects and crop losses as well as smog.
The cost of  the  land  to build a geothermal power plant on,  is  usually  less expensive  than  any
oil,  gas,  coal,  or  nuclear  power  plant. The  geothermal plants  take up very little room, no need
to purchase a larger area of land.
Another  factor geothermal  energy  is  very  clean,  you  may  receive  tax  cuts,  and/or  no
environmental bills or quotas to comply with the countries carbon emission scheme (if they have
one).
No fuel is used to generate  the power, which in return, means  the running costs  for the plants are
very low as there are no costs for purchasing,  transporting, or cleaning up of fuels you may
consider purchasing to generate the power.
Noise pollution is less. It is a big way to save money. It does need any back up fuel.

The overall financial aspect of these plants is outstanding, you only need to provide power to the
water pumps, which can be generated by the power plant itself anyway.  Because they are modular,
then can be  transported conveniently to any site. Both baseline and peaking power can be
generated.
Construction time can be as little as 6 months for plants in the range 0.5 to 10 MW and as little as 2
years for clusters of plants totalling 250 MW or more.
Current geothermal fields produce only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a natural gas
fueled electrical generating power plant produces and none of the nitrous oxide (NOx) or sulfur
bearing (SOx) gases. New state of the art geothermal binary and combined cycle plants produce
virtually no air emissions. Each 1,000 MW of new geothermal power will offset 1.9 million pounds
per year of noxious and toxic air pollution emissions in Western skies and offset about 7.8 billion
pounds per year of climate affecting CO2 emissions from gas fired plants or much larger amounts
from coal fired plants (USGS, 2004).

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy : Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of
gases, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).
These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released. Existing
geothermal electric plants emit an average of 122 kilograms (269 lb) of CO2 per megawatt-hour
(MW·h) of electricity, a small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel
plants. Plants that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with
emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust.
In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace
amounts of toxic chemicals such as mercury, arsenic, boron, and antimony. These chemicals
precipitate as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern
practice of injecting cooled geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the
side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.
Plant construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei
field in New Zealand and in Staufen im Breisgau, Germany. Enhanced geothermal systems can
trigger earthquakes as part of hydraulic fracturing. The project in Basel, Switzerland was
suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter Scale
occurred over the first 6 days of water injection.

Sustainability : Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because any projected heat

extraction is small compared to the Earth’s heat content. The Earth has an internal heat content
of 10 joules (3·1015 TW·hr). About 20% of this is residual heat from planetary accretion, and the
remainder is attributed to higher radioactive decay rates that existed in the past. Natural heat flows
are not in equilibrium, and the planet is slowly cooling down on geologic timescales. Human
extraction taps a minute fraction of the natural outflow, often without accelerating it.
Even though geothermal power is globally sustainable, extraction must still be monitored to avoid
local depletion. Over the course of decades, individual wells draw down local temperatures and
water levels until a new equilibrium is reached with natural flows. The three oldest sites,
at Larderello, Wairakei, and the Geysers have experienced reduced output because of local
depletion. Heat and water, in uncertain proportions, were extracted faster than they were
replenished. If production is reduced and water is reinjected, these wells could theoretically
recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some
sites. The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Lardarello
field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958, and at The Geysers field
in California since 1960.
The extinction of several geyser fields has also been attributed to geothermal power development
It is good information but lot of work are to be carried out for systematic data base generation on
geothermal. It will be useful for planning utility of each and every geothermal fields in India. More
than 10 geothermal fields in comparatively plain terrain areas may become viable for power
generation but need systematic investigation and GSI can carry out such type of work.
Power Generation Technology
Method of Heat Extraction

