IoT Module 2
IoT Module 2
MODULE-2
SMART OBJECTS
Smart objects are any physical objects that contain embedded technology to sense and/or
interact with their environment in a meaningful way by being interconnected and enabling
communication among themselves or an external agent.
Some of the fundamental building blocks of IoT networks are
● Sensors
● Actuators
● Smart Objects
Sensors:
● A sensor does exactly as its name indicates: It senses.
● A sensor measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement reading
into a digital representation.
● That digital representation is typically passed to another device for transformation
into useful data that can be consumed by intelligent devices or humans.
● Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data.
● They are able to provide an extremely wide spectrum of rich and diverse
measurement data with far greater precision than human senses.
● Sensors provide superhuman sensory capabilities.
● Sensors can be readily embedded in any physical objects that are easily connected to
the Internet by wired or wireless networks, they can interpret their environment and
make intelligent decisions.
Sensors have been grouped into different categories
● Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy
output and typically require an external power supply (active) or whether they simply
receive energy and typically require no external power supply (passive).
● Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is part
of the environment it is measuring (invasive) or external to it (non-invasive).
● Contact or no-contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require
physical contact with what they are measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).
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● Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or
vertical where they are being used.
● How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism
used to measure sensory input (for example, thermoelectric, electrochemical,
piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic, photoelastic).
● What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or what
physical variables they measure.
The physical phenomenon a sensor is measuring is shown in Table-2.1
● A fascinating use case to highlight the power of sensors and IoT is in the area of
precision agriculture (sometimes referred to as smart farming), which uses a variety of
technical advances to improve the efficiency, sustainability, and profitability of traditional
farming practices.
● This includes the use of GPS and satellite aerial imagery for determining field viability;
robots for high-precision planting, harvesting, irrigation, and so on; and real-time
analytics and artificial intelligence to predict optimal crop yield, weather impacts, and
soil quality.
Different types of sensors in a smart phone is shown in figure 2.1
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Figure 2.1: Sensors in a smart phone
Actuators:
● Actuators are natural complements to sensors.
● Figure 2.2 demonstrates the symmetry and complementary nature of these two types
of devices.
● Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically any measurable variable in the
physical world.
● They convert their measurements (typically analog) into electric signals or digital
representations that can be consumed by an intelligent agent (a device or a human).
● Actuators, on the others hand, receive some type of control signal (commonly an
electric signal or digital command) that triggers a physical effect, usually some type
of motion, force, and so on.
Figure 2.2 : How Sensors and Actuators Interact with the Physical World
Much like sensors, actuators also vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on. Some
common ways that they can be classified include the following:
● Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they
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produce (for example, linear, rotary, one/two/three-axes).
● Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high
power, low power, micro power)
● Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of
stable-state outputs.
● Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or
vertical where they are used.
● Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.
Different types of Actuators are presented in Table -2.2
Table -2.2: Actuator Classification by Energy Type
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
● Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS referred to as micro-machines, can integrate
and combine electric and mechanical elements, such as sensors and actuators, on a very
small (millimeter or less) scale.
● The combination of tiny size, low cost, and the ability to mass produce makes MEMS an
attractive option for a huge number of IoT applications.
Ex: Inkjet printers use micropump MEMS. Smart phones also use MEMS technologies for
things like accelerometers and gyroscopes
Smart Objects
Smart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT. They are what transform everyday
objects into a network of intelligent objects that are able to learn from and interact with their
environment in a meaningful way. A smart object, is a device that has, at a minimum, the
following four defining characteristics
● Processing Unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data,
processing and analyzing sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinating
control signals to any actuators, and controlling a variety of functions on the smart
object, including the communication and power systems.
● Sensor(s) and /or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting with the
physical world through sensors and actuators. A smart object does not need to contain
both sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart object can contain one or multiple sensors
and/or actuators, depending upon the application.
● Communication Device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting a
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smart object with other smart objects and the outside world (via the network).
Communication devices for smart objects can be either wired or wireless.
● Power Source: Smart objects have components that need to be powered.
Interestingly, the most significant power consumption usually comes from the
communication unit of a smart object.
Trends in Smart Objects:
The broad generalizations and trends impacting IoT are
● Size is decreasing: Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the
naked eye. This reduced size makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday
objects.
● Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of a smart
object continually consume less power. Some battery-powered sensors last 10 or more
years without battery replacement.
● Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more powerful
and smaller.
● Communication capabilities are improving: It’s no big surprise that wireless
speeds are continually increasing, but they are also increasing in range. IoT is driving
the development of more and more specialized communication protocols covering a
greater diversity of use cases and environments.
● Communication is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push in the
industry to develop open standards for IoT communication protocols. In addition,
there are more and more open source efforts to advance IoT
Sensor Networks:
● A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors
that sense and measure their environment and/or actuators that act on their
environment.
● The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET are capable of communicating and
cooperating in a productive manner.
● SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation capabilities.
● Smart homes are a type of SANET that display this coordination between distributed
sensors and actuators.
● For example, smart homes can have temperature sensors that are strategically
networked with heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) actuators. When a
sensor detects a specified temperature, this can trigger an actuator to take action and
heat or cool the home as needed.
The following are some advantages and disadvantages that a wireless-based solution offers:
Advantages:
● Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme environments or hard-to-reach
places)
● Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
● Lower implementation costs
● Easier long-term maintenance
● Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
● Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes
Disadvantages:
● Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)
● Typically, lower transmission speeds
● Greater level of impact/influence by environment
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Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are
sometimes referred to as motes. The following are some of the most significant limitations of
the smart objects in WSNs:
● Limited processing power
● Limited memory
● Lossy communication
● Limited transmission speeds
● Limited power
These limitations greatly influence how WSNs are designed, deployed, and utilized. Figure
2.3 below shows an example of such a data aggregation function in a WSN where
temperature readings from a logical grouping of temperature sensors are aggregated as an
average temperature reading.
