All NCERT Books PDF From WWW - Ncert.online: Things Made Things Made Others of Metal of Glass/clay
All NCERT Books PDF From WWW - Ncert.online: Things Made Things Made Others of Metal of Glass/clay
All NCERT Books PDF From WWW - Ncert.online: Things Made Things Made Others of Metal of Glass/clay
online
Look at the items that come in the last column of the above table
filled by you – your teacher will be able to tell you that most of them are
made up of compounds of carbon. Can you think of a method to test
this? What would be the product if a compound containing carbon is
burnt? Do you know of any test to confirm this?
Food, clothes, medicines, books, or many of the things that you listed
are all based on this versatile element carbon. In addition, all living
structures are carbon based. The amount of carbon present in the earth’s
crust and in the atmosphere is quite meagre. The earth’s crust has only
0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like carbonates, hydrogen-
carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon
dioxide. In spite of this small amount of carbon available in nature, the
importance of carbon seems to be immense. In this Chapter, we will know
about the properties of carbon which make carbon so important to us.
In the previous Chapter, we have studied the properties of ionic
compounds. We saw that ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points and conduct electricity in solution or in the molten state. We also
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Allotropes of carbon
The element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with
widely varying physical properties. Both diamond and
graphite are formed by carbon atoms, the difference lies in
the manner in which the carbon atoms are bonded to one
Figure 4.5
another. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four Electron dot structure for
other carbon atoms forming a rigid three-dimensional methane
structure. In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three
other carbon atoms in the same plane giving a hexagonal array.
One of these bonds is a double-bond, and thus the valency of
carbon is satisfied. Graphite structure is formed by the
hexagonal arrays being placed in layers one above the other.
1. What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has
the formula CO2?
2. What would be the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulphur which
is made up of eight atoms of sulphur? (Hint – The eight atoms of sulphur
are joined together in the form of a ring.)
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
We have seen the formation of covalent bonds by the sharing of
electrons in various elements and compounds. We have also seen the
structure of a simple carbon compound, methane. In the beginning
of the Chapter, we saw how many things we use contain carbon. In
fact, we ourselves are made up of carbon compounds. The numbers
of carbon compounds whose formulae are known to chemists was
recently estimated to be in millions! This outnumbers by a large
margin the compounds formed by all the other elements put together.
Why is it that this property is seen in carbon and no other element?
The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number
of compounds. Two factors noticed in the case of carbon are –
(i) Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of
carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This property is called
catenation. These compounds may have long chains of carbon,
branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings.
In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple
bonds. Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single
bonds between the carbon atoms are called saturated compounds.
Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their
carbon atoms are called unsaturated compounds.
No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent
seen in carbon compounds. Silicon forms compounds with
hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or eight atoms, but these
compounds are very reactive. The carbon-carbon bond is very strong
and hence stable. This gives us the large number of compounds
with many carbon atoms linked to each other.
(ii) Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with
four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent
element. Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and many other elements giving rise to
compounds with specific properties which depend on the elements
other than carbon present in the molecule.
Again the bonds that carbon forms with most other elements are
very strong making these compounds exceptionally stable. One
reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size.
This enables the nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons
strongly. The bonds formed by elements having bigger atoms are
much weaker.
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Organic compounds
The two characteristic features seen in carbon, that is, tetravalency and catenation, put
together give rise to a large number of compounds. Many have the same non-carbon
atom or group of atoms attached to different carbon chains. These compounds were
initially extracted from natural substances and it was thought that these carbon
compounds or organic compounds could only be formed within a living system. That is,
it was postulated that a ‘vital force’ was necessary for their synthesis. Friedrich Wöhler
disproved this in 1828 by preparing urea from ammonium cyanate. But carbon
compounds, except for carbides, oxides of carbon, carbonate and hydrogencarbonate
salts continue to be studied under organic chemistry.
Figure 4.6 (b) Each carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms
The electron dot structure of ethane is shown in Fig. 4.6(c).
Can you draw the structure of propane, which has the molecular C—C Step 1
formula C3H8 in a similar manner? You will see that the valencies of all
the atoms are satisfied by single bonds between them. Such carbon
compounds are called saturated compounds. These compounds are
normally not very reactive.
However, another compound of carbon and hydrogen has the formula
C2H4 and is called ethene. How can this molecule be depicted? We follow Step 2
the same step-wise approach as above.
Carbon-carbon atoms linked together with a single bond (Step 1).