1.  Borehole heat exchangers

2.  Hydrothermal systems
3.  Hot dry rock

Process of Power Generation

High Temperature Resources
High temperature geothermal reservoirs containing water and/or steam can provide steam to
directly drive steam turbines and electrical generation plant. More recently developed binary
power plant technologies enables more of the heat from the resource to be utilised for power
generation. A combination of conventional flash and binary cycle technology is becoming
increasingly popular.
High temperature resources commonly produce either steam, or a mixture of steam and water from
the production wells. The steam and water is separated in a pressure vessel (Separator), with the
steam piped to the power station where it drives one or more steam turbines to produce electric
power. The separated geothermal water (brine) is either utilised in a binary cycle type plant to
produce more power, or is disposed of back into the reservoir down deep (injection) wells. The
following is a brief description of each of the technologies most commonly used to utilise high
temperature resources for power generation.
Dry steam Power Plant
Dry steam power plants use very hot (>455 °F, or >235 °C) steam and little water from the
geothermal reservoir. The steam goes directly through a pipe to a turbine to spin a generator that
produces electricity. This type of geothermal power plant is the oldest, first being used at
Lardarello, Italy, in 1904.
Flash Steam Power Plant
This is the most common type of geothermal power plant. The steam, once it has been separated
from the water, is piped to the powerhouse where it is used to drive the steam turbine. The steam is
condensed after leaving the turbine, creating a partial vacuum and thereby maximizing the power
generated by the turbine-generator. The steam is usually condensed either in a direct contact
condenser, or a heat exchanger type condenser. In a direct contact condenser the cooling water
from the cooling tower is sprayed onto and mixes with the steam. The condensed steam then forms
part of the cooling water circuit, and a substantial portion is subsequently evaporated and is
dispersed into the atmosphere through the cooling tower. Excess cooling water called blow down
is often disposed of in shallow injection wells. As an alternative to direct contact condensers shell
and tube type condensers are sometimes used, as is shown in the schematic below. In this type of
plant, the condensed steam does not come into contact with the cooling water, and is disposed of in
injection wells.
Typically, flash condensing geothermal power plants vary in size from 5 MW to over 100 MW.
Depending on the steam characteristics, gas content, pressures, and power plant design, between
6000 kg and 9000 kg of steam each hour is required to produce each MW of electrical power.
Small power plants (less than 10 MW) are often called well head units as they only require the
steam of one well and are located adjacent to the well on the drilling pad in order to reduce
pipeline costs. Often such well head units do not have a condenser, and are called backpressure
units. They are very cheap and simple to install, but are inefficient (typically 10-20 tonne per hour
of steam for every MW of electricity) and can have higher environmental impacts.

Binary Cycle Power Plants

In reservoirs where temperatures are typically less than 220o C. but greater than 100o C binary cycle
plants are often utilised. The reservoir fluid (either steam or water or both) is passed through a heat
exchanger which heats a secondary working fluid (organic) which has a boiling point lower than
100o C. This is typically an organic fluid such as Isopentane, which is vaporised and is used to
drive the turbine. The organic fluid is then condensed in a similar manner to the steam in the flash
power plant described above, except that a shell and tube type condenser rather than direct contact
is used. The fluid in a binary plant is recycled back to the heat exchanger and forms a closed loop.
The cooled reservoir fluid is again re-injected back into the reservoir.
Binary cycle type plants are usually between 7 and 12 % efficient, depending on the temperature of
the primary (geothermal) fluid. Binary Cycle plant typically vary in size from 500 kW to 10 MW.

Combined Cycle (Flash and Binary)