Figure 2.3 Data Aggregation in Wireless Sensor Networks
These data aggregation techniques are helpful in reducing the amount of overall traffic (and
energy) in WSNs with very large numbers of deployed smart objects. Wirelessly connected
smart objects generally have one of the following two communication patterns:
● Event-driven: Transmission of sensory information is triggered only when a smart
object detects a particular event or predetermined threshold.
● Periodic: Transmission of sensory information occurs only at periodic intervals.
Communication Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks:
● Any communication protocol must be able to scale to a large number of nodes.
● Likewise, when selecting a communication protocol, you must carefully take into
account the requirements of the specific application.
● Also consider any trade-offs the communication protocol offers between power
consumption, maximum transmission speed, range, tolerance for packet loss,
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topology optimization, security, and so on.
● Sensors often produce large amounts of sensing and measurement data that needs to
be processed.
● This data can be processed locally by the nodes of a WSN or across zero or more
hierarchical levels in IoT networks.
● IoT is one of those rare technologies that impacts all verticals and industries, which
means standardization of communication protocols is a complicated task, requiring
protocol definition across multiple layers of the stack, as well as a great deal of
coordination across multiple standards development organizations.
Connecting smart objects
The characteristics and attributes considered when selecting and dealing with connecting
smart objects are
1)Range: It defines how far does the signal need to be propagated? That is, what will be the
area of coverage for a selected wireless technology? The below figure 2.4 shows the range
considered
implementations are available.
○ The maximum distance is generally less than 1 mile between two devices.
○ Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include IEEE 802.11
Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and 802.15.4g WPAN.
○ Wired technologies such as IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and IEEE 1901.2
○ Narrowband Power Line Communications (PLC) may also be classified as
medium range, depending on their physical media characteristics.
● Long Range:
○ Distances greater than 1 mile between two devices require long-range
technologies. Wireless examples are cellular (2G, 3G, 4G) and some
applications of outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi and Low-Power Wide-Area
(LPWA) technologies.
○ LPWA communications have the ability to communicate over a large area
without consuming much power.
○ These technologies are therefore ideal for battery-powered IoT sensors.
○ Found mainly in industrial networks, IEEE 802.3 over optical fiber and IEEE
1901 Broadband Power Line Communications are classified as long range but
are not really considered IoT access technologies.
2)Frequency Bands:
● Radio spectrum is regulated by countries and/or organizations, such as the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).
● These groups define the regulations and transmission requirements for various
frequency bands.
● For example, portions of the spectrum are allocated to types of telecommunications
such as radio, television, military, and so on.
● Focusing on IoT access technologies, the frequency bands leveraged by wireless
communications are split between licensed and unlicensed bands.
● Licensed spectrum is generally applicable to IoT long-range access technologies and
allocated to communications infrastructures deployed by services providers, public
services (for example, first responders, military), broadcasters, and utilities.
● The ITU has also defined unlicensed spectrum for the industrial, scientific, and
medical (ISM) portions of the radio bands.
● These frequencies are used in many communications technologies for short-range
devices (SRDs).
● Unlicensed means that no guarantees or protections are offered in the ISM bands for
device communications.
● For IoT access, these are the most well-known ISM bands:
● 2.4 GHz band as used by IEEE 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi
● IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
● IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN
● Unlicensed spectrum is usually simpler to deploy than licensed because it does not
require a service provider.
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● Some communications within the ISM bands operate in the sub-GHz range.
● Sub-GHz bands are used by protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4, 802.15.4g, and
802.11ah, and LPWA technologies such as LoRa and Sigfox.
● The most well-known ranges are centered on 169 MHz, 433 MHz, 868 MHz, and 915
MHz.
● The 868 MHz band is applicable to IoT access technologies such as IEEE 802.15.4
and 802.15.4g, 802.11ah, and LoRaWAN.
Power Consumption:
● Battery-powered nodes bring much more flexibility to IoT devices.
● These nodes are often classified by the required lifetimes of their batteries.
● A powered node has a direct connection to a power source, and communications are
usually not limited by power consumption criteria.
● IoT wireless access technologies must address the needs of low power consumption
and connectivity for battery-powered nodes.
● This has led to the evolution of a new wireless environment known as Low-Power
Wide-Area (LPWA).
Topology
● Among the access technologies available for connecting IoT devices, three main
topology schemes are dominant: star, mesh, and peer-to-peer.
● For long-range and short-range technologies, a star topology is prevalent, as seen with
cellular, LPWA, and Bluetooth networks.
● Star topologies utilize a single central base station or controller to allow
communications with endpoints.
● For medium-range technologies, a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topology is common.
● Peer-to-peer topologies allow any device to communicate with any other device as
long as they are in range of each other.
● Peer-to-peer topologies enable more complex formations, such as a mesh networking
topology.
The figure 2.5 below represents the various topology.
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● Mesh topology requires the implementation of a Layer 2 forwarding protocol known
as mesh-under or a Layer 3 forwarding protocol referred to as mesh-over on each
intermediate node.
Constrained Devices:
Constrained nodes have limited resources that impact their networking feature set and
capabilities. Constrained nodes can broken down into different classes such as shown in
Table 2.3:
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● In addition, you should be aware of any requirements for IP.
● The minimum IPv6 MTU size is expected to be 1280 bytes. Therefore, the
fragmentation of the IPv6 payload has to be considered by link layer access protocols
with smaller MTUs.
● Example: The payload size for IEEE 802.15.4 is 127 bytes and requires an IPv6
payload with a minimum MTU of 1280 bytes to be fragmented.
