CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 About Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the type of cancer that begins in the lungs. Among all the cancers, the lung
cancer causes the maximum cases of deaths in Men and Women. In United States 165,000
people die with lung cancer every year. In a survey ,in males more than 80% and in females
more than 70% lung cancer is caused by Cigarette smoking. In INDIA every year 63,000 new
lung cancer cases has been reported.

Detection of the cancer at the early stage is very difficult so Various CAD systems have been
designed for the detection of the lung cancer at the early stage. Diagnose of the lung tumor at
the early stage can increase the survival rate of 1 to 5 years. The lung tumor causes due to an
abnormality in body cells. Tumor can be two types: it can be benign or malignant. A tumor
which can be removed and can be stopped spreading in other parts of the body, is type of benign
tumor. Another part of Tumor which grows aggressively and spread into the other parts of the
body is known as malignant . In spite of using invasive method like Biopsy, medical imaging is
preferred to look inside the body because it is safe and comfortable for the effected person.
Medical Imaging plays a very important role for the nodule detection and treatment of lung
cancer. It is more accurate and efficient method for the diagnosis compare to other.

In medical Imaging different types of images are being used, but for the detection of lung
diagnosis Computed Tomography (CT) images are being preferred because of better clarity,
low noise and less distortion. It is also important compare to another images in terms of
calculation of mean and variance of images.. The detection process mainly divided into four
parts: Image Preprocessing and Enhancement of image, segmentation of Lung, Feature
Extraction and Classification. In all the Processes Lung Segmentation is considered as the most
difficult part because it includes various pre-processing steps

1
1.2 IMAGE PROCESSING
The term digital image refers to processing of a two dimensional picture by a digital
computer. In a broader context, it implies digital processing of any two dimensional data. A
digital image is an array of real or complex numbers represented by a finite number of bits. An
image given in the form of a transparency, slide, photograph or an X-ray is first digitized and
stored as a matrix of binary digits in computer memory. This digitized image can then be
processed and/or displayed on a high-resolution television monitor. For display, the image is
stored in a rapid-access buffer memory, which refreshes the monitor at a rate of 25 frames per
second to produce a visually continuous display.

1.3 DIGITIZER:
A digitizer converts an image into a numerical representation suitable for input into a digital
computer. Some common digitizers are
1. Microdensitometer
2. Flying spot scanner
3. Image dissector
4. Videocon camera
5. Photosensitive solid- state arrays.

1.4 IMAGE PROCESSOR:

An image processor does the functions of image acquisition, storage, preprocessing,
segmentation, representation, recognition and interpretation and finally displays or records the
resulting image. The following block diagram gives the fundamental sequence involved in an
image processing system. As detailed in the diagram, the first step in the process is image
acquisition by an imaging sensor in conjunction with a digitizer to digitize the image. The next
step is the preprocessing step where the image is improved being fed as an input to the other
processes. Preprocessing typically deals with enhancing, removing noise, isolating regions, etc.
Segmentation partitions an image into its constituent parts or objects. The output of segmentation
is usually raw pixel data, which consists of either the boundary of the region or the pixels in the
region themselves. Representation is the process of transforming the raw pixel data into a form

2
useful for subsequent processing by the computer. Description deals with extracting features that
are basic in differentiating one class of objects from another. Recognition assigns a label to an
object based on the information provided by its descriptors. Interpretation involves assigning
meaning to an ensemble of recognized objects. The knowledge about a problem domain is
incorporated into the knowledge base. The knowledge base guides the operation of each
processing module and also controls the interaction between the modules. Not all modules need
be necessarily present for a specific function. The composition of the image processing system
depends on its application. The frame rate of the image processor is normally around 25 frames
per second.
1.5 DIGITAL COMPUTER:
Mathematical processing of the digitized image such as convolution, averaging, addition, subtraction, etc.
are done by the computer.

1.6 MASS STORAGE:

The secondary storage devices normally used are floppy disks, CD ROMs etc.

1.7 HARD COPY DEVICE:

The hard copy device is used to produce a permanent copy of the image and for the storage of the
software involved.
1.8 OPERATOR CONSOLE:
The operator console consists of equipment and arrangements for verification of intermediate results and
for alterations in the software as and when require. The operator is also capable of checking for any
resulting errors and for the entry of requisite data.

1.9 IMAGE PROCESSING FUNDAMENTAL:

Digital image processing refers processing of the image in digital form. Modern cameras may directly
take the image in digital form but generally images are originated in optical form. They are captured by
video cameras and digitalized. The digitalization process includes sampling, quantization. Then these
images are processed by the five fundamental processes, at least any one of them, not necessarily all of
them.

3
1.10 IMAGE ENHANCEMENT:
Image enhancement operations improve the qualities of an image like improving the image’s
contrast and brightness characteristics, reducing its noise content, or sharpen the details. This just
enhances the image and reveals the same information in more understandable image. It does not
add any information to it.