We see that one valency per carbon atom remains unsatisfied
(Step 2). This can be satisfied only if there is a double bond between the Step 3
two carbons (Step 3).
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Table 4.2 Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane C2H6
3 Propane C3H8
4 Butane C4H10
5 Pentane C5H12
6 Hexane C6H14
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
C—C—C—C
Figure 4.8 (a) Two possible carbon-skeletons
Filling the remaining valencies with hydrogen gives us –
Figure 4.8 (b) Complete molecules for two structures with formula C4H10
We see that both these structures have the same formula C4H10. Such
compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures
are called structural isomers.
In addition to straight and branched carbon chains, some compounds
have carbon atoms arranged in the form of a ring. For example, cyclohexane
has the formula C6H12 and the following structure –
(a) (b)
Figure 4.9 Structure of cyclohexane (a) carbon skeleton (b) complete molecule
Can you draw the electron dot structure for cyclohexane? Straight
chain, branched chain and cyclic carbon compounds, all may be saturated
or unsaturated. For example, benzene, C6H6, has the following structure –
Benzene — C6H6
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
bonds with other elements such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens can be replaced by these
elements, such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied. In such
compounds, the element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom.
These heteroatoms are also present in some groups as given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Some functional groups in carbon compounds These heteroatoms and
the group containing
Hetero Class of Formula of these confer specific
atom compounds functional group properties to the
compound, regardless
of the length and nature
Cl/Br Halo- (Chloro/bromo) —Cl, —Br of the carbon chain and
alkane (substitutes for
hence are called
hydrogen atom)
functional groups. Some
Oxygen 1. Alcohol —OH important functional
groups are given in the
Table 4.3. Free valency or
2. Aldehyde valencies of the group
are shown by the single
line. The functional group
3. Ketone
is attached to the carbon
chain through this
valency by replacing one
4. Carboxylic acid hydrogen atom or
atoms.
You have seen that carbon atoms can be linked together to form chains
of varying lengths. These chains can be branched also. In addition,
hydrogen atom or other atoms on these carbon chains can be replaced
by any of the functional groups that we saw above. The presence of a
functional group such as alcohol decides the properties of the carbon
compound, regardless of the length of the carbon chain. For example,
the chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all
very similar. Hence, such a series of compounds in which the same
functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a
homologous series.
Let us look at the homologous series that we saw earlier in Table
4.2. If we look at the formulae of successive compounds, say –
CH4 and C2H6 — these differ by a –CH2- unit
C2H6 and C3H8 — these differ by a –CH2- unit
What is the difference between the next pair – propane and butane (C4H10)?
Can you find out the difference in molecular masses between these
pairs (the atomic mass of carbon is 12 u and the atomic mass of hydrogen
is 1 u)?
Similarly, take the homologous series for alkenes. The first member
of the series is ethene which we have already come across in
Section 4.2.1. What is the formula for ethene? The succeeding members
have the formula C3H6, C4H8 and C5H10. Do these also differ by a –CH2–
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
unit? Do you see any relation between the number of carbon and
hydrogen atoms in these compounds? The general formula for alkenes
can be written as CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4. Can you similarly generate the
general formula for alkanes and alkynes?
As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a
gradation in physical properties is seen. This is because the melting and
boiling points increase with increasing molecular mass. Other physical
properties such as solubility in a particular solvent also show a similar
gradation. But the chemical properties, which are determined solely by
the functional group, remain similar in a homologous series.
Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular masses
for (a) CH3OH and C2H5OH (b) C2H5OH and C3H7OH, and (c) C3H7OH
and C4H9OH.
Is there any similarity in these three?
Arrange these alcohols in the order of increasing carbon atoms to
get a family. Can we call this family a homologous series?
Generate the homologous series for compounds containing up to
four carbons for the other functional groups given in Table 4.3.
The names of compounds in a homologous series are based on the name
of the basic carbon chain modified by a “prefix” “phrase before” or “suffix”
“phrase after” indicating the nature of the functional group. For example,
the names of the alcohols taken in Activity 4.2 are methanol, ethanol,
propanol and butanol.
Naming a carbon compound can be done by the following method –
(i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound. A compound
having three carbon atoms would have the name propane.
(ii) In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the
name of the compound with either a prefix or a suffix (as given
in Table 4.4).
(iii) If the name of the functional group is to be given as a suffix, and the
suffix of the functional group begins with a vowel a, e, i, o, u, then
the name of the carbon chain is modified by deleting the final ‘e’ and
adding the appropriate suffix. For example, a three-carbon chain
with a ketone group would be named in the following manner –
Propane – ‘e’ = propan + ‘one’ = propanone.
