Energy storage

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at
a later time. A device that stores energy is generally called an accumulator
or battery. Energy comes in multiple forms including radiation, chemical,
gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated
temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves converting
energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or
economically storable forms.

Some technologies provide short-term energy storage, while others can The Llyn Stwlan dam of the
Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme
endure for much longer. Bulk energy storage is currently dominated by
in Wales. The lower power station
hydroelectric dams, both conventional as well as pumped.
has four water turbines which can
generate a total of 360 MW of
Common examples of energy storage are the rechargeable battery, which
electricity for several hours, an
stores chemical energy readily convertible to electricity to operate a example of artificial energy storage
mobile phone, the hydroelectric dam, which stores energy in a reservoir and conversion.
as gravitational potential energy, and ice storage tanks, which store ice
frozen by cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for
cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died,
became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Food (which is made by the same process as fossil
fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

Contents
History
Recent history
Methods
Outline
Mechanical storage
Thermal storage
Electrochemical
Other chemical
Electrical methods
Applications
Mills
Home energy storage
Grid electricity and power stations
Air conditioning
Transport
Electronics
Use cases
Storage capacity
Economics
 Research
Germany
United States
United Kingdom
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History

Recent history
In the twentieth century grid, electrical power was largely generated by burning fossil fuel. When less power was
required, less fuel was burned. Concerns with air pollution, energy imports, and global warming have spawned the
growth of renewable energy such as solar and wind power. Wind power is uncontrolled and may be generating at a
time when no additional power is needed. Solar power varies with cloud cover and at best is only available during
daylight hours, while demand often peaks after sunset (see duck curve). Interest in storing power from these
intermittent sources grows as the renewable energy industry begins to generate a larger fraction of overall energy
consumption.

Off grid electrical use was a niche market in the twentieth century, but in the twenty-first century, it has expanded.
Portable devices are in use all over the world. Solar panels are now a common sight in the rural settings worldwide.
Access to electricity is now a question of economics, not location. Powering transportation without burning fuel,
however, remains in development.

Methods

Outline
The following list includes a variety of types of energy storage:

Fossil fuel storage

Mechanical
Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
Fireless locomotive
Flywheel energy storage
Gravitational potential energy
Hydraulic accumulator
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (pumped hydroelectric storage, PHS, or pumped storage hydropower, PSH)
Electrical, electromagnetic
Capacitor
Supercapacitor
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES, also superconducting storage coil)
Biological
Glycogen
Starch
 Electrochemical (Battery Energy Storage System, BESS)
Flow battery
Rechargeable battery
UltraBattery
Thermal
Brick storage heater
Cryogenic energy storage, Liquid air energy storage (LAES)
Liquid nitrogen engine
Eutectic system
Ice storage air conditioning
Molten salt storage
Phase-change material
Seasonal thermal energy storage
Solar pond
Steam accumulator
Thermal energy storage (general)
Chemical
Biofuels
Hydrated salts
Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen peroxide
Power to gas
Vanadium pentoxide

Mechanical storage
Energy can be stored in water pumped to a higher elevation using pumped storage methods or by moving solid matter
to higher locations (gravity batteries). Other commercial mechanical methods include compressing air and flywheels
that convert electric energy into kinetic energy and then back again when electrical demand peaks.

Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectric dams with reservoirs can be operated to provide electricity at times of peak demand. Water is stored in
the reservoir during periods of low demand and released when demand is high. The net effect is similar to pumped
storage, but without the pumping loss.

While a hydroelectric dam does not directly store energy from other generating units, it behaves equivalently by
lowering output in periods of excess electricity from other sources. In this mode, dams are one of the most efficient
forms of energy storage, because only the timing of its generation changes. Hydroelectric turbines have a start-up time
on the order of a few minutes.[1]

Pumped-storage
Worldwide, pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) is the largest-
capacity form of active grid energy storage available, and, as of March
2012, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) reports that PSH
accounts for more than 99% of bulk storage capacity worldwide,
representing around 127,000 MW.[2] PSH energy efficiency varies in
practice between 70% and 80%,[2][3][4][5] with claims of up to 87%.[6]

At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to

pump water from a lower source into a higher reservoir. When demand
The Sir Adam Beck Generating
grows, water is released back into a lower reservoir (or waterway or body Complex at Niagara Falls, Canada,
of water) through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine- which includes a large pumped
generator assemblies act as both a pump and turbine (usually a Francis storage hydroelectricity reservoir to
turbine design). Nearly all facilities use the height difference between two provide an extra 174 MW of
electricity during periods of peak
water bodies. Pure pumped-storage plants shift the water between
demand.
reservoirs, while the "pump-back" approach is a combination of pumped
storage and conventional hydroelectric plants that use natural stream-
flow.

Compressed air

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) uses surplus energy to compress

air for subsequent electricity generation.[7] Small scale systems have long
been used in such applications as propulsion of mine locomotives. The
compressed air is stored in an underground reservoir, as a salt dome.