1.11 IMAGE RESTORATION:

Image restoration like enhancement improves the qualities of image but all the operations are
mainly based on known, measured, or degradations of the original image. Image restorations are
used to restore images with problems such as geometric distortion, improper focus, repetitive
noise, and camera motion. It is used to correct images for known degradations.

1.12 IMAGE ANALYSIS:

Image analysis operations produce numerical or graphical information based on characteristics of
the original image. They break into objects and then classify them. They depend on the image
statistics. Common operations are extraction and description of scene and image features,
automated measurements, and object classification. Image analyze are mainly used in machine
vision applications.

1.13 IMAGE COMPRESSION:

Image compression and decompression reduce the data content necessary to describe the image.
Most of the images contain lot of redundant information, compression removes all the
redundancies. Because of the compression the size is reduced, so efficiently stored transported.
The compressed image is decompressed when displayed. Lossless compression preserves the
exact data in the original image, but Lossy compression does not represent the original image but
provide excellent compression.

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1.14 IMAGE SYNTHESIS:
Image synthesis operations create images from other images or non-image data. Image synthesis
operations generally create images that are either physically impossible or impractical to acquire.

1.15 APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING:

Digital image processing has a broad spectrum of applications, such as remote sensing via
satellites and other spacecrafts, image transmission and storage for business applications,
medical processing, radar, sonar and acoustic image processing, robotics and automated
inspection of industrial parts.

1. MEDICAL APPLICATIONS:
In medical applications, one is concerned with processing of chest X-rays, cineangiograms,
projection images of transaxial tomography and other medical images that occur in radiology,
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and ultrasonic scanning. These images may be used for
patient screening and monitoring or for detection of tumors’ or other disease in patients.

2. SATELLITE IMAGING:
Images acquired by satellites are useful in tracking of earth resources; geographical mapping;
prediction of agricultural crops, urban growth and weather; flood and fire control; and many
other environmental applications. Space image applications include recognition and analysis of
objects contained in image obtained from deep space-probe missions.

3. COMMUNICATION:
Image transmission and storage applications occur in broadcast television, teleconferencing, and
transmission of facsimile images for office automation, communication of computer networks,
closed-circuit television based security monitoring systems and in military communications.

4. RADAR IMAGING SYSTEMS:

Radar and sonar images are used for detection and recognition of various types of targets or in
guidance and maneuvering of aircraft or missile systems.

5
5. DOCUMENT PROCESSING:
It is used in scanning, and transmission for converting paper documents to a digital image form,
compressing the image, and storing it on magnetic tape. It is also used in document reading for
automatically detecting and recognizing printed characteristics.

1.16 Conclusion Of Chapter 1

In medical Imaging different types of images are being used, but for the detection of lung
diagnosis Computed Tomography (CT) images are being preferred because of better clarity,
low noise and less distortion. It is also important compare to another images in terms of
calculation of mean and variance of images.. The detection process mainly divided into four
parts: Image Preprocessing and Enhancement of image, segmentation of Lung, Feature
Extraction and Classification. In all the Processes Lung Segmentation is considered as the most
difficult part because it includes various pre-processing steps.

6
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Automatic detection of small lung nodules on CT utilizinga local density

maximum algorithm.

Increasingly, computed tomography (CT) offers higher resolution and faster acquisition times.
This has resulted in the opportunity to detect small lung nodules, which may represent lung
cancers at earlier and potentially more curable stages. However, in the current clinical practice,
hundreds of such thin-sectional CT images are generated for each patient and are evaluated by a
radiologist in the traditional sense of looking at each image in the axial mode.

This results in the potential to miss small nodules and thus potentially miss a cancer.

In this chapter, we present a computerized method for automated identification of small lung
nodules on multi slice CT (MSCT) images. The method consists of three steps:
1. separation of the lungs from the other anatomic structures.
2. detection of nodule candidates in the extracted lungs, and
3. reduction of false-positives among the detected nodule candidates.

A three-dimensional lung mask can be extracted by analyzing density histogram of volumetric

chest images followed by a morphological operation. Higher density structures including nodules
scattered throughout the lungs can be identified by using a local density maximum algorithm.
Information about nodules such as size and compact shape are then incorporated into the
algorithm to reduce the detected nodule candidates which are not likely to be nodules. The
method was applied to the detection of computer simulated small lung nodules (2 to 7 mm in
diameter) and achieved a sensitivity of 84.2% with, on average, five false-positive results per
scan. The preliminary results demonstrate the potential of this technique for assisting the

7
detection of small nodules from chest MSCT images.

2.2 Quantification of Nodule Detection in Chest CT:A Clinical Investigation

Based on the ELCAP.

