CN Unit-1 Introduction to Computer Networks 1

UNIT -I

Introduction To Computer Networks

‘‘Computer Network’’ means a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single

technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
1. What is Network Topology? Classify different network topologies?

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the computers,
cables, and other components within network are interconnected. examples are star, bus, ring, mesh
and hybrid.

Star topology : A star topology is designed with each node connected directly to a central
network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network passes through the hub or
switch before continuing to its destination. The hub or switch manages and acts as a
repeater for the data flow.
Bus topology: Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. . A device
wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message
onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts
and processes the message. The bus topology is the simplest and most common method
of interconnecting computers

Ring topology: In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly
two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or "counter clockwise"). All the stations are interconnected in
tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle. Transmissions are unidirectional and must
propagate through all the stations in the loop. Each computer acts like a repeater and the
ring topology is similar to bus or star topologies.

Mesh topology: The mesh topology is a network connects to every other, creating a
point-to-point connection between every device on the network. Unlike each of the
previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible
paths from source to destination. A mesh network in which every device connects to
every other is called a full mesh. A disadvantage is that, a mesh network with n nodes
must have n(n-1)/2 links and each node must have n-1 I/O ports (links).

Hybrid topology: This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is

simply combining two or more of the traditional topologies to form a
larger, more complex topology. Main aim is being able to share the
advantages of different topologies.
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2. Explain the concept of N/W Classifications?

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale,
distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology, and
(3) Their topology.

Common examples of area network types are:

LAN - Local Area Network

MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
WAN - Wide Area Network
PAN - Personal Area Network
Local Area Network
• LANs are restricted in size, LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which
all the machines are attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in rural areas.
• Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps
• In a bus (i.e., a linear cable) network, at any instant at most one machine is the master and is allowed
to transmit. All other machines are required to avoid from sending.
• An arbitration mechanism is needed to resolve conflicts when two or more machines want to
transmit simultaneously. The arbitration mechanism may be centralized or distributed.
• IEEE 802.3, popularly called Ethernet, for example, is a bus-based broadcast network with
decentralized control, usually operating at 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
• Computers on an Ethernet can transmit whenever they want to; if two or more packets collide, each
computer just waits a random time and tries again later.
Advantages of LAN:
 Share resources efficiently
 Individual workstation might survive network failure if it doesn’t rely upon others
 Component evolution independent of system evolution
 Support heterogeneous hardware/software
 Access to other LANs and WANs
 High transfer rates with low error rates

Metropolitan area network:

• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of
buildings to entire cities. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN.
• A MAN might be a single network like the cable television network or it usually interconnects a
number of local area networks (LANs) using a high- capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-
optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks and the Internet.
• MANs typically operate at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and range from five miles to a few
hundred miles in length. Examples of MANs are FDDI (fiber distributed data interface) and ATM
(asynchronous transfer mode).
• The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities. This
system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air
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television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and
signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses.

Wide area network:

• Wide area networks are the oldest type of data communications network that provide relatively
slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice and video information over relatively large
and widely dispersed geographical areas, such as country or entire continent.
• WANs interconnect routers in different locations. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important
ways.
• Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under
collective or distributed ownership and management.
• WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer
distances.
• It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These
machines are called as hosts.
• The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The hosts are owned
by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is
typically owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider.
• In most WANs, the network contains numerous transmission lines, each one connecting a pair of
routers. If two routers that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they must do this
indirectly, via other routers. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more
intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there
until the required output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet organized according to this
principle is called a store-and-forward or packet-switched subnet.

3. Write a short note on Layered network architecture?

To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of layers or levels,
each one build upon one below it. The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the design into
small pieces. Each layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers in such a manner that the
highest layer is provided a full set of services to manage communications and run the applications.
A basic principle of services provided by each layer to the next higher layer permits changes in a
layer without affecting other layers. The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols
and interfaces. A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer. Protocol is a
set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity.

In a n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on conversation with the layer n on other
machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer-n
 Peers

CN Unit-1 Introduction to Computer Networks 4

protocol. Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how

communication is to proceed. Five-layer architecture is shown below; the entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. In other words, it is the peers that
communicate using protocols. In reality, no data is transferred from layer n on one machine to layer
n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer-1 is the physical layer through
which actual communication occurs.
With layered architectures, communications between two corresponding layers requires a unit
of data called a protocol data unit (PDU). A PDU can be a header added at the beginning of a
message or a trailer appended to the end of a message. This process of adding or removing PDU
information is called encapsulation / decapsulation . Between each pair of adjacent layers there is
an interface. A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture. A list of protocols used
by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called protocol stack.

