DESIGN OF 6 SEATED BUSINESS

AIRCRAFT
[AE2404 Aircraft Design Project – II]
A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

PRAVEENKUMAR S 712211101065

RADHAKRISHNAN P M 712211101066

RAJA K 712211101067

RAJA P S 712211101068

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PARK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
KANIYUR, COIMBATORE – 641 659.
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI – 600 025.

1
 NOVEMBER 2014.

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI – 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “6 SEATED BUSINESS AIRCRAFT” is

the bonafide work of “RADHAKRISHNAN P M (712211101066)” who carried
out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. A.P.HARAN Mr. GOWRI SHANKAR

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PROFESSOR

Department of Aeronautical Department of Aeronautical

Engineering Engineering

Park College of Engineering and Park College of Engineering and

Technology Technology

Kaniyur, Coimbatore. Kaniyur, Coimbatore.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Submitted for Anna University Project Examination held on __________________.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
 First and foremost we thank the almighty for endowing his immense
blessing that helped us in each step of our progress towards successful completion
of our project. We are greatly indebted to our chairman Dr. P.V.Ravi Ph.D. for his
constant support and encouragement. We warmly extend our gratitude to the
chairman for having provided us with necessary infrastructure to complete our
project. We express our hearty thanks to Principal Dr. G. Mohan Kumar Ph.D.
for his valuable suggestions in our entire endeavor.

We thank Dr. A. P. Haran, Ph.D. Head of department, Aeronautical

Engineering, for his guidance and constant inspiration. We express our gratitude to
our coordinator Mr. Gowri Shankar for his encouragement and dedicated
guidance.

We take privilege to record our everlasting and loving thanks to our

parents for their kind help and support which rendered in bringing our project in a
fruitful manner.

ABSTRACT

3
 A project of theoretical design of an aircraft is undertaken. The
requirements of the aircraft to be designed are analyzed and are clearly defined. It
is proposed to design Supersonic carrier aircraft with a range of about (50000
feet), carrying load (80000 lbs). A list of aircrafts which are similar to the proposed
design is prepared and a comparative study is done on them. From this
comparative study, important design parameters such as takeoff weight, aspect
ratio, wing area, thrust to weight ratio etc… are roughly estimated. These values
are chosen in such a manner that they are compatible with the proposed cruise
speed of the aircraft. The weight of the aircraft during various phases of its flight is
calculated using an iterative method. From this, the required coefficient of lift at
the beginning and end of cruise is calculated. The airfoil whose drag bucket
satisfies this calculated CL range is selected as the wing cross section of the
proposed aircraft. The aerodynamic data of the chosen airfoil is analyzed. The drag
coefficient and hence the drag experienced by the aircraft is calculated using these
data. From these data the corresponding engine either jet engine or propeller
engine is selected according to need.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

4
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

LIST OF TABLE 6

LIST OF FIGURES 6

LIST OF SYMBOLS 7

1. V-n DIAGRAM 8

2. GUST ENVELOPE 11

3. COMBINED V-n DIAGRAM 13

4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY- THEORETICAL APPROACH 15

5. LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS 20

6. LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE 23

7. STATIC MARGIN 26

8. DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND FUSELAGE 27

9. PREPARATION OF DETAILED DESIGN REPORT 32

10. CONCLUSION 35

11. REFERENCES 36

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO NAME OF THE TABLE PAGE NO

5.1 Load Estimation of Wings 17

5
6.1 Load Estimation of Fuselage 24
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE OF FIGURE PAGE NO

1.1 Plotted V-n Diagram 3

2.1 Plotted Gust V-n Diagram 6
3.1 Combined V-n Diagram 8
5.1 Shear force Diagram 18
5.2 Bending moment diagram 18
8.1 Orthographic view of wing 21
8.1 a) Side view of wing 21
8.1 b) Front view of wing 21
8.1 c) Top view of wing 21
8.2 Isometric view of wing 22
8.3 Side view of Fuselage 23
8.4 Front view of Fuselage 24
8.5 Top view of Fuselage 24
8.6 Isometric view of fuselage 24
9.1 Orthographic view of Aircraft 25
9.1 a) Side view of Aircraft 25
9.1 b) Front view of Fuselage 26
9.1 c) Top view of Aircraft 26
9.2 Isometric view of our designed aircraft fuselage 27

LIST OF SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS DESCRIPTIONS
CL Coefficient of lift, a dimensionless quantity.