This paper examines the detection step in automatic detection and classification of lung nodules
from low-dose CT (LDCT) scans. Two issues are studied in detail: nodule modeling and
simulation, and the effect of these models on the detection process. From an ensemble of
nodules, specified by radiologists, we devise an approach to estimate the gray level intensity
distribution (Hounsfield Units) and a figure of merit of the size of appropriate templates. Hence,
a data-driven approach is used to design the templates. The chapter presents an extensive study
of the sensitivity and specificity of the nodule detection step, in which the quality of the nodule
model is the driving factor. Finally, validation of the detection approach on labeled clinical
dataset from the Early Lung Cancer Action Project (ELCAP) screening study is conducted.
Overall, this chapter shows a relationship between the spatial support of the nodule templates
and the resolution of the LDCT, which can be used to automatically select the template size. The
paper also shows that isotropic templates do not provide adequate detection rate (in terms of
sensitivity and specificity) of vascularized nodules. The nodule models in this paper can be used
in various machine learning approaches for automatic nodule detection and classification.

2.3 Parametric and Non-Parametric Nodule Models:

Lung nodule modeling quality defines the success of lung nodule detection. This chapter presents
a novel method for generating lung nodules using variational level sets to obtain the shape
properties of real nodules to form an average model template per nodule type. The texture
information used for filling the nodules is based on a devised approach that uses the probability
density of the radial distance of each nodule to obtain the maximum and minimum Hounsfield
density (HU). There are two main categories that lung nodule models fall within; parametric and
non-parametric. The performance of the new nodule templates will be evaluated during the
detection step and compared with the use of parametric templates and another non-parametric
Active Appearance model to explain the advantages and/or disadvantages of using parametric vs.

8
non-parametric models as well as which variation of nonparametric template design, i.e., shape
based or shape-texture based yields better results in the overall detection process.

2.4 Computer Analysis of Computed Tomography Scans of the Lung:

In this chapter, Current computed tomography (CT) technology allows for near isotropic, sub
millimeter resolution acquisition of the complete chest in a single breath hold. These thin-slice
chest scans have become indispensable in thoracic radiology, but have also substantially
increased the data load for radiologists. Automating the analysis of such data is, therefore, a
necessity and this has created a rapidly developing research area in medical imaging. This
chapter presents a review of the literature on computer analysis of the lungs in CT scans and
addresses segmentation of various pulmonary structures, registration of chest scans, and
applications aimed at detection, classification and quantification of chest abnormalities.

2.5 Evaluation of geometric feature descriptors for detection and

classification of lung nodules in low dose ct scans.
This chapter examines the effectiveness of geometric feature descriptors, common in computer
vision, for false positive reduction and for classification of lung nodules in low dose CT (LDCT)
scans. A data-driven lung nodule modeling approach creates templates for common nodule types,
using active appearance models (AAM); which are then used to detect candidate nodules based
on optimum similarity measured by the normalized cross-correlation (NCC). Geometric feature
descriptors (e.g., SIFT, LBP and SURF) are applied to the output of the detection step, in order
to extract features from the nodule candidates, for further enhancement of output and possible
reduction of false positives. Results on the clinical ELCAP database showed that the descriptors
provide 2% enhancements in the specificity of the detected nodule above the NCC results when
used in a k-NN classifier. Thus quantitative measures of enhancements of the performance of
CAD models based on LDCT are now possible and are entirely model-based most importantly;
our approach is applicable for classification of nodules into categories and pathologies.

9
2.6 Conclusion Of Chapter 2

A review of the literature was carried out covering the last 30 years by searching through the
MEDLINE and manually. The review consists of two companion parts. The first includes studies
of quality of life in lung cancer patients in general, while the second part is restricted to defined
samples of small and non-small cell lung cancer patients. Excluding non-English and review
articles, in total 151 citations were identified and all have been reviewed. Over 50 instruments
were used to measure quality of life in lung cancer studies. Of these, the European Organisation
for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Lung Cancer Questionnaire (EORTC
QLQ-LC13) in conjunction with the core cancer questionnaire (QLQ-C30) was found to be the
best developed instrument, although there were two other lung cancer-specific measures with
good reliability and validity. Several topics in this chapter have been highlighted, including the
importance of regularly measuring quality of life in lung cancer patients. Progress and
achievements in areas such as performance status as a proxy of quality of life measure,
psychological morbidity and symptom distress as predictive factors of quality of survival, and
communication problems in quality of life studies of lung cancer patients have been emphasized
and their implications in lung cancer care discussed. It is argued that palliation of symptoms,
psychosocial interventions, and understanding patients' feelings and concerns all contribute to
improving quality of life in lung cancer patients. It is concluded that the future challenge in
treatment of lung cancer lies not only in improving the survival, but mainly the patients' quality
of life regardless of cell type. Clinical trial and epidemiologic population-based outcome studies
are recommended to provide this and to allow a better understanding of the contribution of the
socioeconomic characteristics of the patients to their pretreatment and posttreatment quality of
life.