4. What are the layers in OSI Reference Model? Explain the functionalities of each layer?
The OSI Reference Model:
The OSI model (minus the physical medium) is shown in Fig. This model is based on a proposal
developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international
standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and Zimmermann, 1983). The
model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals
with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other
systems.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can
be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together
in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not become
unwieldy.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers over a
network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. The seven layers are:
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Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. It deals with
the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. The design issues
have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not
as a 0 bit.

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

 Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with
no interpretation. (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
 Data rate: The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second
 Synchronization of bits: The sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized(same bit rate).
 Line configuration:
In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
 Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
Devices can be connected by using a mesh, star, ring, bus & hybrid topologies.
 Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
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Data Link Layer

Data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next( Hop-to-Hop). It makes the
physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

 Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link
layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame
 Flow control: If there is a slow receiver than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data
link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to
the end of the frame.
 Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of an individual packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links).

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

 Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing
problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming
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from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver.
 Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create internet works (network of
networks), the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final
destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an
application program running on a host.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

 Service-point addressing(port address): Computers often run several programs at the same time. The
transport layer provides delivery of message from a specific process on one computer to a specific
process on the other: The transport layer header includes port address.
 Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination.
 Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine.
A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
 Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However,
flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However,
error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link. Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
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Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not sufficient for
some processes. The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

 Dialog control. keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
 Token management : preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same
time
 Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data to allow them to continue from where they were after a crash

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.

 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means
that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting message out
over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the Information which is
important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
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Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user
interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed information services.

 Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and
it allows a user to log on to a remote host
 File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access files in a remote host
(to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer,
and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

5. Explain in detail about the TCP/IP protocol suit

The TCP/IP reference model was developed prior to OSI model. The major design goals of this
model were,
1. To connect multiple networks together
so that they appear as a single network.
2. To survive after partial subnet hardware
failures.
3. To provide a flexible architecture.
Unlike OSI reference model, TCP/IP
reference model has only 4 layers. They are,

1. Host-to-Network Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer Fig: The TCP/IP reference model.
Host-to-Network Layer :
The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens here, except to point out
that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets to it. This
protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to network.

Internet Layer:
This layer, called the internet layer, is the key player that holds the whole architecture together. Its job
is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have they travel independently to the
destination (potentially on a different network). They may even arrive in a different order than they
were sent, in which case it is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired.
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The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol). The job
of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly
the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion. For these reasons, it is reasonable to say that the
TCP/IP internet layer is similar in functionality to the OSI network layer.

The Transport Layer:

The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the transport layer. It is
designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as
in the OSI transport layer. Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.
The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection- oriented protocol
that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other
machine in the internet. It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes
each one on to the internet layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the
received messages into the output stream. TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender
cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.

The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP's sequencing or flow control and wish
to provide their own. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and
applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting
speech or video.

Fig.2: Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model initially.

The Application Layer:

The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. On top of the transport layer is
the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early ones included virtual
terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP), as shown in Fig.6.2. The
virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto a distant machine and work there.
The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another.
Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized protocol (SMTP)
was developed for it. Many other protocols have been added to these over the years: the Domain
Name System (DNS) for mapping host names onto their network addresses, NNTP, the protocol for
moving USENET news articles around, and HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World
Wide Web, and many others.
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6. Write a short note on ARPANET?

 The internet’s root Advanced Research Project Agency(ARPA) is formed with in Department of
Defense (DOD) which is a WAN.
 The DOD wanted a command control network that could survive a nuclear war and developed
ARPANET in 1968.
 Before the ARPANET, the networks were basically the telephone networks which operated on the
circuit switching principle, which is vulnerable(weak) , since loss of even one line or switch would
terminate all the conversations.
 ARPANET used the concept of Packet switching Network having Subnet ns Host Computer. The
subnet was a datagram subnet and each subnet consists of minicomputers called IMPs( Interface
Message Processors) connected by transmission lines.
 If any IMP’s are destroyed, messages could be automatically routed along alternate paths, when every
IMP is connected to other IMP’s.
 The subnet was the first electronic store and forward type packet switched network. Hence each
packet was stored before it was forwarded.
 There is a fast development of ARPANET in 1969 to 1972. As More networks are getting connected
to ARPANET the ARPANET protocols were not suited for running multiple networks.
 so In 1974, the TCP/IP model is invented to handle communication over Internetworks.
 In 1980’s LAN’s are connected to ARPANET , where finding hosts become difficult. So Domain
Naming System (DNS) was created for organizing addressing problem.
 In 1983 ARPANET was stable with 200 IMP’s and hundreds of hosts, then turned to Defense
Communications Agency (DCA). The first task DCA done is separate Military portion (160 IMP’s)
into separate MILNET from ARPA.
 In 1990’s ARPANET was overtaken by newer ones was shutdown and dismantled, but lives in
hearts. The MILNET continuous to operate.
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7. Write a short note on Internet?