Compressed-air energy storage (CAES) plants can bridge the gap between
production volatility and load. CAES storage addresses the energy needs
of consumers by effectively providing readily available energy to meet
demand. Renewable energy sources like wind and solar energy have
A compressed air locomotive used
variable resources. As a result, the supplement of other forms of energy is
inside a mine between 1928 and
necessary to meet energy demand during periods of decreased resource
1961.
availability. Compressed-air energy storage plants are capable of taking in
the surplus energy output of renewable energy sources during times of
energy over-production. This stored energy can be used at a later time when demand for electricity increases or energy
resource availability decreases.[8]

Compression of air creates heat; the air is warmer after compression. Expansion requires heat. If no extra heat is
added, the air will be much colder after expansion. If the heat generated during compression can be stored and used
during expansion, efficiency improves considerably.[9] A CAES system can deal with the heat in three ways. Air
storage can be adiabatic, diabatic, or isothermal. Another approach uses compressed air to power vehicles.[10][11]

Flywheel energy storage

Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed, holding energy as
rotational energy. When energy is extracted, the flywheel's rotational speed declines as a consequence of conservation
of energy; adding energy correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel.
Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the flywheel, but devices that directly use mechanical
energy are under consideration.[12]

FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon-fiber composites, suspended by magnetic bearings and
spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure.[13] Such flywheels can reach maximum
speed ("charge") in a matter of minutes. The flywheel system is connected
to a combination electric motor/generator.

FES systems have relatively long lifetimes (lasting decades with little or
no maintenance;[13] full-cycle lifetimes quoted for flywheels range from
in excess of 105, up to 107, cycles of use),[14] high specific energy (100–
130 W·h/kg, or 360–500 kJ/kg)[14][15] and power density.

Gravitational potential energy storage with solid masses

Changing the altitude of solid masses can store or release energy via an The main components of a typical
flywheel.
elevating system driven by an electric motor/generator. Potential energy
storage or gravity energy storage was under active development in 2013
in association with the California Independent System
Operator.[16][17][18] It examined the movement of earth-filled hopper rail
cars driven by electric locomotives from lower to higher elevations.[19]

Methods include using rails[19][20] and cranes[21] to move concrete

weights up and down, using high-altitude solar-powered buoyant
platforms supporting winches to raise and lower solid masses,[22] using
winches supported by an ocean barge for taking advantage of a 4 km
(13,000 ft) elevation difference between the surface and the seabed.[23]
Efficiencies can be as high as 85% recovery of stored energy.[21] A Flybrid Kinetic Energy Recovery
System flywheel. Built for use on
Formula 1 racing cars, it is employed
Thermal storage to recover and reuse kinetic energy
captured during braking.
Thermal energy storage (TES) is the temporary storage or removal of
heat.

Sensible heat thermal energy storage

Sensible heat storage take advantage of sensible heat in a material to

store energy.

Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) allows heat or cold to be used

months after it was collected from waste energy or natural sources. The
material can be stored in contained aquifers, clusters of boreholes in
geological substrates such as sand or crystalline bedrock, in lined pits District heating accumulation tower
from Theiss near Krems an der
filled with gravel and water, or water-filled mines. Seasonal thermal
Donau in Lower Austria with a
energy storage (STES) projects often have paybacks in the four-to-six year
thermal capacity of 2 GWh
range.[24] An example is Drake Landing Solar Community in Canada, for
which 97% of the year-round heat is provided by solar-thermal collectors
on the garage roofs, with a borehole thermal energy store (BTES) being the enabling technology.[25][26][27] In
Braestrup, Denmark, the community's solar district heating system also utilizes STES, at a storage temperature of
65 °C (149 °F). A heat pump, which is run only when there is surplus wind power available on the national grid, is
used to raise the temperature to 80 °C (176 °F) for distribution. When surplus wind generated electricity is not
available, a gas-fired boiler is used. Twenty percent of Braestrup's heat is solar.[28]

Latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES)

Latent heat thermal energy storage systems works with materials with high latent heat (heat of fusion) capacity,
known as phase change materials (PCMs). The main advantage of these materials is that their latent heat storage
capacity is much more than sensible heat. In a specific temperature range, phase changes from solid to liquid absorbs
a large amount of thermal energy for later use.

Latent-heat thermal energy storage consists of a process by which, energy in the form of heat, is either absorbed or
released during the phase-change of a phase change material (PCM). A PCM is a material with a high heat of fusion. A
phase-change is the melting or solidifying of a material. During a phase change, a PCM has the capacity to absorb
large amounts of energy due to its high heat of fusion.[29]

Electrochemical

Rechargeable battery

A rechargeable battery, comprises one or more electrochemical cells. It is

known as a 'secondary cell' because its electrochemical reactions are
electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different
shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt grid systems.

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental

impact than non-rechargeable (disposable) batteries. Some rechargeable
battery types are available in the same form factors as disposables.
Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very
cheaply and used many times.

Common rechargeable battery chemistries include:

A rechargeable battery bank used as
Lead–acid battery: Lead acid batteries hold the largest market share an uninterruptible power supply in a
of electric storage products. A single cell produces about 2V when data center
charged. In the charged state the metallic lead negative electrode
and the lead sulfate positive electrode are immersed in a dilute
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) electrolyte. In the discharge process electrons are pushed out of the cell as lead sulfate is
formed at the negative electrode while the electrolyte is reduced to water.

Lead-acid battery technology has been developed extensively. Upkeep requires minimal labor and
its cost is low. The battery's available energy capacity is subject to a quick discharge resulting in a
low life span and low energy density.[30]

Nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd): Uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a
toxic element, and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickel–cadmium batteries have
been almost completely replaced by nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
Nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH): First commercial types were available in 1989.[31] These are now a
common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode
instead of cadmium.
 Lithium-ion battery: The choice in many consumer electronics and have one of the best energy-to-mass ratios
and a very slow self-discharge when not in use.
Lithium-ion polymer battery: These batteries are light in weight and can be made in any shape desired.