Combined Cycle power plants are a combination of conventional steam turbine technology and
binary cycle technology. By combining both technologies, higher overall utilization efficiencies
can be gained, as the conventional steam turbine is more efficient at generation of power from high
temperature steam, and the binary cycle from the lower temperature separated water. In addition,
by replacing the condenser-cooling tower cooling system in a conventional plant by a binary plant,
the heat available from condensing the spent steam after it has left the steam turbine can be utilized
to produce more power.
Global Scenario
Geothermal energy supplies more than 10,715 MW to 24 countries worldwide which is expected to
generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010 and produces enough electricity to meet the needs of
60 million people and another 22 countries will add to the list in 2010 (source: International
Geothermal Association).
An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district
heating, space heating, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications. This
renewable energy source also has the potential to provide significant opportunities to do businesses
both small and large.
It is considered possible to produce up to 8.3% of the total world electricity with geothermal
resources, serving 17% of the world population.
According to market studies, investment in geothermal energy is growing globally at 24% a
year. This exceptional investing growth rate is expected to continue – and increase even faster –
for the foreseeable future.
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of
installed capacity from 77 power plants.
The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a
geothermal field in California.
The Philippines is the second highest producer, with1,904 MW of capacity online. Geothermal
power makes up approximately 18% of the country’s electricity generation. Also in Indonesia 5%
of overall electricity generation is from geothermal energy.
Geothermal electric plants were traditionally built exclusively on the edges of tectonic plates
where high temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface. The development
of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology
enable enhanced geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range. Demonstration
projects are operational inLandau-Pfalz, Germany, and Soultz-sous-Forêts, France, while an earlier
effort in Basel, Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration
projects are under construction in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States of
America.
Global Geothermal power Generating units shown in table
S. No. Name of country Capacity in MW
1 China 29
2 Costa Rica 163
3 El Salvadar 161
4 Guatemala 33
5 Indonesia 797
6 Kenya 127
7 Nicaragua 77
8 Russia 79
9 Portugal 20
10 Turkey 20
11 Italy 790
12 Mexico 953

Indian Scenario
India has reasonably good potential for geothermal; the potential geothermal provinces can
produce 10,600 MW of power.
Though India has been one of the earliest countries to begin geothermal projects way back in the
1970s, but at present there are no operational geothermal plants in India. There is also no installed
geothermal electricity generating capacity as of now and only direct uses (eg.Drying) have been
detailed.
Thermax, a capital goods manufacturer based in Pune, has entered an agreement with Icelandic
firm Reykjavík Geothermal. Thermax is planning to set up a 3 MW pilot project in Puga Valley,
Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir). Reykjavík Geothermal will assist Thermax in exploration and
drilling of the site.
India’s Gujarat state is drafting a policy to promote geothermal energy
Direct Uses
i)              Total thermal installed capacity in MW: 203.0
ii)             Direct use in TJ/year: 1,606.3
iii)            Direct use in GWh/year: 446.2
iv)            Capacity factor: 0.25

Potential Sites in Idia:

i)              Puga Valley (J&K)
ii)             Tatapani (Chhattisgarh)
iii)            Godavari Basin Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
iv)            Bakreshwar (West Bengal)
v)             Tuwa (Gujarat)
vi)            Unai (Maharashtra)
vii)           Jalgaon (Maharashtra)

The various assessment studies and surveys undertaken so far have resulted in the identification of
340 hot springs across India. The discovery of vast geothermal reservoirs at Puga in the north-west
of the Himalayas and Tatapani fields on the Narmada in central India also augurs well for the
country.
Potential Geothermal regions/sources in India
With India’s geothermal power potential of 10,600 MW, the following are the potential sources/ regions
Where geothermal energy can be harnessed in India.

S. Province Surface Reservoir Heat Flow Thermal

No Temp Temp C Gradient
1 Himalaya >90 260 468 100
2 Cambay 40-90 150-175 80-93 70
3 West coast 46-72 102-137 75-129 47-59
4 Sonata 60 – 95 105-217 120-290 60-90
5 Godavari 50-60 175-215 93-104 60

Applications of Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy use is much more common common
in some areas of the world than others. Countries like USA, france, New Zealand and Japan are
among the leaders in geothermal energy use. Reykjavik in Iceland is the capital city of geothermal
energy, since it gets all of its energy from local springs and wells. Geothermal energy has more
useful sides than one could imagine. More and more people are showing their interest in this
alternative type of energy and have begun to install geothermal heating units for their home or
business.