The Internet Today
The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical
structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and
switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is continually
changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and networks of
outdated companies are being removed. Today most end users who want Internet connection use the
services of Internet service providers (lSPs). There are international service providers, national service
providers, regional service providers, and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private
companies, not the government. Figure shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet.

International Internet Service Providers:

At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that connect nations together.
National Internet Service Providers:
The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created and maintained by
specialized companies. There are many national ISPs operating in North America; SprintLink, AGIS, and
internet Mel. To provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by
complex switching stations called network access points (NAPs). Some national ISP networks are also
connected to one another by private switching stations called peering points. These normally operate at a
high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or
more national ISPs. They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.
Local Internet Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users. Most end users are
connected to the local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company that just provides
Internet services, a corporation with a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit
organization, such as a college or a university, that runs its own network. Each of these local ISPs can be
connected to a regional or national service provider.
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8. Discuss the Flaws /critique of OSI Reference Model?

Bad Timing:     
The competing TCP/IP protocols were already in widespread use by research universities by the time the
OSI protocols appeared. While the billion-dollar wave of
investment had not yet hit, the academic market was large
enough that many vendors had begun cautiously offering
TCP/IP products. When OSI came around, they did not want
to support a second protocol stack until they were forced to,
so there were no initial offerings. With every company
waiting for every other company to go first, no company
went first and OSI never happened.
So OSI protocol became crushed
Bad Technology
      The second reason that OSI never caught on is that both the model and the protocols are flawed. The
choice of seven layers was more political than technical, and two of the layers (session and presentation)
are nearly empty, whereas two other ones (data link and network) are overfull.
      The OSI model, along with its associated service definitions and protocols, is extraordinarily
complex. They are also difficult to implement and inefficient in operation.
      In addition to being incomprehensible, another problem with OSI is that some functions, such as
addressing, flow control, and error control, reappear again and again in each layer.
Bad Implementations
      Given the enormous complexity of the model and the protocols, it will come as no surprise that the
initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and slow. It did not take long for people to associate "OSI"
with "poor quality". Although the products improved in the course of time, the image stuck.
 In contrast, one of the first implementations of TCP/IP was part of Berkeley UNIX and was quite good.
People began using it quickly, which led to a large user community, which led to improvements, which
led to an even larger community. Here the spiral was upward instead of downward.
Bad Politics
      On account of the initial implementation, many people, especially in academia, thought of TCP/IP as
part of UNIX, and UNIX in the 1980s in academia was not unlike parenthood and apple pie.
      OSI, on the other hand, was widely thought to be the creature of the European telecommunication
ministries.

9. Discuss the Flaws /critique of TCP/IP Reference Model?

CN Unit-1 Introduction to Computer Networks 14

      The TCP/IP model and protocols have their problems too. First, the model does not clearly distinguish
the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols. Good software engineering practice requires
differentiating between the specification and the implementation, something that OSI does very carefully,
but TCP/IP does not. Consequently, the TCP/IP model is not much of a guide for designing new networks
using new technologies.
 
Second, the TCP/IP model is not at all general and is poorly suited to describing any protocol stack other
than TCP/IP. Trying to use the TCP/IP model to describe Bluetooth, for example, is completely
impossible.
      
Third, the link layer is not really a layer at all in the normal sense of the term as used in the context of
layered protocols. It is an interface (between the network and data link layers). The distinction between an
interface and layer is crucial and one should not be sloppy about it.
      
Fourth, the TCP/IP model does not distinguish between the physical and data link layers. These are
completely different. The physical layer has to do with the transmission characteristics of copper wire,
fiber optics, and wireless communication. The data link layer's job is to delimit the start and end of frames
and get them from one side to the other with the desired degree of reliability. A proper model should
include both as separate layers. The TCP/IP model does not do this.
      
Finally, although the IP and TCP protocols were carefully thought out and well implemented, many of the
other protocols were ad hoc, generally produced by a couple of graduate students hacking away until they
got tired. The protocol implementations were then distributed free, which resulted in their becoming
widely used, deeply entrenched, and thus hard to replace. Some of them are a bit of an embarrassment
now.

10. What is Data Communication? What are the components of DC?

Data Communication: When we communicate, we are sharing information(digital). This sharing can
be local or remote. Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.

Components:
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
CN Unit-1 Introduction to Computer Networks 15

include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

11. Write about Protocols And Standards?

Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. For communication
to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of
the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example,
does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only
1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
Standards
Standards are essential for interoperability of data and telecommunications technology and processes.
Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications.
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
 De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology.
 De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure
standards.