10
 CHAPTER 3
SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION
3.1 GENERAL
This chapter proposes a novel non-rigid inter-subject multichannel image registration method
which combines information from different modalities/channels to produce a unified joint
registration. Multichannel images are created using co-registered multimodality images of the
same subject to utilize information across modalities comprehensively. Contrary to the existing
methods which combine the information at the image/intensity level, the proposed method uses
feature-level information fusion method to spatio-adaptively combine the complementary
information from different modalities that characterize different tissue types, through Gabor
wavelets transformation and Independent Component Analysis (ICA), to produce a robust inter-
subject registration.

3.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

 MATLAB 7.14 Version
MATLAB
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are
expressed in familiar mathematical notation.
Typical uses include:
 Math and computation
 Algorithm development
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics.
 Application development, including Graphical User Interface building

11
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN

3.3 INTRODUCTION
MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment and fourth-generation
programming language. Developed by Math Works, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations,
plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and
interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, and Fortran.

Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an optional toolbox uses
the MuPADsymbolic engine, allowing access to symbolic computing capabilities. An
additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and Model-Based
Design for dynamic and embedded systems.

In 2004, MATLAB had around one million users across industry and academia. MATLAB
users come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics. MATLAB is
widely used in academic and research institutions as well as industrial enterprises.

MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners in control engineering, Little's
specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also used in education, in
particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis, and is popular amongst
scientists involved in image processing. The MATLAB application is built around the
MATLAB language. The simplest way to execute MATLAB code is to type it in the
Command Window, which is one of the elements of the MATLAB Desktop. When code is
entered in the Command Window, MATLAB can be used as an interactive
mathematical shell. Sequences of commands can be saved in a text file, typically using the
MATLAB Editor, as a script or encapsulated into a function, extending the commands

12
MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can
integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your
MATLAB algorithms and applications.

3.4 FEATURES OF MATLAB

 High-level language for technical computing.
 Development environment for managing code, files, and data.
 Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving.
 Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis,
filtering, optimization, and numerical integration.
 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data.
 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces.
 Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications
and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java™, COM, and Microsoft Excel.

MATLAB is used in vast area, including signal and image processing, communications,
control design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and computational.
Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions) extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas.

MATLAB can be used on personal computers and powerful server systems, including
the Cheaha compute cluster. With the addition of the Parallel Computing Toolbox, the
language can be extended with parallel implementations for common computational
functions, including for-loop unrolling. Additionally this toolbox supports offloading
computationally intensive workloads to Cheaha the campus compute cluster. MATLAB is
one of a few languages in which each variable is a matrix (broadly construed) and "knows"
how big it is. Moreover, the fundamental operators (e.g. addition, multiplication) are
programmed to deal with matrices when required. And the MATLAB environment handles
much of the bothersome housekeeping that makes all this possible. Since so many of the
procedures required for Macro-Investment Analysis involves matrices, MATLAB proves to
be an extremely efficient language for both communication and implementation.

13
3.4.1 INTERFACING WITH OTHER LANGUAGES
MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the C programming
language or FORTRAN. A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be
passed and returned. The dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such
functions are termed "MEX-files" (for MATLAB executable).

Libraries written in Java, ActiveX or .NET can be directly called from MATLAB and many
MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around
Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done
with MATLAB extension, which is sold separately by Math Works, or using an
undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-Mat lab Interface), which should not be
confused with the unrelated Java that is also called JMI.

As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox available from Math Works,
MATLAB can be connected to Maple or Mathematical.
Libraries also exist to import and export MathML.

3.4.2 Development Environment

 Startup Accelerator for faster MATLAB startup on Windows, especially on Windows
XP, and for network installations.
 Spreadsheet Import Tool that provides more options for selecting and loading mixed
textual and numeric data.
 Readability and navigation improvements to warning and error messages in the
MATLAB command window.
 Automatic variable and function renaming in the MATLAB Editor.

14
 3.4.3 Developing Algorithms and Applications
MATLAB provides a high-level language and development tools that let you quickly develop
and analyze your algorithms and applications

3.4.4 The MATLAB Language

The MATLAB language supports the vector and matrix operations that are fundamental to
engineering and scientific problems. It enables fast development and execution. With the
MATLAB language, you can program and develop algorithms faster than with traditional
languages because you do not need to perform low-level administrative tasks, such as declaring
variables, specifying data types, and allocating memory. In many cases, MATLAB eliminates the
need for ‘for’ loops. As a result, one line of MATLAB code can often replace several lines of C
or C++ code.

At the same time, MATLAB provides all the features of a traditional programming language,
including arithmetic operators, flow control, data structures, data types, object-oriented
programming (OOP), and debugging features.

MATLAB lets you execute commands or groups of commands one at a time, without compiling
and linking, enabling you to quickly iterate to the optimal solution. For fast execution of heavy
matrix and vector computations, MATLAB uses processor-optimized libraries. For general-
purpose scalar computations, MATLAB generates machine-code instructions using its JIT (Just-
In-Time) compilation technology.