● On the other hand, IEEE 802.15.4g enables payloads up to 2048 bytes, easing the
support of the IPv6 minimum MTU of 1280 bytes.
IoT Access
Technologies
IEEE 802.15.4:
● IEEE 802.15.4 is a wireless access technology for low-cost and low-data-rate
devices that are powered or run on batteries.
● This access technology enables easy installation using a compact protocol
stack while remaining both simple and flexible.
● IEEE 802.15.4 is commonly found in the following types of deployments:
○ Home and building automation
○ Automotive networks
○ Industrial wireless sensor networks
○ Interactive toys and remote controls
● Criticisms of IEEE 802.15.4 often focus on its MAC reliability, unbounded
latency, and susceptibility to interference and multipath fading.
● Interference and multipath fading occur with IEEE 802.15.4 because it lacks a
frequency-hopping technique.
● Standardization and Alliances
● IEEE 802.15.4 or IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4 defines low-data-rate PHY and
MAC layer specifications for wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
● The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers are the foundations for several
networking protocol stacks.
● These protocol stacks make use of 802.15.4 at the physical and link layer
levels, but the upper layers are different.
Some of the most well-known protocol stacks based on 802.15.4 are as shown in Table 2.4
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Table 2.4 Protocol Stacks Utilizing IEEE 802.15.4
● ZigBee:
● It is an IoT solution for interconnecting smart objects.
● ZigBee solutions are aimed at smart objects and sensors that have low bandwidth and
low power needs.
● The Zigbee specification has undergone several revisions.
● In the 2006 revision, sets of commands and message types were introduced, and
increased in number in the 2007 (called Zigbee pro) iteration, to achieve different
functions for a device, such as metering, temperature, or lighting control.
● These sets of commands and message types are called clusters.
● Ultimately, these clusters from different functional domains or libraries form the
building blocks of Zigbee application profiles.
● Vendors implementing pre-defined Zigbee application profiles like Home Automation
or Smart Energy can ensure interoperability between their products.
● The main areas where ZigBee is the most well-known include automation for
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commercial, retail, and home applications and smart energy.
● In the industrial and commercial automation space, ZigBee-based devices can handle
various functions, from measuring temperature and humidity to tracking assets.
● For home automation, ZigBee can control lighting, thermostats, and security
functions.
● ZigBee Smart Energy brings together a variety of interoperable products, such as
smart meters, that can monitor and control the use and delivery of utilities, such as
electricity and water.
● The traditional ZigBee stack is illustrated in the below figure 2.6.
● The ZigBee network and security layer provides mechanisms for network startup,
configuration, routing, and securing communications. This includes calculating
routing paths in what is often a changing topology, discovering neighbors, and
managing the routing tables as devices join for the first time. The network layer is
also responsible for forming the appropriate topology, which is often a mesh but could
be a star or tree as well. From a security perspective, ZigBee utilizes 802.15.4 for
security at the MAC layer, using the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a
128-bit key and also provides security at the network and application layers.
● ZigBee is one of the most well-known protocols built on an IEEE 802.15.4
foundation. On top of the 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers, ZigBee specifies its own
network and security layer and application profiles.
● ZigBee IP
● ZigBee IP was created to embrace the open standards coming from the IETF’s work
on LLNs, such as IPv6, 6LoWPAN, and RPL They provide for low-bandwidth,
low-power, and cost-effective communications when connecting smart objects.
● ZigBee IP is a critical part of the Smart Energy (SE) Profile 2.0 specification from the
ZigBee Alliance. SE 2.0 is aimed at smart metering and residential energy
management systems. Any other applications that need a standards-based IoT stack
can utilize Zigbee IP. The ZigBee IP stack is shown in below figure 2.7.
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● ZigBee IP supports 6LoWPAN as an adaptation layer.
● ZigBee IP requires the support of 6LoWPAN’s fragmentation and header
compression schemes
● At the network layer, all ZigBee IP nodes support IPv6, ICMPv6, and 6LoWPAN
Neighbor Discovery (ND), and utilize RPL for the routing of packets across the mesh
network.
● 802.15.4
Physical
and
MAC
Layer:
● The 802.15.4 standard supports an extensive number of PHY options that range
from 2.4 GHz to sub-GHz frequencies in ISM bands.
● The original IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard specified only three PHY options based
on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation.
● DSSS is a modulation technique in which a signal is intentionally spread in the
frequency domain, resulting in greater bandwidth.
● The original physical layer transmission options were as follows:
○ 2.4 GHz, 16 channels, with a data rate of 250 kbps
○ 915 MHz, 10 channels, with a data rate of 40 kbps
○ 868 MHz, 1 channel, with a data rate of 20 kbps
● IEEE 802.15.4-2006, 802.15.4-2011, and IEEE 802.15.4-2015 introduced additional
PHY communication options, including the following:
○ OQPSK PHY: This is DSSS PHY, employing offset quadrature phase-shift
keying (OQPSK) modulation.
■ OQPSK is a modulation technique that uses four unique bit values that
are signaled by phase changes.
■ An offset function that is present during phase shifts allows data to be
transmitted more reliably.
● BPSK PHY: This is DSSS PHY, employing binary phase-shift keying
(BPSK)
modulation.
■ BPSK specifies two unique phase shifts as its data encoding scheme.
● ASK PHY: This is parallel sequence spread spectrum (PSSS) PHY, employing
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amplitude shift keying (ASK) and BPSK modulation.
■ PSSS is an advanced encoding scheme that offers increased range,
throughput, data rates, and signal integrity compared to DSSS.
■ ASK uses amplitude shifts instead of phase shifts to signal different bit
values.
● The PHY Header portion of the PHY frame is shown in Figure 2.8 is simply a frame
length value.