Geothermal energy for House: Geothermal energy can be used to cool down the temperature in
our houses during hot periods. The technology takes the hot air from the house and transfers it
down to the ground, where the air naturally cools down. After that, the chilled air will be sent back
to house through pipes. The reverse geothermal heating process will take place during the cold
winter months, when warmer temperatures are generated in the house by tapping into an
underground heat exchange.
Geothermal energy for Farms: Geothermal energy is widely used among farmers to heat their
greenhouses. This technology even used to grow tropical plants such as citrus trees in the middle
of the winter. Countries such as hungary and Italy have been using Geothermal energy for many
decades to grow vegetables regardless of the weather conditions.
Another field where geothermal energy is necessary is in fish farms. Tropical fish and other
acquatic aqnimals need warm water to survive and geothermal energy system is a suitable way to
provide it.
Geothermal Energy for Industries: Geothermal energy is used for drying different kinds of
foods- mostly fruits and vegetables. It can also be usedin theprocess of extracting precious metals
from ore.

Geothermal Energy for Infrastructure: The countries such as the Netherlands have started to
use geothermal energy to keep bikeroads from icing in the colder seasons. Therefore, geothermal
energy is a great source for preventing sidewalks and roads from freezing in winter.

Space/District Heating: Schemes utilizing geothermal heat provide over 80% of the central
heating needs of Reykjavik city in Iceland and are employed in many towns in USA, Poland and
Hungary.

The World Bank is currently supporting a program in Poland for using hot water from unsuccessful
oil wells to displace the use of coal for district heating (World Bank Group, 2004).

Agriculture and Aquaculture: In temperate and colder climates, greatly improved plant and fish
growth can be achieved by heating soils, greenhouses and fish ponds using geothermal heat. One
example of this is the largely successful Osearian Farm, Kenya (World Flowers,2005).
Electricity Generation: The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric plants is low, around 10-
23%, because geothermal fluids do not reach the high temperatures of steam from boilers. The
laws of thermodynamics limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy. Exhaust
heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills,
and district heating. System efficiency does not materially affect operational costs as it would for
plants that use fuel, but it does affect return on the capital used to build the plant. In order to
produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires relatively hot fields
and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of
energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has
been demonstrated. The global average was 73% in 2005.
Direct Applications: In the geothermal industry, low temperature means temperatures of 300 °F
(149 °C) or less. Low-temperature geothermal resources are typically used in direct-use
applications, such as district heating, greenhouses, fisheries, mineral recovery, and industrial
process heating. However, some low-temperature resources can generate electricity using binary
cycle electricity generating technology. Direct heating is far more efficient than electricity
generation and places less demanding temperature requirements on the heat resource. Heat may
come from co-generation via a geothermal electrical plant or from smaller wells or heat
exchangers buried in shallow ground. As a result, geothermal heating is economic at many more
sites than geothermal electricity generation. Where natural hot springs are available, the heated
water can be piped directly into radiators. If the ground is hot but dry, earth tubes or downhole heat
exchangers can collect the heat. But even in areas where the ground is colder than room
temperature, heat can still be extracted with a geothermal heat pump more cost-effectively and
cleanly than by conventional furnaces. These devices draw on much shallower and colder
resources than traditional geothermal techniques, and they frequently combine a variety of
functions, including air conditioning, seasonal energy storage, solar energy collection, and electric
heating. Geothermal heat pumps can be used for space heating essentially anywhere. Geothermal
heat supports many applications. District heating applications use networks of piped hot water to
heat many buildings across entire communities. In Reykjavík, Iceland, spent water from the district
heating system is piped below pavement and sidewalks to melt snow. Geothermal desalination has
been demonstrated.