This technology, which is available on most platforms, provides execution speeds that rival
those of traditional programming languages.

3.4.5 Development Tools

MATLAB includes development tools that help you implement your algorithm efficiently.
These include the following:

15
3.4.6 MATLAB Editor
Provides standard editing and debugging features, such as setting breakpoints and single
stepping
3.4.7 CODE ANALYZER
Checks your code for problems and recommends modifications to maximize performance
and maintainability

3.4.8 MATLAB PROFILER

Records the time spent executing each line of code
3.4.9 DIRECTORY REPORTS
Scan all the files in a directory and report on code efficiency, file differences, file dependencies,
and code coverage

3.4.10 DESIGNING GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES

By using the interactive tool GUIDE (Graphical User Interface Development Environment) to
layout, design, and edit user interfaces. GUIDE lets you include list boxes, pull-down menus,
push buttons, radio buttons, and sliders, as well as MATLAB plots and Microsoft
ActiveX® controls. Alternatively, you can create GUIs programmatically using MATLAB
functions.

3.5 THE MATLAB SYSTEM

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:

3.5.1 Development Environment.

This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and
files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop
and Command Window, a command history, and browsers for viewing help, the
workspace, files, and the search path.

16
3.5.2 The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library.
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions
like matrix inverse, matrix eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

3.5.3 The MATLAB Language.

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions,
data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create complete large and complex application programs.

3.5.4 Handle Graphics.

This is the MATLAB graphics system. It includes high-level commands for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level commands that allow you to fully
customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user
interfaces on your MATLAB applications.

3.5.5 The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API).

This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact
with MATLAB. It include facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic
linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-
files.

3.5.6 DESKTOP TOOLS

This section provides an introduction to MATLAB's desktop tools. You can also
use MATLAB functions to perform most of the features found in the desktop tools. The
tools are:

17
 Current Directory Browser
 Workspace Browser
 Array Editor
 Editor/Debugger
 Command Window
 Command History
 Launch Pad
 Help Browser

Command Window

Fig 3.1 Use the Command Window to enter variables and run functions and M-files.

 Command History
Lines you enter in the Command Window are logged in the Command History
window. In the Command History, you can view previously used functions, and copy and

18
execute selected lines. To save the input and output from a MATLAB session to a file,
use the diary function.

 Running External Programs

You can run external programs from the MATLAB Command Window. The
exclamation point character! is a shell escape and indicates that the rest of the input line
is a command to the operating system. This is useful for invoking utilities or running
other programs without quitting MATLAB. On Linux, for example,!emacsmagik.m
invokes an editor called emacs for a file named magik.m. When you quit the external
program, the operating system returns control to MATLAB.

 Launch Pad
MATLAB's Launch Pad provides easy access to tools, demos, and
documentation.

 Help Browser
Use the Help browser to search and view documentation for all your Math Works
products. The Help browser is a Web browser integrated into the MATLAB desktop that
displays HTML documents.

To open the Help browser, click the help button in the toolbar, or type
helpbrowser in the Command Window. The Help browser consists of two panes, the Help
Navigator, which you use to find information, and the display pane, where you view the
information.

 Help Navigator
Use to Help Navigator to find information.

 Product filter

19
 Set the filter to show documentation only for the products you specify.

 Contents tab
View the titles and tables of contents of documentation for your products.

 Index tab
Find specific index entries (selected keywords) in the MathWorks documentation
for your products.

 Search tab
Look for a specific phrase in the documentation. To get help for a specific
function, set the Search type to Function Name.

 Favorites tab
View a list of documents you previously designated as favorites.

 Display Pane
After finding documentation using the Help Navigator, view it in the display
pane.

 Browse to other pages

Use the arrows at the tops and bottoms of the pages, or use the back and forward
buttons in the toolbar.

 Bookmark pages
Click the Add to Favorites button in the toolbar.

 Print pages

20
 Click the print button in the toolbar.

 Find a term in the page

Type a term in the Find in page field in the toolbar and click Go.
Other features available in the display pane are: copying information, evaluating a
selection, and viewing Web pages.

Current Directory Browser

Fig 3.2 Current Browser Directory

MATLAB file operations use the current directory and the search path as reference
points. Any file you want to run must either be in the current directory or on the search
path.

21
3.6 Search Path
To determine how to execute functions you call, MATLAB uses a search path to find M-
files and other MATLAB-related files, which are organized in directories on your file
system. Any file you want to run in MATLAB must reside in the current directory or in a
directory that is on the search path. By default, the files supplied with MATLAB and
MathWorks toolboxes are included in the search path.

 Workspace Browser

The MATLAB workspace consists of the set of variables (named arrays) built up
during a MATLAB session and stored in memory. You add variables to the workspace by
using functions, running M-files, and loading saved workspaces.