● It lets the receiver know how much total data to expect in the PHY service data unit
(PSDU) portion of the 802.4.15 PHY. The PSDU is the data field or payload.
● The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer manages access to the PHY channel by defining how
devices in the same area will share the frequencies allocated.
● At this layer, the scheduling and routing of data frames are also coordinated.
● The 802.15.4 MAC layer performs the following tasks:
○ Network beaconing for devices acting as coordinators (New devices use beacons
to join an 802.15.4 network)
○ PAN association and disassociation by a device
○ Device security
○ Reliable link communications between two peer MAC entities
○ The MAC layer achieves these tasks by using various predefined frame types. In
fact, four types of MAC frames are specified in 802.15.4:
○ Data frame: Handles all transfers of data
○ Beacon frame: Used in the transmission of beacons from a PAN coordinator
○ Acknowledgement frame: Confirms the successful reception of a frame
○ MAC command frame: Responsible for control communication between devices
● Each of these four 802.15.4 MAC frame types follows the frame format shown in Figure
2.9. In Figure 2.9, notice that the MAC frame is carried as the PHY payload.
● The 802.15.4 MAC frame can be broken down into the MAC Header, MAC Payload, and
MAC Footer fields.
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● The MAC Header field is composed of the Frame Control, Sequence Number and the
Addressing fields.
● The Frame Control field defines attributes such as frame type, addressing modes, and
other control flags.
● The Sequence Number field indicates the sequence identifier for the frame.
● The Addressing field specifies the Source and Destination PAN Identifier fields as well as
the Source and Destination Address fields.
● The MAC Payload field varies by individual frame type.
● The MAC Footer field is nothing more than a frame check sequence (FCS).
● An FCS is a calculation based on the data in the frame that is used by the receiving side
to confirm the integrity of the data in the frame.
● Topology
● IEEE 802.15.4–based networks can be built as star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topologies.
● Mesh networks tie together many nodes.
● This allows nodes that would be out of range if trying to communicate directly to
leverage intermediary nodes to transfer communications.
● Every 802.15.4 PAN should be set up with a unique ID.
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● All the nodes in the same 802.15.4 network should use the same PAN ID.
● Figure 2.10 shows an example of an 802.15.4 mesh network with a PAN ID of 1.
● FFD (full-function devices) acts as a PAN coordinator to deliver services that allow
other devices to associate and form a cell or PAN.
● FFD devices can communicate with any other devices, whereas RFD devices can
communicate only with FFD devices.
● Security
● The IEEE 802.15.4 specification uses Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a
128-bit key length as the base encryption algorithm for securing its data.
● In addition to encrypting the data, AES in 802.15.4 also validates the data that is sent.
● This is accomplished by a message integrity code (MIC), which is calculated for the
entire frame using the same AES key that is used for encryption.
● The figure 2.11 below shows the IEEE 802.15.4 frame format at a high level, with the
Security Enabled bit set and the Auxiliary Security Header field present.
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Figure 2.11:Frame Format with the Auxiliary Security Header Field for 802.15.4-2006 and Later
Versions
IEEE 802.15.4g and 802.15.4e
● IEEE 802.15.4g-2012 is also an amendment to the IEEE 802.15.4-2011 standard, and
just like 802.15.4e-2012, it has been fully integrated into the core IEEE
802.15.4-2015 specification.
● 802.15.4g seeks to optimize large outdoor wireless mesh networks for field area
networks (FANs)
● This technology applies to IoT use cases such as the following:
○ Distribution automation and industrial supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) environments for remote monitoring and control
○ Public lighting
○ Environmental wireless sensors in smart cities
○ Electrical vehicle charging stations
○ Smart parking meters
○ Microgrids
○ Renewable energy.
● Standardization and Alliances:
● 802.15.4g-2012 and 802.15.4e-2012 are simply amendments to IEEE
802.15.4-2011.
● Same IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4 standards body authors, maintains, and
integrates them into the next release of the core specification.
● To guarantee interoperability, the Wi-SUN Alliance was formed.
● It defines communication profiles for smart utility and related networks.
● These profiles are based on open standards, such as 802.15.4g-2012,
802.15.4e-2012, IPv6, 6LoWPAN, and UDP for the FAN profile.
● The Wi-SUN Alliance performs the same function as the Wi-Fi Alliance and
WiMAX Forum
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● Physical Layer:
● In IEEE 802.15.4g-2012, the original IEEE 802.15.4 maximum PSDU or payload size
of 127 bytes was increased for the SUN PHY to 2047 bytes.
● This provides a better match for the greater packet sizes found in many upper-layer
protocols.
● For example, the default IPv6 MTU setting is 1280 bytes. Fragmentation is no longer
necessary at Layer 2 when IPv6 packets are transmitted over IEEE 802.15.4g MAC
frames. Also, the error protection was improved in IEEE 802.15.4g by evolving the
CRC from 16 to 32 bits.
● The SUN PHY, as described in IEEE 802.15.4g-2012, supports multiple data rates in
bands ranging from 169 MHz to 2.4 GHz.\
● Within these bands, data must be modulated onto the frequency using at least one of
the following PHY mechanisms to be IEEE 802.15.4g compliant:
○ Multi-Rate and Multi-Regional Frequency Shift Keying (MR-FSK):
Offers good transmit power efficiency due to the constant envelope of the
transmit signal
○ Multi-Rate and Multi-Regional Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (MR-OFDM): Provides higher data rates but may be too
complex for low-cost and low-power devices
○ Multi-Rate and Multi-Regional Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying
(MR-O-QPSK):Shares the same characteristics of the IEEE 802.15.4-2006
O-QPSK PHY, making multi-mode systems more cost-effective and easier to
design.
