BRAKES DESIGN REPORT:

Objective - The brakes are one of the most important safety systems on the vehicle. The car
uses four disc brakes, one on each front and rear wheel, to bring the vehicle to a quick and
safe stop regardless of weather conditions or topography.
The vehicle has two independent hydraulic systems and it is actuated by a single brake pedal.
The pedal directly actuates the master cylinder. Here no cables are used for this purpose. All
rigid brake pipes are mounted securely along the roll cage or along other members.

SELECTION OF DISC BRAKES OVER DRUM BRAKES:

 In case of disc brakes friction surfaces are directly exposed to the cooling air whereas
in the drum type, the friction occurs on the internal surface, from which heat can be
dissipated only after it has passed by conduction through the drum.
 The friction pads in case of disc brakes are flat as compared to curved friction linings
in case of drum brakes. This means that in disc brakes, there is a uniform wear of
friction pad. Moreover, the friction pad material is not subjected to any bending,
thereby increasing the range of material from which a suitable one can be chosen.
Generally, we use asbestos fibre with metal oxide filler bonded with organic
compounds as the material for friction pads.
 Unlike the conventional drum brake, the design of disc brake is such that there is no
loss of efficiency due to expansion. As the system becomes hot, the drum expands
internally and the expanding shoe type of brake tends to move the friction surface
apart, causing a loss of effective pedal travel. On the other hand, disc expansion
merely changes the relative position on the friction surfaces slightly without tending
to increase the clearance.
 Disc brakes weigh less than their conventional drum type.
 Disc brakes have comparatively better anti-fade characteristics.
 Compared to drum type, the disc brakes are simple in design. There are very small
number of parts which can wear or not function properly.
 It is very easy to replace the friction pads when required, compared to the drum type
where the brake linings have to be either riveted or fixed with adhesive to the brake
shoes.
 Total frictional area of pads in disc brakes is very less as compared with the
conventional drum type brakes, the approximate ratio being 1:4. This means that in
disc brakes, the pressure intensity must be considerably greater than in the drum type.
This implies that frequent relining would be necessary, due to increased rate of wear.
 However, there are compensating factors:
i. Pads can be made considerably thicker, for a given initial cost, so that more
wear can take place before replacement is necessary.
ii. New wear-resistant friction materials have been developed, that are more
suitable for disc brakes than drum brakes.
MARKET SURVEY:
Discs, Calipers and Tandem Master Cylinders which were considered suitable for the
vehicle after exhaustive market survey are as stated below:

ROTORS:
 The discs of brakes are made of pearlitic gray cast iron. The material is cheap and has
good anti-wear properties. Cast steel discs have also been employed in some cases,
which wear still less and provide higher coefficient of friction; yet the big drawback
in their case is the less uniform frictional behaviour.
 Two types of discs have been employed in various makes of disc brakes, i.e. the solid
or the ventilated type.
 Disadvantages of ventilated type discs:
i. Usually thicker and even sometimes heavier than solid discs.
ii. In case of severe braking conditions, they are liable to wrap.
iii. Dirt accumulates in the vents, which affects cooling, resulting in wheel
imbalance.
iv. Expensive.
v. Difficult to turn. Turning produces vibrations which reduces the life of the
disc.

Sr. No. Disc Outer diameter in Inner diameter in Thickness in mm

mm mm
1 Maruti 800 220 120 15
2 Maruti Zen 220 120 15
3 Mahindra 250 90 20
4 Pulsar 220 230 8

 We selected Maruti 800 disc for the following reasons:

1. PCD of the holes in the disc matches the PCD of the hub.
2. Thickness (15mm) of the disc is not too high. So disc can be turned safely.
3. Outer diameter is 220mm which is in accordance with our required front design.
4. The disc can be safely turned to 200mm which is as per our rear design.
5. Pulsar disc is ventilated. So it is not possible to turn it to reduce it’s outer diameter.
 After turning, the thickness of the disc was reduced to 6mm since the clearance
between the brake pads is 6mm.
CALIPER:
 We have used a fixed type caliper in our design. Fixed type caliper doesn't move but
has piston(s) arranged on opposing sides of the rotor.
 Fixed caliper are preferred for their performance, but are more expensive than
floating one.

Sr. No. Caliper No. of pistons Arrangement of Diameter of

pistons piston front
1 Pulsar front 2 Single side 21
2 CBZ 2 Single side 29
3 Maruti 800 1 Single side 60
4 Pulsar rear 1 Double side 40
5 General calliper 2 Single side 10

 Reasons for finalizing CBZ caliper:

1. The caliper has maximum piston diameter (29mm).
2. It is small enough so properly fits in the wheel assembly.
3. In accordance with the rule it has bleeding valve on the top.
4. It is easy to mount on the customized knuckle.