Flow battery

A flow battery operates by passing a solution over a membrane where ions are exchanged to charge/discharge the cell.
Cell voltage is chemically determined by the Nernst equation and ranges, in practical applications, from 1.0 to 2.2 V.
Its storage capacity is a function of the volume of the tanks holding the solution.

A flow battery is technically akin both to a fuel cell and an electrochemical accumulator cell. Commercial applications
are for long half-cycle storage such as backup grid power.

Supercapacitor

Supercapacitors, also called electric double-layer capacitors (EDLC) or

ultracapacitors, are generic terms for a family of electrochemical
capacitors[32] that do not have conventional solid dielectrics. Capacitance
is determined by two storage principles, double-layer capacitance and
pseudocapacitance.[33][34][35]

Supercapacitors bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and

rechargeable batteries. They store the most energy per unit volume or One of a fleet of electric capabuses
powered by supercapacitors, at a
mass (energy density) among capacitors. They support up to 10,000
quick-charge station-bus stop, in
farads/1.2 volt,[36] up to 10,000 times that of electrolytic capacitors, but
service during Expo 2010 Shanghai
deliver or accept less than half as much power per unit time (power China. Charging rails can be seen
density).[32] suspended over the bus.

While supercapacitors have specific energy and energy densities that are
approximately 10% of batteries, their power density is generally 10 to 100 times greater. This results in much shorter
charge/discharge cycles. Additionally, they will tolerate many more charge and discharge cycles than batteries.

Supercapacitors support a broad spectrum of applications, including:

Low supply current for memory backup in static random-access memory (SRAM)
Power for cars, buses, trains, cranes and elevators, including energy recovery from braking, short-term energy
storage and burst-mode power delivery

Other chemical

Power to gas

Power to gas is a technology which converts electricity into a gaseous fuel such as hydrogen or methane. The three
commercial methods use electricity to reduce water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of electrolysis.

In the first method, hydrogen is injected into the natural gas grid or is used in transport or industry. The second
method is to combine the hydrogen with carbon dioxide to produce methane using a methanation reaction such as the
Sabatier reaction, or biological methanation, resulting in an extra energy conversion loss of 8%. The methane may
then be fed into the natural gas grid. The third method uses the output gas of a wood gas generator or a biogas plant,
after the biogas upgrader is mixed with the hydrogen from the electrolyzer, to upgrade the quality of the biogas.
Hydrogen

The element hydrogen can be a form of stored energy. Hydrogen can produce electricity via a hydrogen fuel cell.

At penetrations below 20% of the grid demand, renewables do not severely change the economics; but beyond about
20% of the total demand, external storage becomes important.[37] If these sources are used to make ionic hydrogen,
they can be freely expanded. A 5-year community-based pilot program using wind turbines and hydrogen generators
began in 2007 in the remote community of Ramea, Newfoundland and Labrador.[38] A similar project began in 2004
on Utsira, a small Norwegian island.

Energy losses involved in the hydrogen storage cycle come from the electrolysis of water, liquification or compression
of the hydrogen and conversion to electricity.[39]

About 50 kW·h (180 MJ) of solar energy is required to produce a kilogram of hydrogen, so the cost of the electricity is
crucial. At $0.03/kWh, a common off-peak high-voltage line rate in the United States, hydrogen costs $1.50 a
kilogram for the electricity, equivalent to $1.50/gallon for gasoline. Other costs include the electrolyzer plant,
hydrogen compressors or liquefaction, storage and transportation.

Hydrogen can also be produced from aluminum and water by stripping aluminum's naturally-occurring aluminum
oxide barrier and introducing it to water. This method is beneficial because recycled aluminum cans can be used as
fuel to generate hydrogen, however systems to harness this option have not been commercially developed and are
much more complex than electrolysis systems.[40] Common methods to strip the oxide layer include caustic catalysts
such as sodium hydroxide and alloys with gallium, mercury and other metals.[41]

Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted
oil and gas fields.[42][43] Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by Imperial
Chemical Industries for many years without any difficulties.[44] The European Hyunder project indicated in 2013 that
storage of wind and solar energy using underground hydrogen would require 85 caverns.[45]

Methane

Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon with the molecular formula CH4. Methane is more easily stored and transported
than hydrogen. Storage and combustion infrastructure (pipelines, gasometers, power plants) are mature.

Synthetic natural gas (syngas or SNG) can be created in a multi-step process, starting with hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen is then reacted with carbon dioxide in a Sabatier process, producing methane and water. Methane can be
stored and later used to produce electricity. The resulting water is recycled, reducing the need for water. In the
electrolysis stage oxygen is stored for methane combustion in a pure oxygen environment at an adjacent power plant,
eliminating nitrogen oxides.

Methane combustion produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. The carbon dioxide can be recycled to boost the
Sabatier process and water can be recycled for further electrolysis. Methane production, storage and combustion
recycles the reaction products.

The CO2 has economic value as a component of an energy storage vector, not a cost as in carbon capture and storage.

Power to liquid

Power to liquid is similar to power to gas, however the hydrogen produced by electrolysis from wind and solar
electricity isn't converted into gases such as methane but into liquids such as methanol. Methanol is easier to handle
than gases, and requires fewer safety precautions than hydrogen. It can be used for transportation, including aircraft,
but also for industrial purposes or in the power sector.[46]

Biofuels

Various biofuels such as biodiesel, vegetable oil, alcohol fuels, or biomass can replace fossil fuels. Various chemical
processes can convert the carbon and hydrogen in coal, natural gas, plant and animal biomass and organic wastes into
short hydrocarbons suitable as replacements for existing hydrocarbon fuels. Examples are Fischer–Tropsch diesel,
methanol, dimethyl ether and syngas. This diesel source was used extensively in World War II in Germany, which
faced limited access to crude oil supplies. South Africa produces most of the country's diesel from coal for similar
reasons.[47] A long term oil price above US$35/bbl may make such large scale synthetic liquid fuels economical.