6
 CD Coefficient of drag, a dimensionless quantity.

ρ Density of any material, Kg/m3.

n Load factor, dimensionless quantity.

b wing span, M

c̅ mean aerodynamic chord, m.

λ Taper ratio, dimensionless quantity.

Vc Cruise velocity, m/s.

VgE Gust velocity, m/s.

VD Dive velocity, m/s.

S wing area, m2.

W maximum takeoff weight, Kg.

a slope of lift curve, rad-1.

µg aircraft mass ratio, dimensionless quantity.

kg mass coefficient, dimensionless quantity.

hn position of aerodynamic center

h position of center of gravity.

1. V-n DIAGRAM

1.1 Aim:

7
 To draw the maneuverability envelope for Multirole fighter Aircraft.

1.2 Formula used:

Dive speed VD=1.5VC m/s Eqn (1.1)

VS= (2mg/ᵨSCLMax)
1/2
Stall speed m/s Eqn (1.2)

Load factor n= (.5*ᵨ*V2SCLMax)/W Eqn (1.3)

1.3 Theory:

Maneuverability envelope is the most important flight envelope. It depicts aircraft limit
load factor as a function of airspeed. The importance of this diagram lies in the fact that
maximum load factor can be calculated from here.

The load to aircraft on ground is produced by gravity. But during flight there are other
sources of load for an aircraft. Aircraft load is expressed as a multiple of standard acceleration
due to gravity.

n= L/W Eqn(1.4)

For some maneuvering like turn and pull up, the aircraft must generate a lift force more
than weight. Hence load factor can be rewritten as,

n= (a/g) +1 Eqn(1.5)

Centrifugal acceleration, a=V2/R Eqn(1.6)

1.4 Procedure:
 From FAR 23 regulations, for transport aircraft +n=3 to 4 and –n=-1 to -2.
 Load factor is selected as +nmax=4 and –nmax=-2 for our fighter aircraft.
 By FAR 23 regulations for normal aircraft. From this expression dive speed is
calculated.
 When load factor n=1,
 VS= (2mg/ᵨSCLMax)
1/2
m/s
 The top curve of the envelope can be calculated as a function of airspeed from,

8
  n= (.5*ᵨ*V2SCLMax)/W
 Then corner speed at n=nmax is calculated.
 Similarly the bottom curve is drawn as a function of airspeed and corner speed
for n=-nmax is calculated.

1.5 Calculation:
The general shape of the combined V-n diagram resembles. We need to determine
coordinates of points K, J, G, F, B, and A. since the aircraft type is acrobatic, maximum limit load
factor, based on FAR 23 are as follows:
(Positive) nmax = +4
(Negative) nmax = -2
To determine coordinates of points A, B, J, K, we need to derive two equations
VS = ((2*55518.1*9.81)/(1.225*.02*4354))^ 1/2 =101.05 m/s
Stall Speed VS = 101.05 m/s
n= ((.5*1.225*447.562*4354*.02)/(55518.1*9.8) = 9.8E-5 V2
VD= 1.5*447.56 =671.34 m/s
Dive speed VD = 671.34 m/s
For nmax= 3, V= 174.96 m/s
For lower curve Vs= 94.2 m/s
For –nmax= -1.5, V=123.72 m/s
From the calculations, the co-ordinates required to draw the V-n diagram is found out as,
O(0,0), A(89.45,1), B(155.90,3), F(752,3), G(752,-1.5), J(109.68, -1.5), K(89.45,-1)

1.6 Graph

9
3.5

2.5

1.5
n
1
N Gust
0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.5

-1

-1.5

Fig 1.1 Plotted V-n Diagram

2. GUST ENVELOPE

10
2.1 Aim:
To draw V-n diagram with gust effect for the Multirole fighter aircraft.

2.2 Formula used:

Load factor, n= 1+((KgVgEVEaᵨS)/(2W)) ---Eqn(2.1)

Aircraft mass ratio, µg = 2m/ᵨ c ̅aS ---Eqn(2.2)

Aircraft mass coefficient, Kg = 0.88*µg/(5.3+µg) ---Eqn(2.3)

2.3 Theory:
The atmosphere encompasses a variety of phenomena. Gust is one of them. When an aircraft
experiences gust, the immediate effect is an increase or decrease in angle of attack. When an
upward gust with velocity Vg hits under the nose of aircraft with velocity V, there will be a
sudden change in angle of attack which in turn produces a sudden change in aircraft lift
coefficient, thus changing the lift and load factor. This change in load factor due to gust is
termed as gust load.
Calculation for gust load is done according to FAR 23 regulations.