MASTER CYLINDER:
We have chosen a tandem master cylinder because
 Both the brake circuits can be operated by one master cylinder.
 The two system can be split front to rear, so that the front brakes operates
independently from one circuit and the rear brakes from the other, or they can be split
diagonally so that one front wheel is paired with the rear wheel on the opposite side in
one brake circuit and vice versa in the other.
 When first circuit leaks, the pressure between the primary and secondary cylinders is
lost. The primary cylinder directly contacts the secondary cylinder. The master
cylinder behaves as if it has only one piston. The second circuit functions normally,
but the driver has to press the pedal further to activate it. Only two wheels have
pressure. The braking power is severely reduced.
 We are not using an ABS Master cylinder because we are not using an ABS system.
 ABS system cannot be used else all the four wheels will not lock at the same time.

Sr. TMC Length of Diameter of

No. TMC in mm piston in mm
1 Maruti 800 100 20
2 Hyundai 80 Primary-  Maruti 800 TMC has been

Santro Secondary- selected since:

3 Omni 180 25 1. It has small piston.
2. It has four outputs.
3. Easy to mount.
4. It is smaller in length so travel is less.
 NOTE:
1. A balance bar was not used since 50-50 dynamic weight biasing was needed
according to the calculations, which is being provided by the tandem master
cylinder.
2. Need for proportionating valve was also eliminated because of the above
reason.
BRAKE CIRCUITS:
 Cross linked hydraulic split was not considered because in case of a failure one front
wheel and one rear wheel would lock at the same time increasing the chances of
skidding towards the left or the right.
 Diagonal split hydraulic systems are commonly used on front wheel drive vehicles,
but our vehicle is rear wheel driven.
 A diagonal split system requires more tubing and more connections than a front rear
split system.
 Advantage of the front-rear split design is that in the event of a failed hydraulic circuit, there
are still two brakes on the same axle that provide equal braking forces. For this reason, the
vehicle won’t turn or pull in either direction under failed-circuit braking.
 A front-rear split design only requires that a single hydraulic line be routed from the master
cylinder to the rear of the vehicle. Once the hydraulic line reaches the rear axle it can be split
to provide pressure to both the left rear and right rear brakes, but a single hydraulic line can
be used for a majority of the distance.
 BRAKE FLUIDS:

 We have decided to use DOT 3 brake fluid.

 It is inexpensive, and available at most gas stations, department stores, and any auto
parts store.

 It is completely compatible with DOT 3 and DOT 5.1.

BRAKE LINES:

 We are using metallic brake lines as stated under Article 34 for Braking Systems in
the BAJA SAE India Rulebook 2012.

METHOD FOR CALCULATIONS:

1. The brake pedal:

The brake pedal exists to multiply the force exerted by the driver’s foot. From
elementary statics, the force increase will be equal to the driver’s applied force multiplied
by the lever ratio of the brake pedal assembly:

F bp=F d × {L1 ÷ L2 }
where,
• F bp = the force output of the brake pedal assembly
• F d = the force applied to the pedal pad by the driver
• L1 = the distance from the brake pedal arm pivot to the output rod clevis
attachment
• L2 = the distance from the brake pedal arm pivot to the brake pedal pad

2. The master cylinder:

Assuming incompressible liquids and infinitely rigid hydraulic vessels, the pressure
generated by the master cylinder will be equal to:

F bp
Pmc =
A mc
where,
• Pmc = the hydraulic pressure generated by the master cylinder
• Amc = the effective area of the master cylinder hydraulic piston

3. Brake fluid, brake pipes and hoses:

Assuming no losses along the length of the brake lines, the pressure transmitted to the
calipers will be equal to:

Pcal =P mc
where,
• Pcal = the hydraulic pressure transmitted to the caliper

4. The caliper, Part I:

The one-sided linear mechanical force generated by the caliper will be equal to:

F cal=Pcal × A cal
where,
• F cal = the one-sided linear mechanical force generated by the caliper
• Acal = the effective area of the caliper hydraulic piston(s) found on one half
of the caliper body

5. The caliper, Part II:

The clamping force will be equal to, in theory, twice the linear mechanical force as follows:

F clamp =Fcal ×2
where,
• F clamp = the clamp force generated by the caliper

6. The brake pads:

The clamping force causes friction which acts normal to this force and tangential to the
plane of the rotor. The friction force is given by:

F friction =F clamp × μbp

where,
• F friction = the frictional force generated by the brake pads opposing the rotation of the rotor
• μbp = the coefficient of friction between the brake pad and the rotor

7. The rotor:

This torque is related to the brake pad frictional force as follows:

T r=F friction × R eff

where,
• T r = the torque generated by the rotor
• Reff = the effective radius (effective moment arm) of the rotor (measured from the rotor
center of rotation to the center of pressure of the caliper pistons)

The torque will be constant throughout the entire rotating assembly as follows:

T t=T w =T r
where,
• T t = the torque found in the tire
• T w = the torque found in the wheel

8. The tire:

Assuming that there is adequate traction (friction) between the tire and the road to
accommodate the driver’s braking request, the tire will develop slip in order to react the
torque found in the rotating assembly. The amount of slip generated will be a function of
the tire’s output characteristics (the mu-slip relationship), but the force reacted at the
ground will be equal to:

Tt
F tire=
Rt
where,
• F tire = the force reacted between the tire and the ground (assuming friction
exists to support the force)
• Rt = the effective rolling radius (moment arm) of the loaded tire

The total braking force generated is defined as the sum of the frictional forces at the four
tires which is given as follows:

F total =∑ F tire LF , RF , LR , RR
where,
• F total = the total braking force reacted between the vehicle and the ground
(assuming adequate traction exists)

9. Deceleration of a vehicle in motion:

The deceleration of the vehicle will be equal to:

F total
a v=
mv
where,
• a v = the deceleration of the vehicle

10. Kinematics relationships of vehicles experiencing deceleration:

For a vehicle experiencing a linear deceleration, the theoretical

stopping distance of a vehicle in motion can be calculated as follows:

v 2v
SDv =
a v ×2
where,
• SDv = the stopping distance of the vehicle
 11. Determining parameters related to vehicle static weight distribution:

In the side view, the sum of the left front and right front weights will equal the front axle
weight and the sum of the left rear and right rear weights will equal the rear axle weight. If
these values are known, then the static weight distribution can be calculated as follows:

Vf
Percent front weight= × 100
Vt
and
Vr
Percent rear weight= ×100
Vt
where,
• V f = the front axle vertical force (weight)
• V r = the rear axle vertical force (weight)
• V t = the total vehicle vertical force (weight)

If the static weight distribution is known, then the longitudinal position of the
vehicle’s center of gravity (CG) is can be given by the following formula:

Vr
CG f , x = × WB
Vt
and
Vf
CG r , x = × WB
Vt
where,
• CG f , x = distance from the front axle to the CG
• CG r , x = distance from the rear axle to the CG
• WB = the vehicle wheelbase (distance from the front axle to the rear axle)

From these relationships, it naturally follows that:

CG f , x +CG r , x =WB

12. Dynamic impacts of vehicles experiencing deceleration:

Whenever a vehicle experiences a deceleration, the front axle normal force during
a deceleration event will increase while the rear axle normal force will decrease by the
same amount. The magnitude of weight transferred from the rear to the front is a function
of deceleration and vehicle geometry:
a h
( )( )
WT = v × CG ×V t
g WB
where,
• WT = the absolute weight transferred from the rear axle to the front axle
• g = the acceleration due to gravity (effectively expressing av in units of g’s)
• hCG = the vertical distance from the CG to ground
The dynamic weight transferred from the rear to the front must be added to the front axle
static weight and subtracted from the rear axle static weight as follows:

V f ,d =V f + WT
and
V r , d =V r−WT
where,
• V f ,d = the front axle dynamic vertical force for a given deceleration
• V r , d = the rear axle dynamic vertical force for a given deceleration

For any given deceleration:

V f ,d + V r , d=V t

13. Frictional forces between the road and tire:

Due to the weight being transferred from the rear to the front the friction force between
the road and the tire changes from the friction force before the brakes are applied. This
frictional force aids in stopping the vehicle.

F tires ,f =μ peak ,f × V f , d
and
F tires ,r =μ peak ,r ×V r ,d

Weight transfer increases the ability of the front axle to provide braking force while
simultaneously decreasing the ability of the rear axle to provide braking force.