● MAC Layer:
The following are some of the main enhancements to the MAC layer proposed by IEEE
802.15.4e-2012:
● Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH):
● TSCH is an IEEE 802.15.4e-2012 MAC operation mode that works to
guarantee media access and channel diversity.
● Channel hopping, also known as frequency hopping, utilizes different
channels for transmission at different times.
● TSCH divides time into fixed time periods, or “time slots,” which offer
guaranteed bandwidth and predictable latency.
● In a time, slot, one packet and its acknowledgement can be transmitted,
increasing network capacity because multiple nodes can communicate in the
same time slot, using different channels.
● A number of time slots are defined as a “slot frame,” which is regularly
repeated to provide “guaranteed access.”
● The transmitter and receiver agree on the channels and the timing for
switching between channels through the combination of a global time slot
counter and a global channel hopping sequence list, as computed on each node
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to determine the channel of each time slot.
● TSCH adds robustness in noisy environments and smoother coexistence with
other wireless technologies, especially for industrial use cases.
● Information elements:
● Information elements (IEs) allow for the exchange of information at the MAC
layer in an extensible manner, either as header IEs (standardized) and/or
payload IEs (private).
● Specified in a tag, length, value (TLV) format, the IE field allows frames to
carry additional metadata to support MAC layer services.
● These services may include IEEE 802.15.9 key management, Wi-SUN 1.0 IEs
to broadcast and unicast schedule timing information, and frequency hopping
synchronization information for the 6TiSCH architecture.
● Enhanced beacons (EBs):
○ EBs extend the flexibility of IEEE 802.15.4 beacons to allow the construction
of application-specific beacon content.
○ This is accomplished by including relevant IEs in EB frames.
○ Some IEs that may be found in EBs include network metrics, frequency
hopping broadcast schedule, and PAN information version.
● Enhanced beacon requests (EBRs):
○ Like enhanced beacons, an enhanced beacon request (EBRs) also leverages
IEs.
○ The IEs in EBRs allow the sender to selectively specify the request of
information. Beacon responses are then limited to what was requested in the
EBR.
○ For example, a device can query for a PAN that is allowing new devices to
join or a PAN that supports a certain set of MAC/PHY capabilities.
● Enhanced Acknowledgement:
○ The Enhanced Acknowledgement frame allows for the integration of a frame
counter for the frame being acknowledged.
○ This feature helps protect against certain attacks that occur when
Acknowledgement frames are spoofed.
● The 802.15.4e-2012 MAC amendment is quite often paired with the 802.15.4g-2012
PHY. Figure 2.11 details this format
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Figure 2.11: IEEE 802.15.4g/e MAC Frame Format
● Topology:
● Deployments of IEEE 802.15.4g-2012 are mostly based on a mesh topology.
● A mesh topology allows deployments to be done in urban or rural areas, expanding
the distance between nodes that can relay the traffic of other nodes.
● Support for battery-powered nodes with a long lifecycle requires optimized Layer 2
forwarding or Layer 3 routing protocol implementations.
● This provides an extra level of complexity but is necessary in order to cope with
sleeping battery-powered nodes.
● Security:
● Both IEEE 802.15.4g and 802.15.4e inherit their security attributes from the IEEE
802.15.4-2006 specification.
● Therefore, encryption is provided by AES, with a 128-bit key.
● In addition to the Auxiliary Security Header field initially defined in 802.15.4-2006, a
secure acknowledgement and a secure Enhanced Beacon field complete the MAC
layer security.
● Figure 2.12 shows a high-level overview of the security associated with an IEEE
802.15.4e MAC frame.
Figure 2.12: IEEE 802.15.4g/e MAC Layer Security
● The MIC is a unique value that is calculated based on the frame contents.
● The Security Header field denoted in Figure 2.12 is composed of the Auxiliary
Security field and one or more Information Elements fields.
● Integration of the Information Elements fields allows for the adoption of additional
security capabilities, such as the IEEE 802.15.9 Key Management Protocol (KMP)
specification.
● KMP provides a means for establishing keys for robust datagram security. Without
key management support, weak keys are often the result, leaving the security system
open to attack.
IEEE 1901.2a
● IEEE 1901.2a-2013 is a wired technology that is an update to the original IEEE
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1901.2 specification
● This is a standard for Narrowband Power Line Communication (NB-PLC).
● NB-PLC leverages a narrowband spectrum for low power, long range, and resistance
to interference over the same wires that carry electric power.
● NB-PLC is often found in use cases such as the following:
● Smart metering: NB-PLC can be used to automate the reading of utility meters, such
as electric, gas, and water meters. This is true particularly in Europe, where PLC is
the preferred technology for utilities deploying smart meter solutions.
● Distribution automation: NB-PLC can be used for distribution automation, which
involves monitoring and controlling all the devices in the power grid.
● Public lighting: A common use for NB-PLC is with public lighting—the lights found
in cities and along streets, highways, and public areas such as parks.
● Electric vehicle charging stations: NB-PLC can be used for electric vehicle charging
stations, where the batteries of electric vehicles can be recharged.
● Microgrids: NB-PLC can be used for microgrids, local energy grids that can
disconnect from the traditional grid and operate independently.
● Renewable energy: NB-PLC can be used in renewable energy applications, such as
solar, wind power, hydroelectric, and geothermal heat.
● Standardization and Alliances
○ The IEEE 1901.2 working group published the IEEE 1901.2a specification in
November 2013.
○ IEEE 1901.2 working group only looked at standardizing the NB-PLC PHY
and MAC layers independently of the upper layers.
○ Using the 802.15.4e Information Element fields eases support for IEEE
802.15.9 key management.
○ The HomePlug Alliance was one of the main industry organizations that drove
the promotion and certification of PLC technologies, with IEEE 1901.2a being
part of its HomePlug Netricity program.