2.4 Procedure:

 According to FAR 23, gust speed at sea level is given as 50 ft/s. Using this gust speed
load factor can be determined from the following equation.
n= 1+((KgVgEVEaᵨS)/(2W))
 As gust speed varies with altitude, the gust speed for cruise altitude is calculated and
the corresponding load factor is calculated.
 Load factor is calculated at both dive speed and cruise speed.
 If the load factor of gust at cruise altitude falls within the envelope of load factor at sea
level, then it can be neglected while drawing the final envelope.
2.5Calculation

At sea level conditions,

µg = ((2*55518.1)/(1.225*4354*.02*6.28)) = 165.74 m/s
Kg = .9399
N = 1+/- .005127V
At cruise velocity
n= 3.57 (positive load factor)
n= -1.57088 (negative load factor)
11
 At dive speed
n= 2.9216
n= -0.9216
At cruise conditions
μg=193.5472
kg=0.8487
Hence, at cruise velocity,
n= 1.31407
n= -0.68609
At dive speed
n= 1.23553
n= -0.76447

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
n
1
N Gust
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.5
-1
-1.5

Fig 2.1 Plotted Gust envelop V-n Diagram

3. COMBINED V-n DIAGRAM

12
3.1 Aim:
To draw the V-n diagram which shows the combined effects of gust and
maneuverability loads.

3.2 Theory:
The V-n diagrams are combined by the aircraft designers to have safe and strong
structure in flight operations. The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than
separate load factor in each diagram.
The V-n diagram is unique for each aircraft. The pilots and crew are required to
fly and operate within this flight envelope.
This section is about combination technique of basic v-n diagram with gust v-n
diagram. Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story, aircraft designers must predict
the gust load and add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver load), to have a safe
& strong structure in flight operations. The max combined load factor is usually high
than separate load factoring in each diagram.

3.3 Procedure:
 The basic data’s are taken as per our design configuration, and do the calculation for
basic v-n by using required formula’s.
 The points of coordinates are taken from the calculated data’s. And then, plot the graph
for basic v-n diagram.
 Similarly, do the calculation for gust v-n diagram and plot the graph also.
 The combined graphs of basic v-n diagram with gust v-n diagram are plotted.
 Then, remove the extra boundaries.
 Finally , we plotted the combined v-n diagram
 The co-ordinates required to draw the V-n diagram is found out as,
 O(0,0), A(89.45,1), B(155.90,3), F(752,3), G(752,-1.5), J(109.68, -1.5), K(89.45,-1)
 Gust V-n diagram coordinates are
VC=501.44 m/s; n=3.57,-1.57
VD=752.16 m/s; n=2.9216,-0.9216
 These coordinates are plotted in graph, we get combined V-n diagram.

13
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
n
1
N Gust
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.5
-1
-1.5

14
 4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY- THEORETICAL APPROACH
4.1 Introduction:
This theoretical study concentrates on various structural materials used in aircraft
and loads, function and fabrication of various structural components used in aircraft.

4.2 Aircraft Materials:

4.2.1Aluminum alloys:
An alloy is a combination of two or more metals. Aluminum alloys are widely used in
aircraft because of their high strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance, easier
fabrication and light weight. Aluminum alloys are numbered after their alloying
elements in a four digit series which helps in easy identification.

4.2.2 Steel alloys:

Alloy steels used in aircraft construction have greater strengths, than in other fields
of engineering.
Alloy steel contains small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium and
molybdenum. High tensile steels will withstand loads of 50 to 150 tons per square inch
without failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods and wires.
Stainless steel is also extensively used in aircraft construction as it resists corrosion
and very valuable for use near water. A steel fuselage uses tubes also as diagonals to
carry shear in compression or tension and the whole structure is covered with fabric to
give the required aerodynamic shape.

