LIFE PROCESSES and CELLS
Chapter 1:- Longman GCSE Biology
Cell structure; key organelles
Enzymes
How cells get energy
Movement of substances; osmosis, diffusion, active transport
Cell division; mitosis and differentiation
cells, tissue, organs, systems
Cell Structure
All organisms are composed of the fundamental unit of life, the cell. The cell is the simplest unit of
matter that is alive. From the unicellular bacteria to multicellular animals, the cell is one of the
basic organizational principles of biology.
There are two primary types of cells: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells that are structurally
different from each other and have evolved over time. Eukaryotic cells are called so because they
have a true nucleus. The nucleus, which houses DNA, is contained within a membrane and
separated from other cellular structures. Prokaryotic cells however have no true nucleus.
Prokaryotic cells:-Bacteria which are examples of prokaryotic cells are enclosed by a plasma
membrane and are normally surrounded by a fairly rigid and chemically complex cell wall. This wall
helps to maintain the shape of the cell and often has an outer sticky coat called the capsule. This
enables bacteria to stick to certain surfaces. Bacteria may also have short projections called pili
(singular pilus) or longer projections called flagella (singular flagellum) which help the organism to
move. These prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus but have their DNA in a concentrated mass
called a nucleoid. The DNA consists of a single loop and is double stranded. There may also be one
or more smaller circles of DNA called plasmids.
There are four main structures shared by all prokaryotic cells: The plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
ribosomes, genetic material (DNA and RNA).
Eukaryotic cells
The cells that make up large complex multicellular organisms are eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells
are more highly organised and specialised in the way they work. They are also larger in size and
are generally in the range 10-100 µm. Eukaryotic cells contain organelles which play a specific
role in the survival of a cell.
Area of Comparison Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Size Generally smaller 1-10 µm Generally larger 10-100 µm
Organelles No membrane bound Contain membrane- bound
organelles organelles
DNA Usually circular DNA, may Linear chromosomes, no
contain plasmids plasmids
Eukaryotic cells include plant cells and animal cells. Note: plant cells and animal cells are
structurally
Organelles
In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in
the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. Eukaryotes are structurally complex and are organized by
smaller interior compartments called organelles. These organelles are enclosed by lipid
membranes that are structurally similar to the membrane of the cell. The larger organelles, such
as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with moderate magnification and were among the
first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope. Important organelles
include the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts and
vacuoles. Each of these organelles has particular structural
features which enable it to perform particular functions in the cell.
The nucleus contains chromosomes that consist of DNA and
protein and is often termed the control center in all eukaryotic cells
- it is bounded by a nuclear membrane. The chromosomes are not
normally visible as threads and are seen as chromatin material.
They contain coded information which the cell requires to grow
and to divide and are able to pass this information on to the next
generation as a result of reproduction.
The mitochondrion is the site of aerobic
respiration and therefore enables the cell to
release energy by the breakdown of glucose
into ATP. For this reason, mitochondria are
known as the powerhouse of the cell.
Chloroplasts consist of many layers of membranes and contain the green pigment called
chlorophyll. This pigment allows plants to capture light energy and conduct the process of
photosynthesis. This process converts inorganic materials (light
energy) to organic molecules (chemical
energy). Chloroplasts are only present in
plant cells.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound
structures in the cell which are filled with
fluid. This fluid may contain dissolved
substances such as sugars or salts. In plants, many cells contain a
large central vacuole that is surrounded by a membrane. These
vacuoles have an important role in storage of solutes and therefore in
maintaining water balance in plants. Generally plant cells contain more
and bigger vacuoles than animals cells.
Ribosomes: are tiny structural units involved in synthesizing proteins. Proteins are essential
molecules in cells. They can be used for a variety of functions from cellular support to cellular
locomotion.
Proteins synthesized on these ribosomes will be exported from the cell, moved into other
organelles of the endomembrane system, or incorporated into membranes.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of internal
folded membranes that are continuous with the outer
membrane of the nucleus. There are two types of
endoplasmic reticulum.
Rough ER is dotted with ribosomes and its main
function is to modify proteins that have recently been
synthesised by the ribosomes. The channels of the ER
enable protein molecules to be transported throughout
the cell.
Smooth ER is characterised contains no ribosomes and its function is to synthesize and
metabolise lipids.
Smooth Endoplasmic
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Reticulum
The Golgi bodies consist of sets of flattened discs and small, spherical vesicles. The Golgi
body is mainly involved in packaging molecules
The protein is first manufactured on the ribosomes and then
appears in the rough ER before being found in the Golgi
body. The Golgi body modifies the protein and then
packages these molecules in membrane bound vesicles,
which eventually fuse with the plasma membrane for export
from the cell.