● Physical Layer
● NB-PLC is defined for frequency bands from 3 to 500 kHz.
● Figure 2.13 shows the various frequency bands for NB-PLC. The most
well-known bands are regulated by CENELEC (Comité Européen de
Normalisation Électro technique) and the FCC (Federal Communications
Commission).
● The two ARIB frequency bands are ARIB 1, 37.5–117.1875 kHz, and ARIB
2, 154.6875–403.125 kHz.
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Figure 2.13 NB-PLC Frequency Bands
● With IEEE 1901.2a, the data throughput rate has the ability to dynamically
change, depending on the modulation type and tone map.
● One major difference between IEEE 802.15.4g/e and IEEE 1901.2a is the full
integration of different types of modulation and tone maps by a single PHY
layer in the IEEE 1901.2a specification.
● IEEE 802.15.4g/e doesn’t really define a multi-PHY management algorithm.
● The PHY payload size can change dynamically, based on channel conditions
in IEEE 1901.2a.
● Therefore, MAC sublayer segmentation is implemented. If the size of the
MAC payload is too large to fit within one PHY service data unit (PSDU), the
MAC payload is partitioned into smaller segments.
● MAC payload segmentation is done by dividing the MAC payload into
multiple smaller amounts of data (segments), based on PSDU size.
● The segmentation may require the addition of padding bytes to the last
payload segment so that the final MPDU fills the PSDU.
● MAC Layer:
● The MAC frame format of IEEE 1901.2a is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC
frame but integrates the latest IEEE 802.15.4e-2012 amendment, which
enables key features to be supported.
● One of the key components brought from 802.15.4e to IEEE 1901.2a is
information elements.
● Figure 2.14 provides a overview of the general MAC frame format for IEEE
1901.2.
● IEEE 1901.2 has a Segment Control field.
● This field handles the segmentation or fragmentation of upper-layer packets
with sizes larger than what can be carried in the MAC protocol data unit
(MPDU).
● Topology:
● Use cases and deployment topologies for IEEE 1901.2a are tied to the
physical power lines.
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● As with wireless technologies, signal propagation is limited by factors such as
noise, interference, distortion, and attenuation.
● These factors become more prevalent with distance, so most NB-PLC
deployments use some sort of mesh topology.
● Mesh networks offer the advantage of devices relaying the traffic of other
devices so longer distances can be segmented.
● Security:
● In addition, IEEE 1901.2a aligns with 802.15.4g in its ability to support the
IEEE 802.15.9 Key Management Protocol.
● The Security Enabled bit in the Frame Control field should be set in all MAC
frames carrying segments of an encrypted frame.
● On the receiver side, the data decryption is done after packet reassembly.
● When security is enabled, the MAC payload is composed of the ciphered
payload and the message integrity code (MIC) authentication tag for
non-segmented payloads.
● If the payload is segmented, the MIC is part of the last packet (segment) only.
● The MIC authentication is computed using only information from the MHR of
the frame carrying the first segment.
● Competitive Technologies:
● G3-PLC (now ITU G.9903)
● PRIME (now ITU G.9904).
Both of these technologies were initially developed to address a single use
case: smart metering deployment in Europe over the CENELEC A band.
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IEEE 802.11ah
● In unconstrained networks, IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi is certainly the most successfully
deployed wireless technology.
● Wi-Fi lacks sub-GHz support for better signal penetration, low power for
battery-powered nodes, and the ability to support a large number of devices.
● Hence the IEEE 802.11 working group launched a task group named IEEE 802.11ah
to specify a sub-GHz version of Wi-Fi.
Three main use cases are identified for IEEE 802.11ah:
● Sensors and meters covering a smart grid: Meter to pole,
environmental/agricultural monitoring, industrial process sensors, indoor
healthcare system and fitness sensors, home and building automation sensors.
● Backhaul aggregation of industrial sensors and meter data: Potentially
connecting IEEE 802.15.4g subnetworks
● Extended range Wi-Fi: For outdoor extended-range hotspot or cellular traffic
offloading when distances already covered by IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac are not good
enough.
● Standardization and Alliances
● It is similar to the word “hello” but it is pronounced “hay-low.”
● Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11ah essentially provides an additional 802.11 physical layer operating
in unlicensed sub-GHz bands.
● Various countries and regions use the following bands for IEEE 802.11ah:
868–868.6 MHz for EMEAR, 902–928 MHz and associated subsets for North
America and Asia-Pacific regions, and 314–316 MHz, 430–434 MHz, 470–510
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MHz, and 779–787 MHz for China.
● Based on OFDM modulation, IEEE 802.11ah uses channels of 2, 4, 8, or 16 MHz.
● Ex: At a data rate of 100 kbps, the outdoor transmission range for IEEE 802.11ah
is expected to be 0.62 mile.
● MAC Layer
● The IEEE 802.11ah MAC layer is optimized to support the new sub-GHz Wi-Fi PHY
while providing low power consumption and the ability to support a larger number of
endpoints.
● Enhancements and features specified by IEEE 802.11ah for the MAC layer include
the following:
○ Number of devices: Has been scaled up to 8192 per access point.
○ MAC header: Has been shortened to allow more efficient communication.
○ Null data packet (NDP) support:
■ Is extended to cover several control and management frames.
■ Relevant information is concentrated in the PHY header and the
additional overhead associated with decoding the MAC header and
data payload is avoided.
○ Grouping and sectorization:
■ Enables an AP to use sector antennas and also group stations
(distributing a group ID).
■ In combination with RAW and TWT, this mechanism reduces
contention in large cells with many clients by restricting which group,
in which sector, can contend during which time window.