4.2.3 Titanium:
Titanium and its alloys are very useful in aircraft construction. They can be cast,
forged or molded to make various parts. Though titanium is not light as aluminum they
are less dense than steel. Fighter Aircraft 10
At supersonic speeds aluminum alloys will expand too much and fail, whereas
titanium expands comparatively little. Because of its reasonable tensile strength and
Young’s modulus it can support varying loads during flight.
In Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, 42 % of structural weight consists of Titanium. SR-
71 aircraft is constructed virtually entirely of Titanium.

4.2.4 Transparent Plastics:

Transparent plastics are used in canopies, wind shields and other transparent
enclosures. Transparent plastics are relatively soft and will scratch easily. At
approximately 225o F transparent plastics become soft and pliable.

15
4.2.5 Reinforced Plastics:
Reinforced plastics are used in construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer tips,
antenna covers and flight controls. Reinforced plastics have a high strength to weight
ratio and is resistant to mildew and rot. Because of its simple fabrication techniques, it is
also suitable for other parts of the aircraft.
Reinforced plastic is a sandwich type material made up of two outer facings and a
centre layer. The facings are made up of several layers of glass cloth, bonded with a
liquid resin. The core material consists of honeycomb material made of glass cloth.

4.2.6 Composite materials:

High performance aircraft require an extra high strength to weight ratio material.
Fabrication of composite materials satisfies this requirement. Composite materials are
constructed using several layers of bonding materials. These materials are mechanically
fastened to conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction
consists of thin graphite or epoxy skins bonded to aluminum honeycomb cone. Carbon
fiber is extremely strong, thin fiber made by heating synthetic fibers such as rayon until
charring and then layering in cross sections. Fighter Aircraft 11

4.3 Loads acting on aircraft:

The following classification provides the types of loads which are to be considered
while designing an aircraft.

4.3.1 Quasi Static loads:

4.3.1.1 Flight loads:

 Symmetric maneuvers
 Asymmetric maneuvers
 Deep and flat spin
 Gust loads

4.3.1.2 Ground Handling:

 Takeoff
 Landing
 Repaired runway
 Taxiing
 Towing, pivoting

16
4.3.1.3 Local and internal loads:

 Max/Min aerodynamic pressures

 Local accelerations
 System pressures
 Bay pressures
 Hydrostatic pressures
 Intake duct pressure
 Engine thrust

4.3.1.4 Dynamic loads:

 Buffet
 Dynamic gust
 Vibrations
 Acoustic noise
 Limit cycle oscillations
 Engine hammer shock condition
Fatigue loads are derived from dynamic and quasi static loads.

4.4 Functions of Load carrying structures:

4.4.1 Functions of skin or cover:

 It transmits the aerodynamic forces to longitudinal and transverse supporting

members by plate membrane action.
 It develops shearing stresses which react to applied torsional moments and shear
forces.
 It acts with longitudinal members in resisting applied bending and axial loads.
 It acts with longitudinal members in resisting the axial loads with transverse
members in reacting to hoop stress when the structure is pressurized.
 In addition to these, it provides aerodynamic surface and cover for contents of
vehicle.

4.4.2 Functions of longerons and stringers:

 They resist bending and axial loading along with skin.

17
  They divide the skin into small panels thereby increasing buckling and failure
stresses.
 They act with skin in resisting axial loads caused by pressurization.

4.4.3 Functions of frames, bulkheads:

 Maintains cross sectional shape.

 Distributes concentrated loads into structure and redistributes stresses around
structural discontinuities.
 Establish column length and provides end restraint for longitudinal members to
increase their column buckling stress.
 Provides edge restraint for skin panels, thereby increasing plate buckling stress of
these elements.
 Acts with skin in resisting circumferential loads due to pressurization.

4.5 Fabrication of structural components:

4.5.1 Surface cleaning:
Structural sections from the rolling mills may require surface cleaning to remove mill
scale prior to fabrication and painting. Hand preparation, such as wire brushing, does
not normally conform to the requirements of modern paint or surface protection
system. However in some applications manual cleaning is used and depending on the
quality of the cleaned surface they are categorized into Grade St-2 and Grade St-3.

4.5.2 Cutting and Machining:

Following surface preparation, cutting to length is always the first process to be
carried out, and this is done by any of the following methods.

4.5.3 Shearing and cropping:

Sections can be cut to length or width by cropping or shearing using hydraulic
shears. Heavy sections or long plates can be shaped and cut to length by specialist plate
shears. For smaller plates and sections, machines featuring a range of shearing knives,
which can accept the differing section shapes, are available.