The cell membrane
The cell membrane is the outer most layer of the cell that acts to protect the integrity of the interior
of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell and keeping other substances out. The cell
membrane is composed of proteins and lipids. The lipids enable the membrane to be flexible and
the proteins assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane. The phospholipids form a
bilayer in which their hydrophilic head arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and extracellular fluid
and their hydrophobic tail is faced away from the cytosol an extracellular fluid. This lipid bilayer is
semipermeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane.
Phospholipid Bilayer
protein
Plant and Animal Cell
Cells Cytoskeleton
A network of tubules in a eukaryotic
cell
They help shape and support the cell
as well as assist in cell movement
They hold the organelles in place.
Energy and Cells
The cells in your body may have to perform many of the following functions.
All cells make proteins (e.g. enzymes) and other large molecules.
Muscle cells cause movement.
Nerve cells send nerve impulses.
Many types of cells divide.
All of these functions require energy, and the cell’s main source of energy is glucose. When
glucose is broken down in respiration, oxygen is used and carbon dioxide, water and energy are
produced.
ATP
The energy released from the breakdown of glucose iis used to make an energy molecule called
ATP. Adenosine triphosphate ATP is the ‘energy currency’ within the cell. It is given this name as
ATP can store energy. ATP is a compound composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups.
A large amount of chemical energy is stored in the bond between the second and third phosphate
group. When this bond is broken the energy released can be used by the cell.
ATP is obtained from carbohydrates such as glucose by the process called respiration.
Respiration is a process that can occur in the presence or the absence of oxygen however both
processes require glucose.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen and produces a small amount of ATP. In
plants, yeast and bacteria glucose is broken down to ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process
can be used to produce alcohol such as beer and wine.
Plants, Yeast and Bacteria
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide+ energy
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ATP
In animals glucose is broken down to lactic acid and energy
Animals:
Glucose lactic acid + energy
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + ATP
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen and
produces more ATP than anaerobic respiration. This process occurs when the body utilises the
oxygen that is breathed in with the glucose it has obtained from food to produce carbon dioxide,
water and energy.
Glucose + Oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ATP
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Recall: ATP is the product of both anaerobic and aerobic respiration. Glucose is required for both
of these processes.
How do cells obtain glucose?
Plant cells synthesise glucose from carbon dioxide, and water in the presence of light by the
process called photosynthesis. This process occurs in the chloroplast of the plant cell.
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Animal cells have no chloroplast and are therefore unable to undergo photosynthesis. Animals
must obtain glucose from their food.
Movement of substances across the membrane
Recall the structure of the cell membrane.
The cell membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipids which each contain hydrophilic
heads and hydrophobic tails and proteins within the cell membrane assist in moving some
molecules through.
hydrophilic head hydrophobic tails
The cell surface membrane is selective about which chemicals can pass in and out.
Movement across the cell membrane can either be passive (no energy needed by the cell) and
active the cell needed to expend energy.
PASSIVE PROCESSES
Diffusion
Diffusion and osmosis do not require energy. These processes both involve the passive
movement of molecules such as oxygen (O2) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) along a concentration
gradient, or from regions of higher to regions of lower concentration.
Net movement of particles
Inside cell Outside cell
For example, if the cell is making carbon dioxide by respiration, the concentration of carbon
dioxide inside the cell will be higher than outside. This difference in concentration is called a
concentration gradient. The molecules of carbon dioxide are constantly moving about because of
their kinetic energy. The cell membrane is permeable to carbon dioxide, so they can move in
either direction through it. Because there is a higher concentration of carbon dioxide molecules
inside the cell than outside, over time more molecules will move from inside the cell to outside
than move in the other direction. We say that there is a net movement of the molecules from inside
to outside.
Osmosis
Water moves across cell membranes by a special sort of diffusion, called osmosis. Water will
move across the membrane from the more dilute solution to the more concentrated one. Notice
that this is still obeying the rules of diffusion - the water moves from where there is a higher
concentration of water molecules to a lower concentration of water molecules. Osmosis can only
happen if the membrane is permeable to water but not to some other solutes. We say that it is
partially permeable.
Dilute solution Concentrated solution
Net movement of water molecules
Note: both osmosis and diffusion DO NOT REQUIRE ENERGY. They are passive processes.
For this reason these processes are called passive transport.
ACTIVE PROCESSES
Active transport
Active transport describes what happens when a cell
uses energy to transport something. Active transport is
the movement of a substance against its concentration
gradient (from low to high concentration).
In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating
high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such
as ions, glucose, and amino acids. In the example to the
right energy obtained from ATP is required to move a
particle through a protein against the concentration
gradient.
Two examples of active transport are endocytosis (the movement of particles into the cell) and
exocytosis (the movement of particles outside the cell.
Endocytosis- is an example of active transport and is the process by which cells take in
materials. The cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell. The ingested
particle becomes trapped within a vacuole. There are two types of endocytosis:
Pinocytosis- where fluid is taken into the cell. This process requires energy and a change in
shape of the membrane
Phagocytosis - The process of engulfing and ingesting particles by the cell to form a vacuole.