To view the workspace and information about each variable, use the Workspace
browser, or use the functions who and who’s.

To delete variables from the workspace, select the variable and select Delete from
the Edit menu. Alternatively, use the clear function.

The workspace is not maintained after you end the MATLAB session. To save the
workspace to a file that can be read during a later MATLAB session, select Save
Workspace As from the File menu, or use the save function. This saves the workspace to
a binary file called a MAT-file, which has a .mat extension. There are options for saving
to different formats. To read in a MAT-file, select Import Data from the File menu, or use
the load function.

 Array Editor
Double-click on a variable in the Workspace browser to see it in the Array
Editor. Use the Array Editor to view and edit a visual representation of one- or two-

22
dimensional numeric arrays, strings, and cell arrays of strings that are in the workspace.

 Editor/Debugger
Use the Editor/Debugger to create and debug M-files, which are programs you
write to run MATLAB functions. The Editor/Debugger provides a graphical user
interface for basic text editing, as well as for M-file debugging.

You can use any text editor to create M-files, such as Emacs, and can use
preferences (accessible from the desktop File menu) to specify that editor as the default.
If you use another editor, you can still use the MATLAB Editor/Debugger for debugging,
or you can use debugging functions, such as dbstop, which sets a breakpoint.

If you just need to view the contents of an M-file, you can display it in the
Command Window by using the type function.

3.6.1 ANALYZING AND ACCESSING DATA

MATLAB supports the entire data analysis process, from acquiring data from external
devices and databases, through preprocessing, visualization, and numerical analysis, to
producing presentation-quality output.

 DATA ANALYSIS
MATLAB provides interactive tools and command-line functions for data analysis
operations, including:
 Interpolating and decimating
 Extracting sections of data, scaling, and averaging
 Thresholding and smoothing
 Correlation, Fourier analysis, and filtering
 1-D peak, valley, and zero finding
 Basic statistics and curve fitting
 Matrix analysis

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3.6.2. DATA ACCESS
MATLAB is an efficient platform for accessing data from files, other applications, databases,
and external devices. You can read data from popular file formats, such as Microsoft Excel;
ASCII text or binary files; image, sound, and video files; and scientific files, such as HDF and
HDF5. Low-level binary file I/O functions let you work with data files in any format.
Additional functions let you read data from Web pages and XML.

3.6.3. VISUALIZING DATA

All the graphics features that are required to visualize engineering and scientific data are
available in MATLAB. These include 2-D and 3-D plotting functions, 3-D volume visualization
functions, tools for interactively creating plots, and the ability to export results to all popular
graphics formats. You can customize plots by adding multiple axes; changing line colors and
markers; adding annotation, Latex equations, and legends; and drawing shapes.

3.6.4. 2-D PLOTTING

Visualizing vectors of data with 2-D plotting functions that create:
 Line, area, bar, and pie charts.
 Direction and velocity plots.
 Histograms.
 Polygons and surfaces.
 Scatter/bubble plots.
 Animations.

3.6.5. 3-D PLOTTING AND VOLUME VISUALIZATION
MATLAB provides functions for visualizing 2-D matrices, 3-D scalar, and 3-D vector
data. You can use these functions to visualize and understand large, often complex,
multidimensional data. Specifying plot characteristics, such as camera viewing angle,
perspective, lighting effect, light source locations, and transparency.
3-D plotting functions include:

24
  Surface, contour, and mesh.
 Image plots.
 Cone, slice, stream, and iso-surface.

3.6.6 PERFORMING NUMERIC COMPUTATION

MATLAB contains mathematical, statistical, and engineering functions to support all

common engineering and science operations. These functions, developed by experts in
mathematics, are the foundation of the MATLAB language. The core math functions use the
LAPACK and BLAS linear algebra subroutine libraries and the FFTW Discrete Fourier
Transform library. Because these processor-dependent libraries are optimized to the different
platforms that MATLAB supports, they execute faster than the equivalent C or C++ code.

3.7 Conclusion Of Chapter 3

MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can
integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your
MATLAB algorithms and applications.

25
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY AND PROPOSED SYSTEM

Overall, there are three main processes used throughout the report; Pre-processing, feature
extraction and finally result process. MATLAB is used in every process made throughout the
project. Process involved in the lung cancer detection system for the project can be view in
Figure (4.1)

Fig 4.1 Lung Cancer Detection System

Image Capture

Image Pre-
Processing

Feature Extraction

Lung Cancer
Identification

Results

26
FIG 4.2 Explaination of Diagram
References Google Images

27
4.1 Use Case Diagram

FIG 4.3 Use Case Diagram Of Lung Cancer Detection System

Reference Febr Mokhled S. AL-TARAWNEH

4.2 Image Acquisition

First step is to acquire the CT scan image of lung cancer patient. The lung CT images are
having low noise when compared to X-ray and MRI images; hence they are considered for
developing the technique. The main advantage of using computed tomography images is that, it
gives better clarity and less distortion. For research work, the CT images are acquired from
databases or from the internet. The acquired images are in raw form. In the acquired images lot

28
of noise is ob-served. To improve the contrast, clarity, separate the background noise, it is
required to pre-process the images. Hence, various techniques like smoothing, enhancement are
applied to get image in required form.