4.5.4 Flame Cutting or Burning:

In this method, the steel is heated locally by a pressurized mixture of oxygen and a
combustible gas such as propane, which passes through a ring of small holes in a cutting
nozzle. The heat is focused on to a very narrow band and the steel melts at 1500o C
when a jet of high-pressure oxygen is released through a separate hole in the center of

18
 the nozzle to blast away the molten metal in globules. The desired cuts are obtained
quickly by this process. However due to a rapid thermal cycle of heating and cooling,
residual stresses and distortion are induced and hence structural sections that are
fabricated using flame cutting are treated specially in the design of structural steelwork.

4.5.5 Arc Plasma Cutting:

In this method, the cutting energy is produced electrically by heating a gas in an
electric arc produced between a tungsten electrode and the work piece. This ionizes the
gas, enabling it to conduct an electric current. The high-velocity plasma jet melts the
metal of the work piece. The cut produced by plasma jet is very clean and its quality can
be improved by using a water injection arc plasma torch. Plasma cutting can be used on
thicknesses up to about 150 mm but the process is very slow.

4.5.6 Cold Sawing:

When a section cannot be cut to length by cropping or shearing, then it is normally
sawn. All saws for structural applications are mechanical and feature some degree of
computer control. There are three forms of mechanical saw - circular, band and hack.
The circular saw has a blade rotating in a vertical plane, which can cut either downwards
or upwards, though the former is more common. Band saws have less capacity. Sections
greater than600 mm X 600 mm cannot be sawn using band saws. The saw blade is a
continuous metal edged, with cutting teeth, which is driven by an electric motor. Hack
saws are mechanically driven reciprocating saws. They have normal format blades
carried in a heavy duty hack saw frame. They have more productivity than band saws.

4.5.7 Punching and Drilling:

Most fabrication shops have a range of machines, which can form holes for
connections in structural steelwork. The traditional drilling machine is the radial drill, a
manually operated machine, which drills individual holes in structural steelwork. But this
method has become too slow for primary line production. Therefore, larger fabricators
have installed NC (Numerically Controlled) tooling, which registers and drills in response
to keyed in data. These can drill many holes in flanges and webs of rolled steel sections
simultaneously. It is also possible to punch holes, and this is particularly useful where
square holes are specified such as anchor plates for foundation bolts. While this method
is faster compared to drilling, punching creates distortion and material strain hardening
around the holes, which increase with material thickness. Its use is currently restricted
to smaller thickness plates. In order to reduce the effect of strain hardening and the
consequent reduction in ductility of material around punched holes, smaller size (2 mm
to 4 mm lesser than final size) holes are punched and subsequently reamed to the
desired size.

19
 5. LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS
5.1 Aim:
To estimate the load distribution on wings and to draw shear force and bending
moment diagrams using spreadsheet.

5.2 Theory
The loads on a wing include aerodynamic forces like lift and drag, weight of
engines, fuels and structured elements. Due to these loads, there will be a distribution
of loads along various stations of wing.

5.2.1 Wing load distribution

The loads on the wing are made up of aerodynamic lift, drag forces, as well as
concentrated or distributed weight of wing mounted engines, stored fuels, weapons,
structural elements, etc..

5.2.2 Span wise lift distribution:

As a result of the finite aspect ratio of the wing, the lift distributions vary alone
the span from the maximum lift at the root, to a maximum lift at the tip. The span wise
lift distribution should be proportional to the wingspan form.

5.3 Procedure

o Wing semi span is calculated.

o Wing semi span is divided into a finite number of parts with equal length. (17
parts in this study)
o Chord length at these locations is calculated.
o Then shear force diagram and bending moment diagram is drawn using the
data by utilizing a computational tool like spreadsheet.

20
21
 60000

50000

40000

L(y)-ellip
30000
L(y)-trap
L-bar
20000

10000

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
2000000
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000 Vtotal
800000 Mtotal

600000
400000
200000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
1400000

1200000

1000000

800000
V-lift(lb)
600000 M-lift(f-lb)

400000

200000

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

22
 6. LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE
6.1 Aim:
To estimate the load distribution on Fuselage and to draw shear force and
bending moment diagrams using spreadsheet.

6.2 Theory
The loads on a Fuselage include aerodynamic forces like lift and drag, weight of
engines and structured elements. Due to these loads, there will be a distribution of
loads along various stations of Fuselage.