Once again this process requires energy and a change in shape of the membrane.
Exocytosis- The process in which the cell releases materials to the outside by discharging them
as membrane-bounded vesicles passing through the cell membrane.
ENZYMES
Chemical reactions occur at all times inside cells to ensure it functions effectively. Enzymes are a
group of proteins that speed up the rate of these reactions without being destroyed in the process.
The term catalyst describes a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being used
up. Enzymes are catalysts that take part in reactions but afterwards are unchanged and are
therefore free to catalyse more reactions. Cells contain hundreds of different enzymes- each of
these enzymes catalyses a different reaction.
The molecule an enzyme acts upon is called a substrate. Each enzyme has a small area on its
surface called the active site. The substrate attaches to the active site of the enzyme, the reaction
then takes place and the products are formed.
↔
+ ↔
When the substrate joins up with the active site, it lowers the energy needed for the reaction to
occur. Therefore, the products form more easily. The substrate fits into the active site of the
enzyme like a key in a lock. For this reason, this is called the lock and key model of enzyme
action.
Factors affecting enzymes
Temperature: When the temperature exceeds a certain level the enzyme molecule denatures-
(changes shape therefore the active site no longer fits the substrate. The enzyme therefore will
function effectively in temperatures too high. At low temperatures the rate of reaction slows
significantly as the number of collisions between the substrate and the active site decreases.
pH: Enzymes have an optimum range in which they function. A pH that is too high or too low will
cause the enzyme to denature.
Inhibitors: Inhibitors are molecules that inhibit the action of the specific enzyme. There are two
types of inhibitors- competitive and non competitive.
Competitive inhibitors block the active site of the enzyme therefore the enzyme cannot bind to its
substrate inhibiting the reaction from occurring.
Non competitive inhibitors bind to other sites on the enzyme, changing the shape of the active site.
Consequently the reaction between the enzyme and substrate cannot occur.
Cell Division
Multicellular organisms like animals and plants begin life as a single fertilised egg cell, called a
zygote. This divides into two cells, then four, then eight and so on, until the adult body contains
countless millions of cells. This type of cell division is called mitosis and is under the control of the
genes. The basic outline is as follows: First of all the chromosomes in the nucleus are copied, then
the nucleus splits into two, so that the genetic information is shared equally between the two
'daughter' cells. The cytoplasm then divides (or in plant cells a new cell wall develops) forming two
smaller cells that contain genetically identical information as the parent cell.
Stages of mitosis:
Before a dividing cell enters mitosis, it undergoes a period of growth called interphase. Interphase
is the stage between two successive cell divisions. In this stage, the cell replicates its genetic
material and organelles in it preparation for division. Mitosis is composed of four stages:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase
Prophase
During prophase, changes occur in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In the nucleus the
chromatid (DNA strands) fibres become more tightly
coiled and visible. Each chromosome has duplicated
and consists of two identical sister chromatids which
are joined at the centromere.
At the end of prophase the nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear and the chromosomes move into
the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, microtubules appear
as spindle fibres, and centrioles move toward the poles of the cell. These are both part of the
cytoskeleton.
Metaphase
In the cytoplasm, the microtubules or spindle fibres now radiate from the poles towards the cell's
equator and the chromosomes become aligned along
the metaphase plate, which is an imaginary line
midway through the cell. The microtubules become
attached to the centromeres and the centrioles (in
animals) and the whole structure is called the spindle.
Anaphase
This phase begins when the pairs of centromeres of
the chromosomes divide and sister chromatids are drawn apart. Each chromatid is now
considered to be a daughter chromosome. These
chromosomes are drawn towards the opposite poles of
the cell by the microtubules which are attached to the
centromeres. These microtubules are protein molecules
similar to the proteins in muscles, and perform this
function by contracting.
Telophase
As the daughter chromosomes are drawn to opposite
poles, the daughter nuclei begin to form and the nucleoli reappear. The chromosomes uncoil to
form chromatin and the cytoplasm forms a
furrow and pinches into two. This is called
cleavage and again microtubules are involved
and act like a ligature. The overall process is
called cytokinesis. In animal cells, this only
involves the membrane constricting, but in plant
cells a new cell wall partition or 'cell plate' is
also formed.
Binary Fission
Binary fission is the process of asexual cell division in prokaryotes and some eukaryotic
organelles, such as mitochondria. Mitosis is not possible in prokaryotes because of the absence of
a nucleus and linear chromosomes with a defined centromere region.
The process itself involves the DNA replicating itself and then the cell splits into two even cells
with the same amount of DNA.
Although binary fission of eukaryotic organelles is well-understood, exactly how the organelles are
allotted to each daughter cell remains unclear.