4.3 Image Preprocessing

4.3.1 Smoothing :
It suppresses the noise or other small fluctuations in the image; equivalent to the
suppressions of high frequencies in the frequency domain. Smoothing also blurs all sharp edges
that bear important information about the image. To remove the noise from the images, median
filtering is used. Median filtering is a non-linear operation often used in image processing to
reduce noise.

4.3.2 Enhancement:
To make the image better and enhance it from noising, corruption or interference. The
following three methods are used for this purpose: Gabor filter (has the best results), Auto
enhancement algorithm, and FFT Fast Fourier Transform (shows the worst results for image
segmentation).

4.4 Image Segmentation

Image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple segments. The
goal of segmentation is to simplify or change the representation of an image into something that
is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Segmentation divides the image into its constituent
regions or objects. The result of image segmentation is a set of segments that collectively cover
the entire image or a set of contours extracted from the image. The used algorithms on the ROI
of the image (just two lungs, the methods used are: Thresholding approach and Marker-
Controlled Watershed Segmentation approach (this approach has better results than
thresholding).

4.5 Feature Extraction

To obtain the general features of the enhanced segmented image using Binarization and
Masking Approach.

29
4.6 Results
The result will give the normal image or abnormal image.

4.7 Proposed System

This proposed a computerized system for lung nodule detection in CT scan images. The system
consists of two stages i.e. lung segmentation and enhancement, feature extraction and
classification. Threshold segmentation is applied to remove background and extracts the nodules
from an image. A feature vector for possible abnormal regions is calculated and regions are
classified using neuro fuzzy classifier. System facilitates the detection of small nodules which
lead to early diagnosis of lung cancer.

The aim to get the more accurate results by using various enhancement and segmentation
techniques. MATLAB have been used through every procedures made. In image processing
procedures, process such as image pre-processing, segmentation and feature extraction discussed
in detail. Compare Gabor filter, auto enhancement and Fast Fourier transform techniques, used
for image enhancement. In the segmentation stage the Watershed and Thresholding
Segmentation is used and comparison has been made.

The aim at presenting a method to improve the efficiency of the lung cancer diagnosis system,
through proposing a region growing segmentation method to segment CT scan lung images.
Linear-filtering and contrast enhancement used as preprocessing step for noise removal, to
prepare the image for segmentation. Afterwards, cancer recognition are presenting by Fuzzy
Inference System (FIS) for differentiating between malignant, benign and advanced lung
nodules. The diagnostic performances of FIS system is comparing by using artificial neural
networks (ANNs).

This presented an automated process of tumor delineation and volume detection from each frame
of PET lung images. Data is represented by using spatial features (geometric moments) and

30
frequency domain features (discrete cosine transform, wavelets) and comparison has been made.
K-nearest neighbor and support vector machines (SVM) classifiers were used to analyze
performance of these features. This procedure facilitates the physicians in accurate staging and
radiotherapy treatment planning for lung tumors.

As in this we use three main processes in the detection of lung cancer. This is done in various
phases as shown below:

IMAGE CAPTURE

IMAGE
ENHANCEMENT

IMAGE
SEGMENTATION

FEATURE
EXTRACTION

FIG 4.4 Phases Involed in lung cancer detection

As first we talk about the image enhancement as it is a technique for enhancing the image. So for
enhancing image there are various techniques for enhancing the image as Gabor filter, Auto
enhancement algorithm and Fast and Fourier Transform. So here is that we uses Gabor filter to
enhance the images because it give the good results for further image segmentation process as
compared to others two method .

31
STEP-1: Collect the lung cancer images from respective cancer hospital

STEP-2: Access one particular image into MATLAB with the help of command

STEP-3: Enhancement process

Image enhancement is to improve the interpretability or perception of information included in
the image for human viewers, or to provide better input for other automated image processing
techniques.We are using Gabor filter for image enhancement process.

4.8 Gabor Filter :

Image presentation based on Gabor function constitutes an excellent local and multi-scale
decomposition in terms of logons that are simultaneously (and optimally) localization in
space and frequency domains.

A Gabor filter is a linear filter whose impulse response is defined by a harmonic

function multiplied by a Gaussian function. Because of the multiplication-convolution
property (Convolution theorem), the Fourier transform of a Gabor filter's impulse response is
the convolution of the Fourier transform of the harmonic function and the Fourier transform
of the Gaussian function Figure 4.5 describes (a) the original image and (b) the enhanced
image using Gabor Filter.