6.2.1 Fuselage load distribution

The loads on the fuselage are made up of aerodynamic lift, drag forces, as well as
concentrated or distributed weight of wing mounted engines, Payload, weapons, cargo,
Passengers structural elements, etc..

6.3 Procedure

o Fuselage length is calculated.

o Fuselage is divided into a finite number of parts with equal length. (17 parts
in this study)
o Then shear force diagram and bending moment diagram is drawn using the
data by utilizing a computational tool like spreadsheet.

23
24
1000000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-1000000
-2000000
-3000000
Total V
-4000000
Total M
-5000000
-6000000
-7000000
-8000000
-9000000

25
 7. STATIC MARGIN

7.1 Aim:
To determine the static margin of the aircraft.

7.2 Formula used:

Static margin, Hn=hn-h ---Eqn(6.1)
Where hn- position of aerodynamic center
h- Position of center of gravity.

7.3 Theory:
The static margin gives a measure of static stability of the aircraft. It is based
upon the calculation of center of gravity for the aircraft.

7.4 Procedure:
 By taking moments about various forces by the nose, the center of gravity of the aircraft
is obtained.
 Then, by substituting the values, we arrive at the value of static margin for our aircraft.

7.5 Calculation:
Position of center of gravity for our aircraft in terms of x/ L is given as,
CG position = 0.3853
Substituting in formula we get static margin in terms of chord as,
Static margin = 0.2147/c
Mean aerodynamic chord = 2.338 m
Hence static margin = 0.0918 m

26
 8. DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND FUSELAGE
8.1 Aim:
To design the components of wings and fuselage for the aircraft.

8.2 Theory
8.2.1 Detailed design of wings and fuselage:
This design process is divided into two phases. The first phase is design of
components of wing and second phase is design of components of fuselage. In the first
phase of design, the mission requirements for the wing to be designed are identified.
Based upon those requirements, measurement of the wing is taken out and
components are drawn to obtain the original design of wing. Using design software,
internal and external structure of wing is drawn, and its orthographic view is also drawn.
Mention its dimensions along with design.
In the second phase of design, the mission requirements for the fuselage to be
designed are identified. Based upon those requirements, measurement and dimension
of the fuselage is taken out and components are drawn to obtain the original design of
fuselage. Using design software, internal and external structure of fuselage is drawn,
and its orthographic view is also drawn. Mention its dimensions along with design. By
using dimensions to draw the entire structure of fuselage and wing that are visually
clarified by constraint dimensions.

8.2.1 Wing structure:

The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main
lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. The principal structural parts of the
wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. (Fig 7.1) These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams,
tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and
thickness of the wing airfoil). In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an
integral part of the wing’s structure, or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of
the wing. Attached to the rear or trailing edges of the wings are two types of control
surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps. The orthographic view of wing as shown in fig
7.1.

27
 Fig No: 8.1 a) Front View Fig No: b) Side View

Fig No: 8.1 c) Top View

Fig No: Orthographic View Of the Wing
All dimensions are in mm
Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip, and
move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps
extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally
flush with the wing’s surface during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move
simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings

28
 Fig No: 8.2 Isometric View of Wing
Wing ribs perform similar functions to those performed by fuselage frames. They
maintain the shape of the wing section, assist in transmitting external loads to the wing skin
and reduce the column length of the stringers. In this, (Fig 7.2) their geometry, however, is
usually different in that they are frequently of unsymmetrical shape and possess webs which
are continuous except for lightness holes and openings for control runs.
Wing ribs are subjected to loading systems which are similar to those applied to
fuselage frames. External loads applied in the plane of the rib produce a change in shear force
in the wing across the rib; this induces reaction shear flows around its periphery.
Spars are span wise members. A typical wing may have two to three spars which help to
hold the rip structures. The spars are carrying the bending loads and stringers are effective with
transferring the loads and prevent the skin buckling.