○ Restricted access window (RAW):
■ Is a control algorithm that avoids simultaneous transmissions when
many devices are present and provides fair access to the wireless
network.
■ By providing more efficient access to the medium, additional power
savings for battery-powered devices can be achieved, and collisions
are reduced.
○ Target wake time (TWT):
■ Reduces energy consumption by permitting an access point to define
times when a device can access the network.
■ This allows devices to enter a low-power state until their TWT time
arrives.
■ It also reduces the probability of collisions in large cells with many
clients.
○ Speed frame exchange:
■ Enables an AP and endpoint to exchange frames during a reserved
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transmit opportunity (TXOP).
■ This reduces contention on the medium, minimizes the number of
frame exchanges to improve channel efficiency, and extends battery
life by keeping awake times short.
● Topology
● While IEEE 802.11ah is deployed as a star topology, it includes a simple hops
relay operation to extend its range.
● This relay operation can be combined with a higher transmission rate or
modulation and coding scheme (MCS).
● This means that a higher transmit rate is used by relay devices talking directly to
the access point.
● The transmit rate reduces as you move further from the access point via relay
clients.
● Sectorization is a technique that involves partitioning the coverage area into
several sectors to get reduced contention within a certain sector.
● This technique is useful for limiting collisions in cells that have many clients.
● This technique is also often necessary when the coverage area of 802.11ah access
points is large, and interference from neighbouring access points is problematic.
● Figure 2.15 shows an example of 802.11ah sectorization.
Figure 2.15 :IEEE 802.11ah Sectorization
● Security
● Similar to IEEE 802.11 specifications
● Competitive Technologies
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LoRaWAN:
● It is an unlicensed-band LPWA(Low-Power Wide-Area) technology.
● Standardization and Alliances
● Optimized for long-range, two-way communications and low power consumption, the
technology evolved from Layer 1 to a broader scope through the creation of the LoRa
Alliance.
Figure 2.16 LoRaWAN Layers
● Physical Layer
● LoRaWAN 1.0.2 regional specifications describe the use of the main unlicensed
sub-GHz frequency bands of 433 MHz, 779–787 MHz, 863–870 MHz, and 902–928
MHz, as well as regional profiles for a subset of the 902–928 MHz bandwidth.
● For example, Australia utilizes 915–928 MHz frequency bands, while South Korea
uses 920–923 MHz and Japan uses 920–928 MHz.
● A LoRa gateway is deployed as the center hub of a star network architecture.
● It uses multiple transceivers and channels and can demodulate multiple channels at
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once or even demodulate multiple signals on the same channel simultaneously.
● LoRa gateways serve as a transparent bridge relaying data between endpoints, and the
endpoints use a single-hop wireless connection to communicate with one or many
gateways.
● The data rate in LoRaWAN varies depending on the frequency bands and adaptive
data rate (ADR).
● ADR is an algorithm that manages the data rate and radio signal for each endpoint.
● Endpoints close to the gateways with good signal values transmit with the highest
data rate, which enables a shorter transmission time over the wireless network, and
the lowest transmit power.
● An important feature of LoRa is its ability to handle various data rates via the
spreading factor.
● Devices with a low spreading factor (SF) achieve less distance in their
communications but transmit at faster speeds, resulting in less airtime. A higher SF
provides slower transmission rates but achieves a higher reliability at longer
distances.
● MAC Layer
● The LoRaWAN specification documents three classes of LoRaWAN devices:
○ Class A:
■ This class is the default implementation.
■ Optimized for battery-powered nodes, it allows bidirectional
communications, where a given node is able to receive
downstream traffic after transmitting.
■ Two receive windows are available after each transmission.
● Class B:
○ This class was designated “experimental” in LoRaWAN 1.0.1 until
it can be better defined.
○ A Class B node or endpoint should get additional receive windows
compared to Class A, but gateways must be synchronized through
a beaconing process.
● Class C:
○ This class is particularly adapted for powered nodes.
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Figure 2.17: High-Level LoRaWAN MAC Frame Format
● In version 1.0.x, LoRaWAN utilizes six MAC message types
○ Join request : over-the-air (OTA) activation and joining the network.
○ Join accept messages: over-the-air (OTA) activation and joining the network.
○ Unconfirmed data up/down message : End device does not need to
acknowledge
○ Confirmed data up/down message : A message that must be acknowledged
○ Uplink messages: These messages are sent from endpoints to the network
server and are relayed by one or more LoRaWAN gateways
○ Downlink messages: These messages flow from the network server to a
single endpoint and are relayed by only a single gateway.
● LoRaWAN endpoints are uniquely addressable through a variety of methods.
● An endpoint can have a global end device ID or DevEUI represented as an IEEE
EUI-64 address.
● An endpoint can have a global application ID or AppEUI represented as an IEEE
EUI-64 address that uniquely identifies the application provider, such as the owner, of
the end device.
● In a LoRaWAN network, endpoints are also known by their end device address,
known as a DevAddr, a 32-bit address.
● The 7 most significant bits are the network identifier (NwkID), which identifies the
LoRaWAN network.
● The 25 least significant bits are used as the network address (NwkAddr) to identify
the endpoint in the network.
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● Topology
● LoRaWAN topology is often described as a “star of stars” topology.
Figure 2.18: LoRaWAN Architecture
● In the figure 2.18 LoRaWAN endpoints transport their selected application data over
the LoRaWAN MAC layer on top of one of the supported PHY layer frequency
bands.
● LoRaWAN gateways act as bridges that relay between endpoints and the network
servers.
● Multiple gateways can receive and transport the same packets. When duplicate
packets are received, de-duplication is a function of the network server.
● The LoRaWAN network server manages the data rate and radio frequency (RF) of
each endpoint through the adaptive data rate (ADR) algorithm.