Future scope of Geothermal Energy: The future of geothermal energy can pretty much be
summed up with a single word. Geothermal power is often considered the third or fourth most
important source of renewable energy, behind solar, wind, and hydro. Right now, it accounts for
just a small portion of the world's power capacity -- in 2010, it accounted for just around 10,709.7
MW of installed capacity -- but analysts expect geothermal plants to begin proliferating around the
globe at a rapid clip.
The technology is relatively simple; the basics have been understood for years. In fact, the first
commercial geothermal power plant was built in Larderello, Italy a full 100 years ago, in 1911.
From elementary school science class, heat is continually being generated by a layer of magma
below the Earth's crust. That heat rises up to the surface; it's hottest above active volcanic regions
and the seismically active spots between tectonic plates.
Though there are different kinds of geothermal power plants, they all do the same basic thing: they
capture rising steam or hot water and use it to power an electric generator.
The reason that geothermal is expected to play an important role in the future is that we're getting
better and better at doing this: we're now drilling geothermal wells with increasing efficiency,
allowing more energy to be captured in each plant.
Engineers have also devised and improved 'binary cycle' plants that release no emissions except
water vapor. You see, traditional 'dry steam' geothermal plants emit greenhouse gases -- sure, the
emit only 1/8th that of coal plants, but they're emissions nonetheless. Dry steam plants tap directly
into the steam coming out of a hydrothermal convection zone, and some inevitably escapes. Binary
cycle plants create a closed loop system that runs hot water through a heat exchanger that heats up
another liquid, like isobutane, that boils at a lower temperature than water. The hot water is then
sent back underground, while the isobutane runs the generator.
Geothermal is also getting cheaper, as the technology improves. According to the Union of
Concerned Scientists, since 1980, the cost of operating geothermal power plants has declined by as
much as 50%. In some markets, buying power from geothermal plants will soon be as cheap as it is
from its much dirtier fossil fuel counterparts.
But the biggest looming technology is called Enhanced Geothermal Systems. See, as of now, only
around 10% of the world's area is fit for geothermal power production. That's because you need
hydrothermal convection systems -- places where hot water or steam bubbles up to the surface then
sinks back down. If we're going to truly take advantage of the potential of geothermal, we'll need
to begin injecting water deeper down, in 'hot dry rock' areas.
Why would we want to bother with something like that? Well, as the USUCS notes, The amount of
heat within 10,000 meters (about 33,000 feet) of Earth's surface contains 50,000 times more
energy than all the oil and natural gas resources in the world."
That's why.
There are a host of researchers diligently pursuing this technology -- the US Department of
Energy, Google, and, of course, vested interests in the geothermal industry. There are pitfalls, to be
sure there's concern that such drilling will cause seismic activity, just as fracking has been shown
to do (though no harmful chemicals need be blasted into our aquifers, thankfully). But the extent to
which its been shown to stir up trouble has been deemed rather minimal indeed by scientists, and
developing EGS could open up truly vast new stores of clean, renewable energy.
Clearly, geothermal holds some pretty serious potential. In trying to predict what a clean energy
future looks like, some, like the cleantech wiz Saul Griffith, figure geothermal will eventually
account for around 1/6th of the world's power supply. Others, like the IPCC, think it will clock in
at 4%. Either way, it will be an integral part of the renewable energy mix powering the world, as
fossil fuels recede from view.