8.2.2 Fuselage structure:

The substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various sizes and
stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage.
The main section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and a firewall fuselage
frames transfer loads to the fuselage shell and provide column support for the longitudinal
stringers. The frames generally take the form of open rings so that the interior of the fuselage is
not obstructed. They are connected continuously around their peripheries to the fuselage shell
and are not necessarily circular in form but will usually be symmetrical about a vertical axis.
Side view of fuselage drawn by using Catia with length of 14.5 m as shown in below

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 Fig No: Side View of Fuselage
A fuselage frame is in equilibrium under the action of any external loads and the
reaction shear flows from the fuselage shell as shown in the (Fig 7.3). Suppose that a fuselage
frame has a vertical axis of symmetry and carries a vertical external load. The fuselage
shell/stringer section has been idealized such that the fuselage skin is effective only in shear.
Front and Top view of fuselage are drawn in Catia with dimensions of 1.1 m bulkhead
length 14.5 m of fuselage length, 0.9 m of fuselage tail size as shown in figure 7.4 and figure 7.5.

Fig no: 8.4 Front view of fuselage Fig no: 8.5 Top view of fuselage

The longerons are used to carry the bending loads effectively whereas the stringers
have the same function as in wing structures. CATIA V5 modeling software is used to draw the
orthographic views (Fig 7.3, 7.4, 7.5) and isometric view of wing (Fig 7.6) and fuselage sections.

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Fig no: 8.6 Isometric view of fuselage

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 9. PREPARATION OF DETAILED DESIGN REPORT WITH DRAWING
9.1 Aim:
To prepare a detailed report on aircraft design complete with drawings of the
aircraft.

9.2 Detailed design report:

This design process is divided into two phases. The first phase is completed in
Aircraft Design laboratory I and the second phase is being completed in Aircraft Design
Laboratory II.
In the first phase of design, the mission requirements for the aircraft to be
designed are identified. Based upon those requirements a detailed comparative study of the
aircrafts is carried out and various graphs are plotted to obtain the optimum parameters for the
aircraft to be designed. Using computational methods on the parameters thus obtained, the
maximum takeoff weight of the aircraft is determined. Then wing loading is calculated and wing
section, wing dimensions are calculated for the aircraft. Also using thrust required an existing
engine is selected for the aircraft.
In the second phase of design, the load and structures are studied. The V-n
diagram and gust envelope are drawn and combined. Then a theoretical study on aircraft
materials, load carrying components are carried out. The load distribution on wings is
computed using spreadsheet. Then fuselage and load carrying structures are drafted from the
calculated dimensions. Using the dimensions obtained from the calculations, the complete
aircraft is drafted.in fig 8.1

Fig no: 9.1 a) Side view of Aircraft

The wing has platform area 35 m2. The tip chord is 0.835 m whereas the root chord is
3.38m.Span is 19.8 m. The cross section of the wing is diamond airfoil shape from NACA series.
NACA64A212 is used.

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 Fig no: 9.1 b) Front view of Aircraft

Top view of aircraft is drawn by using dimensions of 24.5 m of length and horizontal stabilizers
of 19.6 m and wing length, cockpit size are specified as required to complete as shown in fig
8.1c

Fig no: 9.1 c) Top view of Aircraft

Fig no:9.1 Orthographic view of our designed Aircraft
Note: ALL DIMENSIONS IN mm

Isometric view of aircraft is also drawn by using dimension which is made in orthographic view
of aircraft. The wing is selected such a way that it carries bombs and missile. So it is preferred to
be as high wing and dihedral wing.

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Fig no: 9.2 CATIA model of our designed Aircraft

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 10. CONCLUSION

For the Fighter aircraft the V-n envelope has calculated theoretically. The n value lies between
-2 to 4. The aircraft should fly within that given limit and speed to ensure the airworthiness. The
various structural components and their functions have discussed. The high wing must able to
carry all loads such as bombs, air loads and missiles. So the wing loading is calculated using the
worksheet. Thus the bending moment and shear force diagram has plotted with the help of
spreadsheet. The calculations are included in this report. The aircraft materials and their
applications in structural parts have explained in this report. Especially for better strength to
weight ratio the composite materials are recommended. The importance of the static margin
has explored and found out the value of our aircraft design. The CATIA V5 software has used to
model the detailed design of wing and fuselage interior sections. The dimensions are marked
and parts are explained efficiently.

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 11.REFERENCES

1. John D. Anderson Jr, “Aircraft Performance and Design”.

2. Daniel P. Raymer, “Aircraft Design”.

3. M. Sadraey, “Aircraft Performance Analysis”

4. “Aircraft Design” Book By Thomas Corke

5. “Jane’s all the worlds aircrafts book”

6. “Theory of wing sections” by “Abbott and Von Con Doenhoff”.

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