Aluminum

Aluminum has been proposed as an energy storage method by a number of researchers. The volume electrochemical
equivalent of aluminum (8.04 Ah/cm3) is nearly a factor of four greater than lithium (2.06 Ah/cm3).[48] Energy can
be extracted from aluminum by reacting it with water to generate hydrogen.[49] To react with water, however,
aluminum must be stripped of its natural oxide layer, a process which requires pulverization,[50] chemical reactions
with caustic substances, or alloys.[41] The byproduct of the reaction to create hydrogen is aluminum oxide, which can
be recycled back into aluminum with the Hall–Héroult process, making the reaction theoretically renewable.[41] If the
Hall-Heroult Process is run using solar or wind power, aluminum could be used to store the energy produced at
higher efficiency than direct solar electrolysis.[51]

Boron, silicon, and zinc

Boron,[52] silicon,[53] and zinc[54] have been proposed as energy storage solutions.

Other chemical

The organic compound norbornadiene converts to quadricyclane upon exposure to light, storing solar energy as the
energy of chemical bonds. A working system has been developed in Sweden as a molecular solar thermal system.[55]

Electrical methods

Capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as a 'condenser') is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy
electrostatically. Practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated
by a dielectric (i.e., insulator). A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it
can be used like a temporary battery, or like other types of rechargeable energy storage system.[56] Capacitors are
commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries change. (This prevents loss of
information in volatile memory.) Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram, while a
conventional alkaline battery has a density of 590 kJ/kg.

Capacitors store energy in an electrostatic field between their plates. Given a potential difference across the
conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing
positive charge (+Q) to collect on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery is
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow
through the capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is
applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow. Besides
capacitor plates, charge can also be stored in a dielectric layer.[57]

Capacitance is greater given a narrower separation between conductors and when

the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the
plates emits a small amount of leakage current and has an electric field strength
limit, known as the breakdown voltage. However, the effect of recovery of a
dielectric after a high-voltage breakdown holds promise for a new generation of
self-healing capacitors.[58][59] The conductors and leads introduce undesired
inductance and resistance.
This mylar-film, oil-filled
Research is assessing the quantum effects of nanoscale capacitors[60] for digital
capacitor has very low
quantum batteries.[61][62] inductance and low
resistance, to provide the
high-power (70 megawatts)
Superconducting magnetics
and the very high speed (1.2
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in a microsecond) discharges
magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil that needed to operate a dye
has been cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature. laser.

A typical SMES system includes a superconducting coil, power conditioning

system and refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the current
does not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely.[63]

The stored energy can be released to the network by discharging the coil. The associated inverter/rectifier accounts for
about 2–3% energy loss in each direction. SMES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage process
compared to other methods of storing energy. SMES systems offer round-trip efficiency greater than 95%.[64]

Due to the energy requirements of refrigeration and the cost of superconducting wire, SMES is used for short duration
storage such as improving power quality. It also has applications in grid balancing.[63]

Applications

Mills
The classic application before the industrial revolution was the control of waterways to drive water mills for
processing grain or powering machinery. Complex systems of reservoirs and dams were constructed to store and
release water (and the potential energy it contained) when required.

Home energy storage

Home energy storage is expected to become increasingly common given the growing importance of distributed
generation of renewable energies (especially photovoltaics) and the important share of energy consumption in
buildings.[65] To exceed a self-sufficiency of 40% in a household equipped with photovoltaics, energy storage is
needed.[65] Multiple manufacturers produce rechargeable battery systems for storing energy, generally to hold surplus
energy from home solar/wind generation. Today, for home energy storage, Li-ion batteries are preferable to lead-acid
ones given their similar cost but much better performance.[66]

Tesla Motors produces two models of the Tesla Powerwall. One is a 10 kWh weekly cycle version for backup
applications and the other is a 7 kWh version for daily cycle applications.[67] In 2016, a limited version of the Telsa
Powerpack 2 cost $398(US)/kWh to store electricity worth 12.5 cents/kWh (US average grid price) making a positive
return on investment doubtful unless electricity prices are higher than 30 cents/kWh.[68]

Enphase Energy announced an integrated system that allows home users to store, monitor and manage electricity.
The system stores 1.2 kWh of energy and 275W/500W power output.[69]

Storing wind or solar energy using thermal energy storage though less flexible, is considerably less expensive than
batteries. A simple 52-gallon electric water heater can store roughly 12 kWh of energy for supplementing hot water or
space heating.[70]

For purely financial purposes in areas where net metering is available, home generated electricity may be sold to the
grid through a grid-tie inverter without the use of batteries for storage.

