The document discusses acids and bases according to different theories:
1. Arrhenius theory states that acids are substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions, while bases produce hydroxide ions.
2. Brønsted-Lowry theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors in acid-base reactions. Conjugate acid-base pairs are also discussed.
3. Lewis theory extends Brønsted theory by defining acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors in coordinate covalent bonds. Common Lewis acids such as metal cations and compounds with incomplete octets are also described.
The document discusses acids and bases according to different theories:
1. Arrhenius theory states that acids are substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions, while bases produce hydroxide ions.
2. Brønsted-Lowry theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors in acid-base reactions. Conjugate acid-base pairs are also discussed.
3. Lewis theory extends Brønsted theory by defining acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors in coordinate covalent bonds. Common Lewis acids such as metal cations and compounds with incomplete octets are also described.
The document discusses acids and bases according to different theories:
1. Arrhenius theory states that acids are substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions, while bases produce hydroxide ions.
2. Brønsted-Lowry theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors in acid-base reactions. Conjugate acid-base pairs are also discussed.
3. Lewis theory extends Brønsted theory by defining acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors in coordinate covalent bonds. Common Lewis acids such as metal cations and compounds with incomplete octets are also described.
The document discusses acids and bases according to different theories:
1. Arrhenius theory states that acids are substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions, while bases produce hydroxide ions.
2. Brønsted-Lowry theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors in acid-base reactions. Conjugate acid-base pairs are also discussed.
3. Lewis theory extends Brønsted theory by defining acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors in coordinate covalent bonds. Common Lewis acids such as metal cations and compounds with incomplete octets are also described.
X P E R I M E N T 11 Introduction Acidity and Basicity Acids Anysolution that releases hydrogen ions when added to water and has a pH of less than 7.0 pH – it measures the acidity of a liquid by measuring the concentration of hydrogen ions. PROPERTIES OF ACIDS : Sour taste
Litmus paper blue turns red
Reactions with metal oxide and hydroxide
Neutralize bas forming water
Bases Substances which combines with acid and also known as Alkaline substance. Compound that furnishes the hydroxide ions. Compound that gives or donate hydroxyl ions in water or other substances.
Hydroxyl – unit that composed of one or
more atom of hydrogen and one of oxygen. PROPERTIES OF BASES : Slippery
Soapy feeling and a biting , bitter taste
Red litmus blue , turn methyl organic from
red to yellow
Turn phenolphthalein from colorless to
red Procedures Acidity and Basicity Using the pH Paper pH paper Color Chart Record Repeat in test • Match the • With other solution color test solutions obtained in • Dip the test sol’n • For 10 seconds Using the pH Meter Buffer First Solution Distilled Repeat Solution • Dip the Water • With other test Keep the • Immerse the electrode • Rinse the solutions • Get the pH electrode electrode electrode • After that, reading • Wipe it with immersed in rinse the • Record tissue paper distilled electrode with water when distilled water not inuse. • Wipe with tissue Samples Chemical Structural Functional Formula Formula Group
Chemical Structural Functional Formula Formula Group
Amines, Glysine NH2CH2COOH Carboxyxlic Acid
Amines, Carboxyxlic Lysine C6H14N2O2 Acid
Isopropyl (CH3)2CHOH Alcohol Alcohol
Alcohol, C6H5OH Phenol Aromatic Compound Chemical Formula Structural Formula
Commercial C2H4O2 Vinegar
Calamansi C6H8O7 Juice
Spoiled Milk C3H6O3
Arrhenius Concept Acidity and Basicity Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist who received a Nobel prize in 1903 for his work on electrolytes, focused on what ions were formed when acids and bases dissolved in water. One of the properties that acids and bases have in common is that they are electrolytes--they form ions when they dissolve in water. He came up with the concept or idea that acids dissociated in water to give hydrogen ions (H+) and that bases dissociated in water to give hydroxide ions. (OH-) Examples: HCl H+ + Cl-
An acid, like HCl, is something that
dissociates in water to give hydrogen ion.
NaOH H+ + Cl-
A base, like NaOH, is something that
dissociates in water to give hydroxide ion. Arrhenius focused on the idea that acids and bases split into ions when they dissolved in water. In a sense, the Arrhenius concept focuses on what the chemical contains or what is there in solution. Brønsted-Lowry Concept Acidity and Basicity With the Brønsted-Lowry concept we usually refer to a hydrogen ion as a proton. That is because a proton is all that is left when a hydrogen atom loses an electron to become an ion. Brønsted Acids Proton (H+) Donor. When an acid reacts, the proton is transferred from one chemical to another. The chemical which accepts the proton is a base. H+ Cl- +
I DONATE!!