MCQs

A. MCQS WITH ANSWERS WITH EXPLAINATION

.
Multiple Choice Questions & Answers (MCQs) focuses on “Geothermal Energy”.
1. The process of producing energy by utilizing heat trapped inside the earth surface is called
_________
a) Hydrothermal energy
b) Geo-Thermal energy
c) Solar energy
d) Wave energy
Answer: b
Explanation: The process of producing energy by utilizing heat trapped inside the earth surface is
called Geo thermal energy. Energy present as heat in the earth’s crust. The more readily accessible
heat in the upper most (10 km) or so, of the crust constitutes a potentially useful and almost
inexhaustible source of energy.
2. How much is the average temperature at depth of 10 km of earth surface?
a) 200oC
b) 900oC
c) 650oC
d) 20oC
Answer: a
Explanation: The heat is apparent from the increase in temperature of the earth with increasing
depth below the surface. Although higher and lower temperature occurs, the average temperature
at depth of 10 km is about 200oC.
3. What is hot molten rock called?
a) Lava
b) Magma
c) Igneous rocks
d) Volcano
Answer: b
Explanation: Magma is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solid that is found
beneath the surface of the Earth, and is expected to exist on other terrestrial planets and some
natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas
and sometimes gas bubbles.
4. How many kinds of Geo thermal steams are there?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
Explanation: There are two kinds of geo thermal steams, the one that originates from the magma is
called magmatic steam and that from ground water heated by magma is called meteoritic steam.
The latter is the largest source of geothermal steam.
5. What does EGS stand for in geothermal energy?
a) Engraved Geothermal systems
b) Enhanced geothermal system
c) Exhaust gas system
d) Engineered geo physical system
Answer: b
Explanation: The development of a geothermal system where hydraulic fracturing of the system
can allow the production at a commercial level. EGS’s are engineered reservoirs created where
there is geothermal energy but a lack of permeability. Fluid is injected into the earth‘s surface
which causes pre-existing fractures to open again, creating permeability. Nationwide potential with
engineered reservoirs 6-km to 8-km deep.
6. Who invented first geothermal plant?
a) Michael Faraday
b) Piero Ginori Conti
c) Enrico Fermi
d) Guglielmo Marconi
Answer: b
Explanation: In 1904, Italian scientist Piero Ginori Conti invented the first geothermal electric
power plant in which steam was used to generate the power. On 4 July 1904, at Larderello, Piero
Ginori Conti powered five bulbs from a dynamo driven by a reciprocating steam engine using
geothermal energy.
7. A geothermal solution containing appreciable amounts of sodium chloride or other salts is called
as __________
a) Fluids
b) Brine
c) Solvent
d) Magma
Answer: b
Explanation: Brine is a high-concentration solution of salt (usually sodium chloride) in water. In
different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical
concentration of seawater, on the lower end of solutions used for brining foods) up to about 26% (a
typical saturated solution, depending on temperature).
8. Earth’s outer layer rock is called as __________
a) Mantle
b) Crust
c) Outer core
d) Asthenosphere
Answer: b
Explanation: Earth’s crust is Earth’s hard outer layer. It is less than 1% of Earth’s volume. The
crust is made up of different types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Crust is
also called as lithosphere.
9. The hole on earth’s surface from where the steam from the earth comes out is called as
________
a) Gash
b) Mud pot
c) Void
d) Fumarole
Answer: d
Explanation: A fumarole is an opening in a planet’s crust, often in areas surrounding volcanoes,
which emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and
hydrogen sulfide. The steam forms when superheated water condenses as its pressure drops when
it emerges from the ground.
10. A spring that shoots jets of hot water and steam into the air is called as _______
a) Mine hole
b) Geyser
c) Hot spring
d) Mud pot
Answer: b
Explanation: Geysers are temporary geological features. Geysers are generally associated with
volcanic areas. As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and
water to the surface through the geyser’s internal plumbing.
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11. Which kind geothermal plant is most common type?
a) Dry steam
b) Flash
c) Binary
d) Wet steam
Answer: b
Explanation: Flash Steam Power Plants are the most common form of geothermal power plant. The
hot water is pumped under great pressure to the surface. When it reaches the surface the pressure is
reduced and as a result some of the water changes to steam. This produces a ‘blast’ of steam. The
cooled water is returned to the reservoir to be heated by geothermal rocks again.
12. How much is the efficiency of geothermal plant?
a) 28%
b) 15%
c) 42%
d) 30%
Answer: b
Explanation: Geothermal power plants have lower efficiency relative to other thermal power
plants, such as coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear power stations. It is commonly assumed that only
15% of the energy from the produced geothermal fluid can be converted to electricity.

B. MCQS WITH ANSWERS WITHOUT ANY EXPLAINATION

1-Geothermal energy is the thermal energy present
(A) On the surface of the earth

(B) In the interior of the earth

(C) On the surface of the ocean

(D) None of the above

 2-The following is (are) the visible sign(s) of the large amount of heat lying in the earth’s
interior.