Grid electricity and power stations

Renewable energy storage

The largest source and the greatest store of renewable energy is provided
by hydroelectric dams. A large reservoir behind a dam can store enough
water to average the annual flow of a river between dry and wet seasons.
A very large reservoir can store enough water to average the flow of a
river between dry and wet years. While a hydroelectric dam does not
directly store energy from intermittent sources, it does balance the grid
by lowering its output and retaining its water when power is generated by
solar or wind. If wind or solar generation exceeds the regions Construction of the Salt Tanks which
hydroelectric capacity, then some additional source of energy will be provide efficient thermal energy
needed. storage[71] so that output can be
provided after the sun goes down,
Many renewable energy sources (notably solar and wind) produce and output can be scheduled to meet
variable power.[75] Storage systems can level out the imbalances between demand requirements.[72] The 280
supply and demand that this causes. Electricity must be used as it is MW Solana Generating Station is
designed to provide six hours of
generated or converted immediately into storable forms.[76]
energy storage. This allows the plant
to generate about 38 percent of its
The main method of electrical grid storage is pumped-storage
rated capacity over the course of a
hydroelectricity. Areas of the world such as Norway, Wales, Japan and
year.[73]
the US have used elevated geographic features for reservoirs, using
electrically powered pumps to fill them. When needed, the water passes
through generators and converts the gravitational potential of the falling water into electricity.[75] Pumped storage in
Norway, which gets almost all its electricity from hydro, has currently a capacity of 1.4 GW but since the total installed
capacity is nearly 32 GW and 75% of that is regulable, it can be expanded significantly.[77]
Some forms of storage that produce electricity include pumped-storage hydroelectric dams, rechargeable batteries,
thermal storage including molten salts which can efficiently store and release very large quantities of heat energy,[78]
and compressed air energy storage, flywheels, cryogenic systems and superconducting magnetic coils.

Surplus power can also be converted into methane (sabatier process) with stockage in the natural gas network.[79][80]

In 2011, the Bonneville Power Administration in Northwestern United

States created an experimental program to absorb excess wind and hydro
power generated at night or during stormy periods that are accompanied
by high winds. Under central control, home appliances absorb surplus
energy by heating ceramic bricks in special space heaters to hundreds of
degrees and by boosting the temperature of modified hot water heater
tanks. After charging, the appliances provide home heating and hot water
as needed. The experimental system was created as a result of a severe
2010 storm that overproduced renewable energy to the extent that all The 150 MW Andasol solar power
station is a commercial parabolic
conventional power sources were shut down, or in the case of a nuclear
trough solar thermal power plant,
power plant, reduced to its lowest possible operating level, leaving a large located in Spain. The Andasol plant
area running almost completely on renewable energy.[81][82] uses tanks of molten salt to store
solar energy so that it can continue
Another advanced method used at the former Solar Two project in the generating electricity even when the
United States and the Solar Tres Power Tower in Spain uses molten salt sun isn't shining.[74]
to store thermal energy captured from the sun and then convert it and
dispatch it as electrical power. The system pumps molten salt through a
tower or other special conduits to be heated by the sun. Insulated tanks store the solution. Electricity is produced by
turning water to steam that is fed to turbines.

Since the early 21st century batteries have been applied to utility scale load-leveling and frequency regulation
capabilities.[75]

In vehicle-to-grid storage, electric vehicles that are plugged into the energy grid can deliver stored electrical energy
from their batteries into the grid when needed.

Air conditioning
Thermal energy storage (TES) can be used for air conditioning.[83] It is most widely used for cooling single large
buildings and/or groups of smaller buildings. Commercial air conditioning systems are the biggest contributors to
peak electrical loads. In 2009, thermal storage was used in over 3,300 buildings in over 35 countries. It works by
creating ice at night and using the ice to for cooling during the hotter daytime periods.[78]

The most popular technique is ice storage, which requires less space than water and is less costly than fuel cells or
flywheels. In this application, a standard chiller runs at night to produce an ice pile. Water then circulates through the
pile during the day to chill water that would normally be the chiller's daytime output.

A partial storage system minimizes capital investment by running the chillers nearly 24 hours a day. At night, they
produce ice for storage and during the day they chill water. Water circulating through the melting ice augments the
production of chilled water. Such a system makes ice for 16 to 18 hours a day and melts ice for six hours a day. Capital
expenditures are reduced because the chillers can be just 40 - 50% of the size needed for a conventional, no-storage
design. Storage sufficient to store half a day's available heat is usually adequate.
A full storage system shuts off the chillers during peak load hours. Capital costs are higher, as such a system requires
larger chillers and a larger ice storage system.

This ice is produced when electrical utility rates are lower.[84] Off-peak cooling systems can lower energy costs. The
U.S. Green Building Council has developed the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program to
encourage the design of reduced-environmental impact buildings. Off-peak cooling may help toward LEED
Certification.[85]

Thermal storage for heating is less common than for cooling. An example of thermal storage is storing solar heat to be
used for heating at night.

Latent heat can also be stored in technical phase change materials (PCMs). These can be encapsulated in wall and
ceiling panels, to moderate room temperatures.

Transport
Liquid hydrocarbon fuels are the most commonly used forms of energy storage for use in transportation, followed by a
growing use of Battery Electric Vehicles and Hybrid Electric Vehicles. Other energy carriers such as hydrogen can be
used to avoid producing greenhouse gases.

Public transport systems like trams and trolleybuses require electricity, but due to their variability in movement, a
steady supply of electricity via renewable energy is challenging. Photovoltaic systems installed on the roofs of
buildings can be used to power public transportation systems during periods in which there is increased demand for
electricity and access to other forms of energy are not readily available.[86]

Electronics
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass.
In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular
frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.[87]

Use cases
The United States Department of Energy International Energy Storage Database (IESDB), is a free-access database of
energy storage projects and policies funded by the United States Department of Energy Office of Electricity and
Sandia National Labs.[88]

Storage capacity
Storage capacity is the amount of energy extracted from a power plant energy storage system; usually measured in
joules or kilowatt-hours and their multiples, it may be given in number of hours of electricity production at power
plant nameplate capacity; when storage is of primary type (i.e., thermal or pumped-water), output is sourced only
with the power plant embedded storage system.[89][90]

Economics
The economics of Energy Storage strictly depends on the reserve service requested, and several uncertainty factors
affect the profitability of Energy Storage. Therefore, not every Energy Storage is technically and economically suitable
for the storage of several MWh, and the optimal size of the Energy Storage is market and location dependent.[91]

Moreover, ESS are affected by several risks, e.g.:[92]

1) techno-economic risks, which are related to the specific technology;

2) Market risks, which are the factors that affect the electricity supply system;

3) Regulation and policy risks.