+ Cl- Note that in order for an acid to act like an acid, there needs to be something for it to react with. There needs to be something to take the proton.
There needs to be a base.
Brønsted Bases Proton Acceptor. Opposite of acids. Bases are basic because they take or accept protons. Hydroxide (OH-) ion, for example can accept a proton to form water. Brønsted and Lowry realized that not all bases had to have a hydroxide ion. As long as something can accept a proton it is a base. So anything, hydroxide or not, that can accept a proton is a base under the Brønsted-Lowry definition. The water molecules that accept protons when HCl dissolves in water are acting as bases.
H Cl + - + I ACCEPT!
I DONATE!
+ Cl- Some additional examples of Brønsted- Lowry bases are shown accepting protons in these equations. These examples do not show the acids which are providing the protons. Ammonia can accept or react with hydrogen ion to give ammonium ion (NH4+)
NH3 + H+ NH4+ Carbonate ion (CO32- )can accept a hydrogen ion, or accept a proton, to become bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).
CO32- + H+ HCO3-
Also, water molecules, as mentioned before, can act as a base by accepting protons.
H2O + H+ H3O+ Hydroxide, ammonia, carbonate and water are all Brønsted-Lowry bases. When a Brønsted-Lowry acid donates a proton, it forms the conjugate base of that acid. When a base accepts a proton, it forms the conjugate acid of that base. Conjugate base and acid are produced as products. The formulas of a conjugate acid-base pair differ by one proton (H+) Considerwhat happens when HCl(g) is bubbled through water, as shown by this equation:
• The conjugate base of HCl is Cl-
• The conjugate acid of Cl- is HCl
Conjugate acid-base pair
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Conjugate acid-base pair
• The conjugate base of H2O is H3O+
• The conjugate acid of H3O+ is H2O Towrite the conjugate base of an acid,remove one proton from the acid formula: −H+ H2O OH- (Conjugate base) −H+ HNO3 NO3- (Conjugate base)
Notethat, by removing H+, the conjugate
base becomes more negative than the acid by one minus charge. Towrite the conjugate acid of a base, add one proton to the formula of the base:
2- +H+ SO4 HSO4- (Conjugate acid) +H+ C2H3O2- HC2H3O2 (Conjugate acid) Ineach case the conjugate acid becomes more positive than the base by a +1 charge due to the addition of H+. Lewis Concept Acidity and Basicity The Lewis Concept as an Extension of the Brønsted Concept An acid is an electron-pair acceptor. A base is an electron-pair donor. An acid-base reaction is the sharing of an electron pair with an acid by a base. These three simple definitions constitute the heart of what is now known as the Lewis concept of acids and bases. Experimentally and conceptually, they are an extension of the Brønsted definitions. The Fundamental Lewis Acid- Base Reaction
the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
between an acid and a base. The base is the electron-pair donor, the acid the acceptor. The process is called neutralization, or simply coordination. The product is a coordinated compound, coordinated complex, or adduct, made up of an acid portion and a base portion. A typical, and oft-cited example is the reaction of the acid boron trifluoride with the base dimethyl ether to form the complex or adduct BF3CH3OCH3:
Thecoordinate molecule may be thought
of as being made up of the acid portion BF3 and the base portion CH3OCH3 Classification of Lewis Acids I. Simple Cations. Theoretically all simple cations are potential Lewis Acids, although their strength as acids varies within wide limits. In general, we can expect the acid strength or coordinating ability of cations to increase with: an increase in positive charge on the ion, an increase in nuclear charge for atoms in any horizontal period, a decrease in ionic radius, and a decrease in the number of shielding electron shells. Thismeans that Lewis acidity of simple cations tends to increase for the elements from left to right and from bottom to top in the periodic table. (Periodic Trends) II. Compounds Whose Central Atoms Has an Incomplete Octet. Among the most important Lewis Acids are compounds whose central atom has less than a full octet of electrons. III. Compounds in Which the Octet of the Central Atom Can be Expanded.