(A) Volcanoes

(B) Geysers

(C) Hot springs

(D) All of the above

 3-The centre of earth is estimated to have a high temperature of about

(A) 1,000 K

(B) 4,000 K

(C) 6,000 K

(D) 10,000 K

 4-The molten rock within the earth is

(A) Igneous

(B) Magma

(C) Sedimentary

(D) Metamorphic

 5-The following is (are) type(s) of Geothermal resource

(A) Hydrothermal

(B) Hot dry rock

(C) Geopressurised

(D) All of the above

 6-When the water is ejected from earth’s interior in the form of hot water, it is called
(A) Geyser

(B) Hot springs

(C) Both (A) and (B)

(D) None of the above

 7-Water boils underground in a hydrothermal when it has pressure of about ____ atm and
temperature of about ____ °C.

(A) 3, 100

(B) 5, 120

(C) 6, 140

(D)  7, 165

 8-In dry steam hydrothermal plant, we use

(A) Carnot cycle

(B) Brayton cycle

(C) Rankine Cycle

(D) None of the above

 9-In which of the following type(s) of plant(s) refrigerant is used as working medium

(A) Vapour dominated plant

(B) Liquid dominated high temperature plant

(C) Liquid dominated low temperature plant

(D) All of the above

 10-The following plant runs on binary cycle

(A) Vapour dominated plant

(B) Liquid dominated high temperature plant

(C) Liquid dominated low temperature plant

(D) All of the above

 
11-The efficiency of geothermal plant is about
(A) 5%

(B) 15%

(C) 25%

(D) 35%

 12-Hydrothermal fluids are _____ in nature.

(A) Corrosive

(B) Abrasive

(C) Both (A) and (B)

(D) None of the above

 ANSWERS:

1-(B), 2-(D), 3-(D), 4-(B), 5-(D), 6-(B), 7-(D), 8-(C), 9-(C), 10-(C), 11-(B), 12-(C)

Short questions and answers :

1. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?
Answer: Several attributes make it a good source of energy.
1. First, it's clean. Energy can be extracted without burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas, or oil.
Geothermal fields produce only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean
natural-gas-fueled power plant produces, and very little if any, of the nitrous oxide or sulfur-
bearing gases. Binary plants, which are closed cycle operations, release essentially no emissions.
2. Geothermal energy is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Geothermal power plants
have average availabilities of 90% or higher, compared to about 75% for coal plants.
3. Geothermal power is homegrown, reducing our dependence on foreign oil.

2. WHY IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY A RENEWABLE RESOURCE?

Answer: Because its source is the almost unlimited amount of heat generated by the Earth's
core. Even in geothermal areas dependent on a reservoir of hot water, the volume taken out can be
reinjected, making it a sustainable energy source.

3. WHERE IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AVAILABLE?

Answer: Hydrothermal resources - reservoirs of steam or hot water - are available primarily in
the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. However, Earth energy can be tapped almost
anywhere with geothermal heat pumps and direct-use applications. Other enormous and world-
wide geothermal resources - hot dry rock and magma, for example - are awaiting further
technology development.
4. WHAT ARE THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF USING GEOTHERMAL
ENERGY?
Answer: Geothermal technologies offer many environmental advantages over conventional power
generation:
1. Emissions are low. Only excess steam is emitted by geothermal flash plants. No air emissions
or liquids are discharged by binary geothermal plants, which are projected to become the dominant
technology in the near future.
2. Salts and dissolved minerals contained in geothermal fluids are usually reinjected with excess
water back into the reservoir at a depth well below groundwater aquifers. This recycles the
geothermal water and replenishes the reservoir. The City of Santa Rosa, California, pipes the
city's treated wastewater up to The Geysers power plants to be used for reinjection fluid. This
system will prolong the life of the reservoir as it recycles the treated wastewater.
3. Some geothermal plants do produce some solid materials, or sludges, that require disposal in
approved sites. Some of these solids are now being extracted for sale (zinc, silica, and sulfur, for
example), making the resource even more valuable and environmentally friendly.