Therefore, traditional techniques based on deterministic Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) for the investment appraisal
are not fully adequate to evaluate these risks and uncertainties and the investor’s flexibility to deal with them. Hence,
the literature recommends to assess the value of risks and uncertainties through the Real Option Analysis (ROA),
which is a valuable method in uncertain contexts.[92]

The economic valuation of large-scale applications (including pumped hydro storage and compressed air) considers
benefits including: wind curtailment avoidance, grid congestion avoidance, price arbitrage and carbon free energy
delivery.[78][93][94] In one technical assessment by the Carnegie Mellon Electricity Industry Centre, economic goals
could be met with batteries if energy storage were achievable at a capital cost of $30 to $50 per kilowatt-hour of
storage capacity.[78]

A metric for calculating the energy efficiency of storage systems is Energy Storage On Energy Invested (ESOI) which is
the useful energy used to make the storage system divided into the lifetime energy storage. For lithium ion batteries
this is around 10, and for lead acid batteries it is about 2. Other forms of storage such as pumped hydroelectric storage
generally have higher ESOI, such as 210.[95]

Research

Germany
In 2013, the German Federal government has allocated €200M (approximately US$270M) for advanced research, as
well as providing a further €50M to subsidize battery storage for use with residential rooftop solar panels, according
to a representative of the German Energy Storage Association.[96]

Siemens AG commissioned a production-research plant to open in 2015 at the Zentrum für Sonnenenergie und
Wasserstoff (ZSW, the German Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research in the State of Baden-Württemberg),
a university/industry collaboration in Stuttgart, Ulm and Widderstall, staffed by approximately 350 scientists,
researchers, engineers, and technicians. The plant develops new near-production manufacturing materials and
processes (NPMM&P) using a computerized Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. Its goals will
enable the expansion of rechargeable battery production with both increased quality and reduced manufacturing
costs.[97][98]

United States
In 2014, research and test centers opened to evaluate energy storage technologies. Among them was the Advanced
Systems Test Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin at Madison in Wisconsin State, which partnered with battery
manufacturer Johnson Controls.[99] The laboratory was created as part of the university's newly opened Wisconsin
Energy Institute. Their goals include the evaluation of state-of-the-art and next generation electric vehicle batteries,
including their use as grid supplements.[99]

The State of New York unveiled its New York Battery and Energy Storage Technology (NY-BEST) Test and
Commercialization Center at Eastman Business Park in Rochester, New York, at a cost of $23 million for its almost
1,700 m2 laboratory. The center includes the Center for Future Energy Systems, a collaboration between Cornell
University of Ithaca, New York and the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. NY-BEST tests, validates
and independently certifies diverse forms of energy storage intended for commercial use.[100]

On September 27, 2017, Senators Al Franken of Minnesota and Martin Heinrich of New Mexico introduced Advancing
Grid Storage Act (AGSA), which would devote more than $1 billion in research, technical assistance and grants to
encourage energy storage in the United States.[101]

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, some fourteen industry and government agencies allied with seven British universities in May
2014 to create the SUPERGEN Energy Storage Hub in order to assist in the coordination of energy storage technology
research and development.[102][103]

See also
Efficient energy use
Energy storage as a service (ESaaS)
Grid energy storage
Intermittent energy source
Hybrid renewable energy system
List of energy storage projects
Outline of energy
Power-to-X
Power transmission
Renewable energy

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01/03/the-convoluted-economics-of-storing-energy/), The New York Times, January 3, 2012.
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96. Galbraith, Kate. Filling the Gaps in the Flow of Renewable Energy (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/busines
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97. Aschenbrenner, Norbert. Test Plant For Automated Battery Production (http://phys.org/news/2014-05-automated-
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hub-set-uks-energy-storage-course), ECNMag.com website, May 2, 2014.

Further reading
General

Barringer, Felicity. Green Blog: In California, a Grid Storage Mandate (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/10/01/