(iv) If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‘ane’ in the name
of the carbon chain is substituted by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’ as given in
Table 4.4. For example, a three-carbon chain with a double bond
would be called propene and if it has a triple bond, it would be
called propyne.
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Bromopropane
1. How many structural isomers can you draw for pentane?
2. What are the two properties of carbon which lead to the huge number
of carbon compounds we see around us?
3. What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane?
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
4. Draw the structures for the following compounds.
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Bromopentane*
(iii) Butanone (iv) Hexanal.
*Are structural isomers possible for bromopentane?
5. How would you name the following compounds?
(iii)
Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide
along with the release of heat and light. Most carbon compounds also
release a large amount of heat and light on burning. These are the
oxidation reactions that you learnt about in the first Chapter –
(i) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light
(ii) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
(iii) CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
Balance the latter two reactions like you learnt in the first Chapter.
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
mixture is burnt to give a clean blue flame. If you observe the bottoms of
cooking vessels getting blackened, it means that the air holes are blocked
and fuel is getting wasted. Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some
amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. Their combustion results in
the formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are major
pollutants in the environment.
have seen above that a candle or the LPG in the gas stove burns with a flame. However,
you will observe the coal or charcoal in an ‘angithi’ sometimes just glows red and
gives out heat without a flame. This is because a flame is only produced when gaseous
substances burn. When wood or charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present
vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning.
A luminous flame is seen when the atoms of the gaseous substance are heated and
start to glow. The colour produced by each element is a characteristic property of
that element. Try and heat a copper wire in the flame of a gas stove and observe its
colour. You have seen that incomplete combustion gives soot which is carbon. On
this basis, what will you attribute the yellow colour of a candle flame to?
Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which has been subjected to
various biological and geological processes. Coal is the remains of trees, ferns, and
other plants that lived millions of years ago. These were crushed into the earth,
perhaps by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. They were pressed down by layers of
earth and rock. They slowly decayed into coal. Oil and gas are the remains of millions
of tiny plants and animals that lived in the sea. When they died, their bodies sank to
the sea bed and were covered by silt. Bacteria attacked the dead remains, turning
them into oil and gas under the high pressures they were being subjected to.
Meanwhile, the silt was slowly compressed into rock. The oil and gas seeped into the
porous parts of the rock, and got trapped like water in a sponge. Can you guess why
coal and petroleum are called fossil fuels?
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
You must have seen advertisements stating that some vegetable oils
are ‘healthy’. Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which
are said to be harmful for health. Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids
should be chosen for cooking.
1. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
2. A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why
a mixture of ethyne and air is not used?
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature (refer to Table 4.1 for the melting
and boiling points of ethanol). Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and
is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. In addition, because it is a
good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough
syrups, and many tonics. Ethanol is also soluble in water in all
proportions. Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes
drunkenness. Even though this practice is condemned, it is a socially
widespread practice. However, intake of even a small quantity of pure
ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also, long-term
consumption of alcohol leads to many health problems.
Reactions of Ethanol
(i) Reaction with sodium –
and to depress the central nervous system. This results in lack of coordination,
mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of the normal inhibitions, and finally stupor.
The individual may feel relaxed without realising that his sense of judgement, sense
of timing, and muscular coordination have been seriously impaired.
Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death. Methanol
is oxidised to methanal in the liver. Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of
cells. It coagulates the protoplasm, in much the same way an egg is coagulated by
cooking. Methanol also affects the optic nerve, causing blindness.
Ethanol is an important industrial solvent. To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced
for industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances
like methanol to it. Dyes are also added to colour the alcohol blue so that it can be
identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Alcohol as a fuel
Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight into chemical
energy. Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to give
alcohol (ethanol). Some countries now use alcohol as an additive in petrol since it is a
cleaner fuel which gives rise to only carbon dioxide and water on burning in sufficient
air (oxygen).
Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and
belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic
acids. 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is
called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative Compare the pH of dilute acetic acid
and dilute hydrochloric acid using
in pickles. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid
both litmus paper and universal
is 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter indicator.
in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial Are both acids indicated by the
acetic acid. litmus test?
The group of organic compounds called Does the universal indicator show
carboxylic acids are obviously characterised by them as equally strong acids?
their acidic nature. However, unlike mineral acids
like HCl, which are completely ionised, carboxylic
acids are weak acids.
Take 1 mL ethanol (absolute alcohol)
and 1 mL glacial acetic acid along
with a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid in a test tube.