Although carbon and silicon belong to
the same family of elements, silicon tetrafluoride and silicon tetrachloride are tremendously more reactive than their carbon analogues, carbon tetrafluoride and carbon tetrachloride. The explanation is straightforward- the silicon, with its vacant d orbitals, can act as a Lewis acid by expanding its octet. This is illustrated by the reaction of silicon tetrafluoride with fluoride ion to form fluorosilicate ion: With no available d orbitals, carbon cannot do this, in keeping with the fact that the elements in the first period of eight in the periodic table can accommodate no more than eight electrons in their valence shell. Actually the silicon halides typify a large group of halides which, with vacant d orbitals, can expand their octets. Some examples are: These halides tend to form adducts with halide ions and with organic bases such as ethers (R-O-R). Halides of this type are vigourously hydrolyzed to form an oxy-acid (or oxide) of the central atom and the appropriate hydrogen halide. This reaction depends upon the ability of the halides to act as Lewis acids. The first step in the removal of each halogen atom is undoubtedly the acid-base coordination of the acid halide with the base water. This is followed by elimination of the hydrogen halide from the adduct. For the removal of the first chlorine in the hydrolysis of phosphorus trichloride, we believe the pathway or mechanism is IV. Compounds Having Multiple-bonded Acid Centres.
Thereare many compounds, particularly
organic, in which a multiple-bonded atom can accept a share in an electron pair with a synchronous shift in a pair of electrons of the multiple bond. By a slight extension of the Lewis concept, we can classify such compounds as Lewis acids. Although the atom involved does not, in a strict sense, have an unfilled orbital nevertheless an orbital is made available as the incoming base forces the intramolecular electron pair shift. A familiar example is carbon dioxide. Consider its neutralization by hydroxide ion to hydrogen carbonate in: V. Elements with an Electron Sextet. To the extent that oxygen and sulfur atoms participate directly in chemical reactions, they may be regarded as Lewis acids. On this basis, the oxidation with sulfur of sulfite to thiosulfate and of sulfide to polysulfide ion can be classified as acid-base reactions: Classification of Lewis Base They are species that contain atoms with lone pairs. Such atoms are called donor atoms. Thus H2O (donor atom, O), NH3 (donor atom, N), Cl-, and CH3CH2OH (donor atoms, O) are immediately recognized as Lewis bases. Because the number of Lewis bases is almost unlimited, it is useful to categorize them based on the number of donatable nonbonding electron pairs that they contain. a Lewis base which can form only one bond to a Lewis acid name means monodentate "one tooth"
has 2 or more donor atoms spaced so that they can attach to the same Lewis acid. Normally the donor atoms must be "spaced" non-linear, by 2 or 3 intervening atoms. often with 2 or chelating / 3 atoms polydentate separating the donor atoms Discussing the Results Acidity and Basicity pH Paper Reading pH Meter Reading Acetic Acid 3 3.34 Monochloroacetic 1 1.96 acid
• Acetic Acid has a higher pH reading than
Monochloroacetic acid.
• But Monochloroacetic acid is more acidic than
Acetic acid.
Why is that so??
Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects
Carboxyclic acids are the
strongest acids among compounds that contains only C, H and O. Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects Acetic acid provides the reference mark for a typical carboxyclic acid and it has pKa value of 4.75. The pKa value of monochloroacetic acid is less than that for acetic acid. Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects The variation in acidity among structurally similar compounds like these can be explained in the electronegativity values of the substituents. These electronegativity difference manifest themselves by donating or withdrawing electrons through the bonds between atoms, an influence known as inductive effect. Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects Inthe comparison of acetic and monochloroacetic acids, the argument goes like this:
“Chlorine, being electronegative, renders
the carbon atom adjacent to the carbonyl group partially positive.” Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects In turn, this withdraws electron density from the carbonyl carbon atom and the oxygen atom, bearing the proton. The effect is to weaken the O-H bond, making the proton more acidic. Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects Thus this inductive effect of the chlorine atom makes monochloroacetic acid more acidic than acetic acid. In general, an electron-withdrawing substituent near the COOH group increases the acidity of acetic acid. Acid Strength is influenced by Inductive Effects The more electronegative a substituent, the stronger the acid. Conversely, an electron-donating substituent makes the acid less acidic than acetic acid. Alkyl groups are the most common substituents that donate electrons. pH Paper Reading pH Meter Reading Acetamide 9 8.19 Acetone 5 6.46
• Acetamide has a higher pH reading than
Acetone.
• Applying our basic information, pH less than 7
is acidic while pH more than 7 is basic. To conlude, Acetamide is a base while Acetone is an acid.
But what makes them a base and an acid?