The torque between road and tire to the respective axle is as follows:

T r ,t ,f =F tires ,f × R t , f
and
T r ,t ,r =Ftires , r × Rt ,r

where,
 T r ,t ,f = the torque between road and front tire
 Rt ,f = the effective radius of front tire
 T r ,t ,r = the torque between road and rear tire
 Rt ,r = the effective radius of rear tire

14. Total torque generated:

The final torque generated is a sum of the torque which is generated due to friction
between brake pad and rotor and the torque due the friction between road and tires.
The torque generated in the respective axles is given by the following:
T net , f =T r , t , f +T r
and
T net , r=T r , t , f +T r

15. Calculations for torque required:

Using quadrifilar experiment, radius of gyration of the tire is found. The moment of inertia is
calculated as follows:

I f =m t , f × k 2t ,f
and
I r=mt ,r × k 2t , r
where,
 I f = the moment of inertia of front tire

 m t , f = the mass of the front tire

 k t , f = the radius of gyration of the front tire as obtained from the quadrifilar
experiment
 I r = the moment of inertia of rear tire

 m t , r = the mass of the rear tire

 k t ,r = the radius of gyration of the rear tire as obtained from the quadrifilar
experiment

Angular velocity of the tire can be given as:

vv
ωf =
Rt ,f
and
 vv
ω r=
Rt ,r
where,
 ω f = angular velocity of front tire

 ω r = angular velocity of rear tire

Angular displacement of wheel can be calculated using the following:

SD v
θf=
Rt ,f
and
SD v
θr =
Rt , r
where,
 θ f = the angular displacement of the front tire

 θr = the angular displacement of the rear tire

Translational kinetic energy of the wheels after weight transfer is:

1
KE t , f = × V f ,d × v 2v
2
and
1
KE t , r= × V r , d × v 2v
2
where,
 KE t , f = the translational kinetic energy of the front wheels after dynamic weight
transfer
 KE t , r = the translational kinetic energy of the rear wheels after dynamic weight
transfer

Rotational kinetic energy of the wheels is:

 1
KE r , f = × I f ×ω 2f
2
and
1
KE r , r= × I r × ω2r
2
where,
 KE r , f = the rotational kinetic energy of the front wheels

 KE r , r = the rotational kinetic energy of the rear wheels

Therefore, total kinetic energy of the wheels is,

KE net , f =KE t , f + KE r , f
and
KE net , r=KE t ,r + KE r ,r
where,
 KE net , f = the total kinetic energy of the front wheels

 KE net , r = the total kinetic energy of the rear wheels

The torque required for two tires can be calculated as:

KE net , f
T req, f , 2=
θf
and
KE net ,r
T req, r , 2=
θr
where,
 T req, f , 2 = the braking torque for front wheels

 T req, r , 2 = the braking torque for rear wheels

Hence, torque required per wheel can be given by:

 T req ,f ,2
T req, f =
2
and
T req ,r , 2
T req, r=
2

where,
 T req, f = the torque required per front wheel

 T req, r = the torque required per rear wheel

16. Rise in temperature of the rotor:

Due to the friction between the brake pads and rotor, kinetic energy of the vehicle is
converted into thermal energy i.e. heat which raises the temperature of the disc.

For calculating this temperature rise, the following steps can be used:
i. Total kinetic energy per wheel should be calculated.
KE net , f
KE f ,1=
2
and
KE net ,r
KE r , 1=
2
where,
 KE f ,1 = the kinetic energy of one front tire

 KE r , 1 = the kinetic energy of one rear tire

ii. Time for stop is given by:

vv
t s=
av
where,
 t s = the time for stop of the vehicle

iii. Therefore, the power of braking in tyre is:

 KE f ,1
Pb , f =
ts
and
KE r ,1
Pb , r=
ts
where,
 Pb , f = the power of braking in the front tire

 Pb , r = the power of braking in the rear tire

iv. Heat flux into one side of the disc:

4 × Pb , f
qf =
π × ( D 2f −d 2f )
and
4 × Pb , r
q r=
π × ( D 2r −d 2r )
where,
 q f =¿ the heat flux into one side of front disc

 Df = the outer diameter of front disc

 d f = the minimum diameter of the front disc in contact with the brake pad

 q r=¿ the heat flux into one side of rear disc

 Dr = the outer diameter of rear disc

 d r = the minimum diameter of rear disc in contact with the brake pad
 v. Single stop temperature rise of the disc:
0.527 × q f × √ t s
T max, f =
√( ρ ×c ×k )
and
0.527 ×q r × √ t s
T max, r=
√( ρ× c × k )
where,
 T max , f = the maximum front disc temperature

 T max , r = the maximum rear disc temperature

 ρ = the density of the disc material

 c = the brake disc specific heat capacity
 k = the brake disc thermal conductivity
 FE Analysis of Disc

Factor of safety: 3.9404