5. WHAT IS THE VISUAL IMPACT OF GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES?

Answer: District heating systems and geothermal heat pumps are easily integrated into
communities with almost no visual impact. Geothermal power plants use relatively small
acreages, and don't require storage, transportation, or combustion of fuels. Either no
emissions or just steam are visible. These qualities reduce the overall visual impact of power plants
in scenic regions.

6. IS IT POSSIBLE TO DEPLETE GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS?

Answer: The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy production has been demonstrated at
the Lardarello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958, and at
The Geysers field in California since 1960. Pressure and production declines have been
experienced at some plants, and operators have begun reinjecting water to maintain reservoir
pressure. The City of Santa Rosa, California, pipes its treated wastewater up to The Geysers to be
used as reinjection fluid, thereby prolonging the life of the reservoir while recycling the treated
wastewater. Learn more about our geothermal history.

7. HOW MUCH DOES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY COST PER KILOWATT-HOUR

(KWH)?
Answer: At The Geysers, power is sold at $0.03 to $0.035 per kWh. A power plant built
today would probably require about $0.05 per kWh. Some plants can charge more during peak
demand periods.

8. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS?

Answer:There are three geothermal power plant technologies being used to convert hydrothermal
fluids to electricity: dry steam, flash steam and binary cycle. The type of conversion used
(selected in development) depends on the state of the fluid (steam or water) and its temperature. To
learn more about power plant types and see illustrations of each, visit our Electricity
Generation page.
9. WHAT DOES IT COST TO DEVELOP A GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT?
Answer: Costs of a geothermal plant are heavily weighted toward early expenses, rather than
fuel to keep them running. Well drilling and pipeline construction occur first, followed by
resource analysis of the drilling information. Next is design of the actual plant. Power plant
construction is usually completed concurrent with final field development. The initial cost for the
field and power plant is around $2500 per installed kW in the U.S., probably $3000 to
$5000/kWe for a small (<1Mwe) power plant. Operating and maintenance costs range from
$0.01 to $0.03 per kWh. Most geothermal power plants can run at greater than 90% availability
(i.e., producing more than 90% of the time), but running at 97% or 98% can increase maintenance
costs. Higher-priced electricity justifies running the plant 98% of the time because the resulting
higher maintenance costs are recovered.

10. WHAT MAKES A SITE GOOD FOR GEOTHERMAL ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT?

Answer: Hot geothermal fluid with low mineral and gas content, shallow aquifers for producing
and reinjecting the fluid, location on private land to simplify permitting, proximity to existing
transmission lines or load, and availability of make-up water for evaporative cooling. Geothermal
fluid temperature should be at least 300º F, although plants are operating on fluid temperatures as
low as 210º F.

11. WHAT IS AN ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM (EGS)?

Answer: An Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) is a man-made reservoir, created where there is
hot rock but insufficient or little natural permeability or fluid saturation. In an EGS, fluid is
injected into the subsurface under carefully controlled conditions, which cause pre-existing
fractures to re-open, creating permeability. Learn about EGS basics in our EGS fact sheet or visit
our EGS Web

Short Questions

1. Define geothermal resource and applications.

2. Write environmental impact of geothermal energy.
3. What are the hydrothermal resources?
4. What is vapour and liquid dominated system?
5. Define geothermal resource and applications.
6. Write environmental impact of geothermal energy.
7. What are geothermal fields?
8. What are the advantages of geothermal energy?
9. What are the disadvantages of geothermal energy?
10. What is epicenter and hypocenter?

Long Questions
1. Explain the potential of geothermal resources in India.
2. What is geothermal energy? Explain various types of geothermal resources.
3. Explain the working of geothermal preheat hybrid system
4. What are the effects of the geothermal source of energy is used for the power generation
5. Explain the principle and operation of a liquid and vapour dominated system.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy
7. What is the future scope of geothermal energy? Explain.
8. What are thr different locations of geothermal energy in India?