Amphoteric character (Amides) The presence of a lone pair of electrons on Nitrogen atom should make acid amide basic in character. But actually, they are very feeble bases. This is because the lone pairs of electrons on the nitrogen atom is involved in Resonance with carbonyl group and is therefore not available for protonation. Amphoteric character (Amides)
However,under suitable conditions, acid
amide can show basic or acidic character. Amphoteric character (Amides)
The presence of lone pair of electrons on
the nitrogen atom is resonating structure (I) makes it feebly basic. Acid amide, therefor, act as a base. Amphoteric character (Amides) Thus acetamide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid (an acid) to form a salt. Amphoteric character (Amides) Likewise,the positive charge on the nitrogen atom shown in resonating structure (II)
Implies easy release of proton.
Amphoteric character (Amides) Acidamide, therefore, acts as an acid. For example, acetamide behaving as an acid reacts with bases Na or HgO to form corresponding salt. Acidity of Ketones Ketones are far more acidic (pKa ≈ 20) than a regular alkane (pKa ≈ 50). This difference reflects resonance stabilization of the enolate ion that is formed through dissociation. The relative acidity of the α-hydrogen is important in the enolization reactions of ketones and other carbonyl compounds. The acidity of the α-hydrogen also allows ketones and other carbonyl compounds to undergo nucleophilic reactions at that position, with either stoichiometric and catalytic base. pH Paper Reading pH Meter Reading Glycine 5 6.15 Lysine 6 6.17
• Glycine has a lower pH reading than Lysine.
• But Glycine is more acidic than Lysine.
Why is that so??
Chemical Nature of the Amino Acids Theamino acids found in proteins have the following generalized structure: Chemical Nature of the Amino Acids Allpeptides and polypeptides are polymers of α-amino acids. Several other amino acids are found in the body free or in combined states (i.e. not associated with peptides or proteins). Acid-Base Properties of the Amino Acids The α-COOH and α-NH2 groups in amino acids are capable of ionizing (as are the acidic and basic R-groups of the amino acids). As a result of their ionizability the following ionic equilibrium reactions may be written: R-COOH <——> R-COO– + H+ R-NH3+ <——> R-NH2 + H+ Theequilibrium reactions, as written, demonstrate that amino acids contain at least two weakly acidic groups. However, the carboxyl group is a far stronger acid than the amino group. At physiological pH (around 7.4) the carboxyl group will be unprotonated and the amino group will be protonated. An amino acid with no ionizable R-group would be electrically neutral at this pH. This species is termed a zwitterion. pH Paper Reading pH Meter Reading Isopropyl Alcohol 4 3.40 Phenol 3 3.33
• Isopropyl Alcohol has a higher pH reading than
Phenol.
• But Phenol is more acidic than Isopropyl
Alcohol.
Why is that so??
Relative Acidities of Alcohols and Phenols Thepolar O-H bond of alcohols makes them weak acids. By the Bronsted-Lowry definition, acids are hydrogen ion donors and bases are hydrogen ion acceptors in chemical reactions. Strong acids are 100% ionized in water and weak acids are only partially ionized. Weak acids establish an equilibrium in water between their ionized and unionized forms. Phenolsare one million to one billion times more acidic than alcohols and this is the characteristic property that distinguishes them. Phenols will react with the base sodium hydroxide but alcohols will not. The acidity of phenols is explained by resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion; the negative charge is dispersed throughout the benzene ring as opposed to being concentrated on the oxygen as it is in the alkoxide ion. Electron-withdrawing groups on the benzene ring increase the acidity of phenols. Chemical components that makes it Acidic. Spoiled Milk Lactic Acid C3H6O3
Yes, spoiled milk is an acid.
The lactic acid makes the milk acidic, milk is said to be sour when it is at a pH level of 4.3-4.5 (acidic) Chemical components that makes it Acidic. Citric Acid C6H8O7 Calamansi Juice Ascorbic Acid C6H8O6
Calamansi juice is an acid.
It has mild sour taste. Sour taste is a characteristic of an acidic property. Chemical components that makes it Acidic. Acetic Acid Commercial Vinegar CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
Acetic acid is the source of the acidity in
vinegar. Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) is an organic acid (carboxylic acid) and is classified as a weak acid. Intramolecular H-Bond on acidity Theeffects of intramolecular hydrogen bonding on acidity can be see not just on O-H and N-H, where acidity is greatly reduced, but also on certain C-H groups, which in some cases become the primary source of acidity.