FIG 4.5 Enhanced image through Gabor Filter

Refrences K Sankar Journal of theortical technology, IEEE 2002

32
Gabor filter is used for enhancement images as it enhances the image to good clearance and
brightness as compared to other 2 process that are Auto Enhancement Algorithm and Fast
Fourier Transform.

STEP-4: Segmentation process

Segmentation divides the image into its constituents regions or objects. It has many useful
applications for the medical professional such as visualization and volume estimation of object
of interest, detection of abnormalities, tissue qualification and classification, and more. We are
using Marker-Controlled Watershed Segmentation Approach for segmentation

4.9 Marker-Controlled Watershed Segmentation Approach

Marker-driven watershed segmentation technique extracts seeds that indicate the presence of
objects or background at specific image locations. Marker locations are then set to be regional
minima within the topological surface (typically, the gradient of the original input
image), and the watershed algorithm is applied.
Separating touching objects in an image is one of the most difficult image processing operations,
where the watershed transform is often applied to such problem. Marker-controlled watershed
approach has two types: External associated with the background and Internal associated with
the objects of interest. Image Segmentation using the watershed transforms works well if we can
identify or “mark” foreground objects and background locations, to find “catchment basins” and
“watershed ridge lines” in an image by treating it as a surface where light pixels are high and
dark pixels are low. Figure 4.6 shows a segmented image by watershed.

33
 FIG 4.6 Segmented Image By Marker-driven watershed segmentation
Refrences K Sankar Journal of theortical technology, IEEE 2002

Step 5 Results

To know normality or abnormality of the images this process is used.We are using binarization
and masking for feature extraction.

4.10 MASKING APPROACH

Masking approach depends on the fact that the masses are appeared as white connected areas
inside ROI (lungs), as they increase the percent of cancer presence increase. The appearance of
solid blue colour indicates normal case while appearance of RGB masses indicates the presence
of cancer, the TAR of this method is (85.7%) and FAR has (14.3%). Figure 4.7 shows normal
and abnormal images resulted by implementing Masking approach using MATLAB.

Fig 4.7 Normal and Abnormal Images Using Masking Approach

Refrences K Sankar Journal of theortical technology, IEEE 2002

34
4.11 BINARIZATION APPROACH

Binarization approach depends on the fact that the number of black pixels is much
greater than white pixels in normal lung images, so we started to count the black pixels for
normal and abnormal images to get an average that can be used later as a threshold, if the
number of the black pixels of a new image is greater that the threshold, then it indicates that
the image is normal, otherwise, if the number of the black pixels is less than the threshold, it
indicates that the image in abnormal. The threshold value that is used in this research is
17178.48 and the True acceptance rate (TAR) is (92.86%) and False acceptance rate (FAR) is
(7.14%). Figure 4.8 shows the binarization method procedure and shows binarization
check method flowchart.

FIG 4.8 BINARIZATION PROCESS AND METHOD

Refrences K Sankar Journal of theortical technology, IEEE 2002

4.12 CONCLUSION OF CHAPTER 4

Combining Binarization and Masking approaches together will lead us to take a

decision whether the case is normal or abnormal according to the mentioned assumptions in
the previous two approaches, we can conclude that image that has number of black pixels
greater than white ones, indicates normality, and otherwise it indicates abnormality

35
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

Lung cancer is one kind of dangerous diseases, so it is necessary to detect early stages.
But the detection of lung cancer is most difficult task. From the literature review many
techniques are used for the detection of lung cancer but they have some limitations. In our
proposed method pursue approaches in which first step is binary thresholding, and then feature
extraction, and then these features are used to train up the neural network and test the neural
network. The proposed system successfully detects the lung cancer from CT scan images. At the
end of the system can say that the system achieve its desired expectation. The proposed system
test 150 types of lung CT images and obtains the result where overall success rate of the system
is 96.67% which meet the expectation of system. In future this technique can be used in the
detection of brain tumor, breast cancer etc.

Lung cancer is one of the most dangerous diseases in the world. Correct Diagnosis and early
cancer can increase the survival rate. Image improvement techniques are developing for earlier
disease detection and treatment stages; the time factor was taken in account to discover the
abnormality issues in target images. Image quality and accuracy are the important factors.
Techniques presently used include study of X-ray, CT scan, PET, MRI images.

Treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and targeted therapy. These
treatments are lengthy, costly and painful, thus, an attempt is made to atomize this procedure
to detect the lung cancer using image processing techniques. CT scan images are acquired from
different Database. These images have less noise as compared to X-ray and MRI images. . The
CT captured images are preprocessed. The region of interest i.e.,tumor is identified with
accuracy from the original image. Gabor filter and watershed segmentation gives best results for
pre-processing stage. These three features help to identify the stage of lung cancer. Feature
extraction techniques can be done by binarization or masking approach.

36
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