in-california-a-grid-storage-mandate/), The New York Times, October 1, 2010.
Baxter, Richard. Energy Storage: A Nontechnical Guide, September 10, 2005. ISBN 1-59370-027-X
Belli, Brita. ‘Battery University’ Aims to Train a Work Force for Next-Generation Energy Storage (http://wheels.blo
gs.nytimes.com/2013/04/08/battery-university-aims-to-train-a-workforce-for-next-generation-energy-storage/),
The New York Times, April 8, 2013. Discusses a professional development program at San Jose State University.
Browne, Malcome W. New Hunt for Ideal Energy Storage System (https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/06/business
/business-technology-advances-new-hunt-for-ideal-energy-storage-system.html), The New York Times, January
6, 1988. Discusses superconducting magnetic energy storage.
Cardwell, Diane. Battery Seen as Way to Cut Heat-Related Power Losses (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/17/
business/energy-environment/battery-seen-as-way-to-cut-heat-related-power-losses.html), July 16, 2013 online
and July 17, 2013 in print on July 17, 2013, on page B1 in the New York City edition of The New York Times, p.
B1. Discusses Eos Energy Systems' Zinc–air batteries.
Cardwell, Diane. SolarCity to Use Batteries From Tesla for Energy Storage (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/05/
business/energy-environment/solarcity-to-use-batteries-from-tesla-for-energy-storage.html), December 4, 2013
on line, and December 5, 2013 in the New York City edition of The New York Times, p. B-2. Discusses SolarCity,
DemandLogic and Tesla Motors.
Galbraith, Kate. In Presidio, a Grasp at the Holy Grail of Energy Storage (https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/07/us
/07ttbattery.html?pagewanted=all), The New York Times, November 6, 2010.
Galbraith, Kate. Filling the Gaps in the Flow of Renewable Energy (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/busines
s/energy-environment/Filling-the-Gaps-in-the-Flow-of-Renewable-Energy.html), The New York Times, October
22, 2013.
Gies, Erica. The Challenge of Storing Energy on a Large Scale (https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/30/business/e
nergy-environment/30iht-renstore.html?pagewanted=all), The New York Times, September 29, 2010.
Gies, Erica. Making the Consumer an Active Participant in the Grid (https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/29/busines
s/energy-environment/29iht-rbogferc.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0&gwh=402884C2E19C695EA255CCF207D8BB
22), The New York Times, November 29, 2010. Discusses distributed generation and the U.S. Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission.
Gies, Erica. I.H.T. Special Report: Global Clean Energy: A Storage Solution Is in the Air (https://www.nytimes.com
/2012/10/02/business/energy-environment/a-storage-solution-is-in-the-air.html?pagewanted=all), The
International Herald Tribune, October 1, 2012. Retrieved from NYTimes.com website. Discusses SustainX,
LightSail Energy, and both adiabatic and isothermal compressed air energy storage.
Huggins, Robert. Energy storage. Springer Science & Business Media, 2010.
Kumagai, Jean. How Much Energy Storage Do You Need to Back Up the London Array? (http://spectrum.ieee.org
/energywise/energy/renewables/underwater-energy-bags-for-the-london-array), IEEE Spectrum, July 15, 2014.
LaMonica, Martin. A Big Bet on How to Store Energy, Cheaply (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/big-b
et-how-store-energy-cheaply-180951829), June 24, 2014, Smithsonian magazine website. Retrieved from
Smithsonian.com July 20, 2014. Discusses CAES, SustainX, LightSail Energy, and others.
Malewitz, Jim. Project Tests New Storage for Energy (https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/22/us/project-tests-new-
storage-for-energy.html), The New York Times website, June 21, 2014, and in print on June 22, 2014, on p. A27A
of the National edition.
Middlesboro Daily News. The Case For A Fifth Wheel (https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=spxBAAAAIBAJ
&sjid=eakMAAAAIBAJ&pg=6415,708510), Middlesboro, Kentucky: Middlesboro Daily News, January 15, 1974,
p. 4. Discusses research into flywheel powered autos.
Ricketts, Camille. DOE Charges Up Flywheels, Finalizes $43M Loan to Beacon Power (https://www.nytimes.com/
external/venturebeat/2010/08/10/10venturebeat-doe-charges-up-flywheels-finalizes-43m-loan-54486.html),
VentureBeat, The New York Times, August 10, 2010. Discusses Beacon Power and flywheel energy storage.
Sorkin, Andrew Ross. Storage: Clean Energy’s Killer App (https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2010/09/30/storage-clea
n-energys-killer-app/), DealBook, The New York Times, September 30, 2010.
Sorkin, Andrew Ross. Despite Setbacks, Investor Is Bullish on Clean Technology (https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2
012/11/29/despite-setbacks-investor-is-bullish-on-clean-technology/), DealBook, The New York Times, November
29, 2012. Discusses LightSail and Khosla Ventures.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Harnessing the Sun to Store the Wind (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/28/
harnessing-the-sun-to-store-the-wind/?gwh=F424D5236895F26B2B4347B060FACBAD), The New York Times,
December 28, 2009. Discusses CAES and Southwest Solar Technology.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Storing Energy as Ice? (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/01/27/storing-energy
-as-ice/?gwh=ABAA16FD8571356FA9FC946D3D2AD3F7), The New York Times, January 27, 2010. Discusses
Thermal energy storage.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: ARPA-E Is Poised to Put Products on the Grid (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/201
1/04/14/arpa-e-is-poised-to-put-products-on-the-grid/), The New York Times, April 14, 2011. Discusses:
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA-E), General Compression, CAES.
Wald, Matthew L. Can Batteries Replace Power Generators? (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/18/can-bat
teries-replace-power-generators/), The New York Times, May 18, 2011. Discusses: AES Energy Storage, Long
Island Power Authority.
Wald, Matthew L. Batteries at a Wind Farm Help Control Output (https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/29/science/ea
rth/batteries-on-a-wind-farm-help-control-power-output.html?scp=1&sq=elkins%20batteries%20wald&st=cse),
The New York Times, October 28, 2011. Discusses: AES Corporation, energy storage at wind farms.
Wald, Matthew L. Storehouses for Solar Energy Can Step In When the Sun Goes Down (https://www.nytimes.co
m/2012/01/03/business/energy-environment/building-storehouses-for-the-suns-energy-for-use-after-dark.html?pa
gewanted=all), The New York Times, January 2, 2012. Discusses molten salt thermal storage, SolarReserve,
Brightsource, solar power towers.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Surplus Renewable Energy: An Update (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/0
8/surplus-renewable-energy-an-update/), The New York Times, February 8, 2012.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Is That Onions You Smell? Or Battery Juice? (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012
/05/09/is-that-onions-you-smell-or-battery-juice/#more-140249), The New York Times, May 9, 2012. Discusses
vanadium redox battery technology.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Cutting the Electric Bill with a Giant Battery (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/0
6/27/cutting-the-electric-bill-with-a-giant-battery/), The New York Times, June 27, 2012. Discusses Saft Groupe
S.A.
Wald, Matthew L. Seeking to Start a Silicon Valley for Battery Science (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/3
0/seeking-to-start-a-silicon-valley-for-battery-science/), The New York Times, November 30, 2012.
Wald, Matthew L. Arizona Utility Tries Storing Solar Energy for Use in the Dark (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10
/18/business/energy-environment/arizona-utility-tries-storing-solar-energy-for-use-in-the-dark.html?_r=0), The
New York Times, October 18, 2013, p. B1 (New York edition); also published online at NYTimes.com on October
17, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013. Discusses BrightSource Energy, Electric Power Research Institute,
Ivanpah Solar Power Facility project, and the Solana Generating Station project.
Wald, Matthew L. Catching Rays in California, and Storing Them (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/24/business/
energy-environment/catching-some-rays-in-california-and-storing-them.html), The New York Times, December
23, 2013 online, and in print on December 24, 2013, p. B3 of the New York edition. Discusses the California
Public Utilities Commission's role in mandating the use of energy storage within that state.
Wald, Matthew L. From Harvard, a Cheaper Storage Battery (https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/09/business/ener
gy-environment/from-harvard-a-cheaper-storage-battery.html), The New York Times, January 8, 2014. Discusses
research into flow-batteries utilizing carbon-based molecules called quinones.
Witkin, Jim. Building Better Batteries for Electric Cars (https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/31/business/energy-envi
ronment/31BATTERIES.html), The New York Times, March 31, 2011, p. F4. Published online March 30, 2011.
Discusses batteries and lithium ion battery.
Witkin, Jim. Green Blog: A Second Life for the Electric Car Battery (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/27/a-
 second-life-for-the-electric-car-battery/), The New York Times, April 27, 2011. Describes: ABB; Community
Energy Storage for the use of electric vehicle batteries for grid energy storage.
Journals and papers