Warm in a water-bath for at least five
minutes as shown in Fig. 4.11.
Pour into a beaker containing
20-50 mL of water and smell the
resulting mixture.
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
NaOH
CH3COOC2H5 C2H5OH+CH3COONa
(ii) Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with
a base such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium ethanoate
or commonly called sodium acetate) and water:
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O
How does ethanoic acid react with carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates?
Let us perform an activity to find out.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Chapter 2, Activity 2.5.
Take a spatula full of sodium carbonate in a test tube and add 2 mL of dilute
ethanoic acid.
What do you observe?
Pass the gas produced through freshly prepared lime-water. What do you observe?
Can the gas produced by the reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate be
identified by this test?
Repeat this Activity with sodium hydrogencarbonate instead of sodium carbonate.
1. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and
a carboxylic acid?
2. What are oxidising agents?
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Micelles
Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have differing properties, one is hydrophilic,
that is, it interacts with water, while the other end is hydrophobic, that is, it interacts
with hydrocarbons. When soap is at the surface of water, the hydrophobic ‘tail’ of soap
will not be soluble in water and the soap will align along the surface of water with the
ionic end in water and the hydrocarbon ‘tail’ protruding out of water. Inside water,
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Take two test tubes with about 10 mL of hard water in each.
Add five drops of soap solution to one and five drops of detergent
solution to the other.
Shake both test tubes for the same period.
Do both test tubes have the same amount of foam?
In which test tube is a curdy solid formed?
Have you ever observed while bathing that foam is formed with
difficulty and an insoluble substance (scum) remains after washing with
water? This is caused by the reaction of soap with the calcium and
magnesium salts, which cause the hardness of water. Hence you need
to use a larger amount of soap. This problem is overcome by using
another class of compounds called detergents as cleansing agents.
Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium
salts with chlorides or bromides ions, etc. Both have long hydrocarbon
chain. The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble
precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus,
they remain effective in hard water. Detergents are usually used to make
shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
1. Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?
2. People use a variety of methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding
the soap, they ‘beat’ the clothes on a stone, or beat it with a paddle,
scrub with a brush or the mixture is agitated in a washing machine.
Why is agitation necessary to get clean clothes?
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
Carbon is a versatile element that forms the basis for all living organisms and many
of the things we use.
This large variety of compounds is formed by carbon because of its tetravalency
and the property of catenation that it exhibits.
Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms so that
both can achieve a completely filled outermost shell.
Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and other elements such as hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine.
Carbon also forms compounds containing double and triple bonds between carbon
atoms. These carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains
or rings.
The ability of carbon to form chains gives rise to a homologous series of compounds
in which the same functional group is attached to carbon chains of different lengths.
The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
bestow characteristic properties to the carbon compounds that contain them.
Carbon and its compounds are some of our major sources of fuels.
Ethanol and ethanoic acid are carbon compounds of importance in our daily lives.
The action of soaps and detergents is based on the presence of both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic groups in the molecule and this helps to emulsify the oily dirt and
hence its removal.
1. Ethane, with the molecular formula C 2H6 has
(a) 6 covalent bonds.
(b) 7 covalent bonds.
(c) 8 covalent bonds.
(d) 9 covalent bonds.
2. Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group
(a) carboxylic acid.
(b) aldehyde.
(c) ketone.
(d) alcohol.
3. While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside,
it means that
(a) the food is not cooked completely.
(b) the fuel is not burning completely.
(c) the fuel is wet.
(d) the fuel is burning completely.
2019-20
Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.online
4. Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.
5. Draw the electron dot structures for
(a) ethanoic acid.
(b) H2S.
(c) propanone.
(d) F2 .
6. What is an homologous series? Explain with an example.
7. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical
and chemical properties?
8. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle
be formed in other solvents such as ethanol also?
9. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
10. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
11. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?
12. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
13. Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:
C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4.
14. Give a test that can be used to differentiate between saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
15. Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps.
I Use molecular model kits to make models of the compounds you have learnt in
this Chapter.
II Take about 20 mL of castor oil/cotton seed oil/linseed oil/soyabean oil in a
beaker. Add 30 mL of 20 % sodium hydroxide solution. Heat the mixture with
continuous stirring for a few minutes till the mixture thickens. Add 5-10 g of
common salt to this. Stir the mixture well and allow it to cool.
You can cut out the soap in fancy shapes. You can also add perfume to the
soap before it sets.
Science
www.cbse.online
2019-20