● ADR is a key component of the network scalability, performance, and battery life of
the endpoints.
● Security:
● LoRaWAN endpoints must implement two layers of security, protecting
communications and data privacy across the network.
● Security in a LoRaWAN deployment applies to different components of the
architecture as shown in figure 2.19
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Figure 2.19: LoRaWAN Security
● The first layer, called “network security” but applied at the MAC layer, guarantees the
authentication of the endpoints by the LoRaWAN network server.
● Also, it protects LoRaWAN packets by performing encryption based on AES.
● Each endpoint implements a network session key (NwkSKey), used by both itself and
the LoRaWAN network server.
● The NwkSKey ensures data integrity through computing and checking the MIC of
every data message as well as encrypting and decrypting MAC-only data message
payloads.
● The second layer is an application session key (AppSKey), which performs
encryption and decryption functions between the endpoint and its application server.
● Furthermore, it computes and checks the application-level MIC, if included.
● This ensures that the LoRaWAN service provider does not have access to the
application payload if it is not allowed that access.
● Endpoints receive their AES-128 application key (AppKey) from the application
owner.
● This key is most likely derived from an application-specific root key exclusively
known to and under the control of the application provider.
● LoRaWAN endpoints attached to a LoRaWAN network must get registered and
authenticated. This can be achieved through one of the two join mechanisms:
○ Activation by personalization (ABP):
■ Endpoints don’t need to run a join procedure as their individual details,
including DevAddr and the NwkSKey and AppSKey session keys, are
preconfigured and stored in the end device.
■ This same information is registered in the LoRaWAN netwrk server.
● Over-the-air activation (OTAA):
○ Endpoints are allowed to dynamically join a particular LoRaWAN
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network after successfully going through a join procedure.
○ The join procedure must be done every time a session context is
renewed.
○ During the join process, which involves the sending and receiving of
MAC layer join request and join accept messages, the node establishes
its credentials with a LoRaWAN network server, exchanging its
globally unique DevEUI, AppEUI, and AppKey.
○ The AppKey is then used to derive the session NwkSKey and
AppSKey keys.
NB-IoT and Other LTE Variations:
● Because the new LTE-M device category was not sufficiently close to LPWA
capabilities, in 2015 3GPP approved a proposal to standardize a new narrowband
radio access technology called Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT).
● NB-IoT specifically addresses the requirements of a massive number of
low-throughput devices, low device power consumption, improved indoor
coverage, and optimized network architecture.
LTE Cat
0
● The first enhancements to better support IoT devices in 3GPP occurred in LTE
Release 12.
● A new user equipment (UE) category, Category 0, was added, with devices
running at a maximum data rate of 1 Mbps.
● Category 0 includes important characteristics to be supported by both the network
and end devices These Cat 0 characteristics include the following:
● Power saving mode (PSM):
● This new device status minimizes energy consumption. Energy consumption is
expected to be lower with PSM than with existing idle mode. PSM is defined as
being similar to “powered off” mode, but the device stays registered with the
network.
● Half-duplex mode: This mode reduces the cost and complexity of a device’s
implementation because a duplex filter is not needed. Most IoT endpoints are
sensors that send low amounts of data that do not have a full-duplex
communication requirement.
LTE-M
● Following LTE Cat 0, the next step in making the licensed spectrum more supportive
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of IoT devices was the introduction of the LTE-M category for 3GPP LTE Release
13.
● These are the main characteristics of the LTE-M category in Release 13:
● Lower receiver bandwidth: Bandwidth has been lowered to 1.4 MHz versus the
usual 20 MHz. This further simplifies the LTE endpoint.
● Lower data rate: Data is around 200 kbps for LTE-M, compared to 1 Mbps for
Cat 0.
● Half-duplex mode: Just as with Cat 0, LTE-M offers a half-duplex mode that
decreases node complexity and cost.
● Enhanced discontinuous reception (eDRX):
○ This capability increases from seconds to minutes the amount of time an
endpoint can “sleep” between paging cycles.
○ A paging cycle is a periodic check-in with the network. This extended
“sleep” time between paging cycles extends the battery lifetime for an
endpoint significantly.
NB-IoT
● The work on NB-IoT started with multiple proposals pushed by the involved vendors,
including the following:
○ Extended Coverage GSM (EC-GSM), Ericsson proposal
○ Narrowband GSM (N-GSM), Nokia proposal
○ Narrowband M2M (NB-M2M), Huawei/Neul proposal
○ Narrowband OFDMA (orthogonal frequency-division multiple access),
Qualcomm proposal
○ Narrowband Cellular IoT (NB-CIoT), combined proposal of NB-M2M and
NB-OFDMA
○ Narrowband LTE (NB-LTE), Alcatel-Lucent, Ericsson, and Nokia proposal
○ Cooperative Ultra Narrowband (C-UNB), Sigfox proposal
● Three modes of operation are applicable to NB-IoT:
● Standalone: A GSM carrier is used as an NB-IoT carrier, enabling reuse of
900 MHz or 1800 MHz.
● In-band:
○ Part of an LTE carrier frequency band is allocated for use as an
NB-IoT frequency.
○ The service provider typically makes this allocation, and IoT devices
are configured accordingly.
● Guard band: An NB-IoT carrier is between the LTE or WCDMA bands. This
requires coexistence between LTE and NB-IoT bands.
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Figure 2.20: NB-IoT Deployment Options
● In an LTE network, resource blocks are defined with an effective bandwidth of 180
kHz, while on NB-IoT, tone or subcarriers replace the LTE resource blocks.
Topology
● NB-IoT is defined with a link budget of 164 dB.
Main Characteristics of Access Technologies is given in Table 2.5
Table 2.5 : Characteristics of Access Technologies
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