Chen, Haisheng; Thang Ngoc Cong; Wei Yang; Chunqing Tan; Yongliang Li; Yulong Ding. Progress in electrical
energy storage system: A critical review (http://ac.els-cdn.com/S100200710800381X/1-s2.0-S100200710800381
X-main.pdf?_tid=a5208c44-dab8-11e3-8ec6-00000aacb362&acdnat=1399997413_3fc617bbbeca49f3fd02e9768
97508df), Progress in Natural Science, accepted July 2, 2008, published in Vol. 19, 2009, pp. 291–312, doi:
10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.07.014. Sourced from the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Chinese
Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier and Science in China Press. Synopsis: a review of electrical energy
storage technologies for stationary applications. Retrieved from ac.els-cdn.com on May 13, 2014. (PDF)
Corum, Lyn. The New Core Technology: Energy storage is part of the smart grid evolution (http://www.distributed
energy.com/DE/Articles/9027.aspx), The Journal of Energy Efficiency and Reliability, December 31, 2009.
Discusses: Anaheim Public Utilities Department, lithium ion energy storage, iCel Systems, Beacon Power,
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), ICEL, Self Generation Incentive Program, ICE Energy, vanadium redox
flow, lithium Ion, regenerative fuel cell, ZBB, VRB, lead acid, CAES, and Thermal Energy Storage. (PDF)
G. de Oliveira e Silva; P. Hendrick. Lead-acid batteries coupled with photovoltaics for increased electricity self-
sufficiency in households (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.06.003), Applied Energy, 178 (2016) 856-
867. Retrieved on July 20, 2016.
Whittingham, M. Stanley. History, Evolution, and Future Status of Energy Storage (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stam
p/stamp.jsp?arnumber=06184265), Proceedings of the IEEE, manuscript accepted February 20, 2012, date of
publication April 16, 2012; date of current version May 10, 2012, published in Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 100,
May 13, 2012, 0018-9219, pp. 1518–1534, doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2012.219017. Retrieved from
ieeexplore.ieee.org May 13, 2014. Synopsis: A discussion of the important aspects of energy storage including
emerging battery technologies and the importance of storage systems in key application areas, including
electronic devices, transportation, and the utility grid. (PDF)
Books

GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as
Model State (http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9699), World Sci. Pub. Co., ISBN 978-981-
4704-00-7
Díaz-González, Franscisco (2016). Energy storage in power systems. United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 9781118971321.

External links
U.S. Dept of Energy - Energy Storage Systems (https://web.archive.org/web/20100302155536/http://www.sandia.
gov/ess/index.html) Government research center on energy storage technology.
U.S. Dept of Energy - International Energy Storage Database (http://www.energystorageexchange.org/) The DOE
International Energy Storage Database provides free, up-to-date information on grid-connected energy storage
projects and relevant state and federal policies.
IEEE Special Issue on Massive Energy Storage (https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?hl=en&user=FYow2b4A
AAAJ)
IEA-ECES (http://www.iea-eces.org/) - International Energy Agency - Energy Conservation through Energy
Conservation programme.
Energy Information Administration Glossary (http://www.eia.gov/tools/glossary/index.cfm?id=S)

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