Mechanical and Electrical Actuation Systems - UNIT II SECOND HALF

ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL
ACTUATION SYSTEMS
Dr. RM. Kuppan Chetty
• References:
Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronics control systems in Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering, 4th ed., Pearson
Disclaimer
Pictures and support materials used are open source information from various
references and online sources. The information in this presentation was compiled
from sources believed to be reliable for informational purposes and non
commercial use only.
CONTENTS
 Electrical Actuation Systems
 Solid State Switches
 Solenoids
 DC, AC, Stepper Motors
 Mechanical Actuation Systems
8/22/2018 HITS-MP-RMKP-2018-UNITII 2
Objectives
• Understand the operational characteristics of Electrical Actuation

systems such as
• Relays
• Solid State Switches
• Solenoids
• DC, AC, Stepper Motors
• Understand and Determine possible mechanical actuation systems for
motion transmission
• Evaluate the capabilities of Electrical Actuation Systems.
• Evaluate the capabilities of linkages, cams, gears, belt and chain drives
INTRODUCTION
• Actuator is a device which is used to actuate a process.
• Actuate is to operate the process.
• Switching devices – mechanical switches, eg. relay and solid
state switches, eg diodes, thyristors and transistors app –
switch on or off electrical devices
• Solenoid – type devices used to actuate valves of hydraulic
and pneumatic systems. (flow control)
• Drive systems – DC motor, AC motor and stepper motor.
Mechanical switches
Expansion British
Electronics
of mains
specification and Description Symbol
abbreviation wiring
abbreviation
name
A simple on-off switch:
The two terminals are
Single pole, single either connected together
SPST One-way or disconnected from
throw
each other. An example is
a light switch.
A simple changeover
Single pole, double switch: C (COM,
SPDT Two-way Common) is connected to
throw
L1 or to L2.
SPCO Single pole, centre switches with a stable off

off position in the centre
Equivalent to
Double pole, single two SPST switches
DPST Double pole controlled by a single
throw
mechanism
Equivalent to
Double pole, double two SPDT switches
DPDT controlled by a single
throw
mechanism.
Double pole Equivalent to DPDT. Some

changeover suppliers use DPCO for
DPCO switches with a stable off
or Double pole,
position in the centre
Mechanical switches
• Relay – Electrically Operated Switch
Relays
• Electrically operated switches in
which changing a current in one
electric circuit switches a current on
or off in another circuit.
• When the solenoid is energized, a
magnetic field is produced, which
attracts the iron armature, moves the
push rod and in result: closes the (a) A relay, (b) a driver circuit
normally open contact and open the
normally closed contact
• Diodes are used to protect against back voltage generated in the coil circuit during
switching
• NO – normally open , NC – normally closed
• Output from controller is small so it is often used with transistor.
Relays In control system Example-1
Solid state switches
• Diode
• Transistor
• Thyristor
• Triac
• Bipole transistor
• MOSFET
Diode
• Unidirectional uncontrolled switch used
to rectify or permit current flow in one
direction
• i.e. passing a current when forward
biased. Accordingly the current through
the diode is half rectified to become
just the current due to the positive
halves of the input voltage.
• If an alternating voltage- is applied
across diode, it can be regarded as only
switching on when the direction of the
voltage is such
• as to forward biased it and being off in
(a) Diode characteristic, (b) half-wave rectification
the reverse biased direction.
Thyristors
• Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
• Unidirectional controlled switch (Diode) used to control the
flow of currents by controlling the gate circuit
• Linearly proportional POWER
• Gate controls when current flows
• Examples of control is that of AC for electric heaters, electric
motors, or lamp dimmers.
Thyristors (contd.)
• With the gate current zero, Passes negligible
current in reverse bias
• When forward biased the current is also negligible
until the forward breakdown voltage is exceeded.
• When breakdown occurs
• Voltage across falls to 1 to 2V
• Current Increases and only limited by circuit
external resisitance
• Thus Thyristor acts as a switch
If the forward breakdown is at 300 V then, when

forward breakdown occurs, the voltage across
the thyristor drops to, say, 2 V and so there is
now 300– 2 = 298 V across the 20 Ω resistor,
hence the current rises to 298/20 = 14.9 A. (a) Thyristor characteristic,
(b) Thyristor circuit
TRIAC
• Triac is similar to the thyristor and
equivalent to a pair of thyristors
connected in reverse parallel on the
same chip
• The triac can be turned on in either the
forward or reverse direction.
Triac characteristic
Bipolar transistors
• Three layer semiconductor device
consisting of either two n- and one p-
type layers of material or two p- and one
n- layers of material
• Former is called npn transistor, while the
later is called a pnp transistor
• For the npn transistor, the main current flows in at the collector and out at the
emitter, a controlling signal being applied to the base.
• The pnp transistor has the main current flowing in at the emitter and out at the
collector, a controlling signal being applied to the base.
• Used as switches or part of regulating systems but their power handling capability
is less than that of thyristors
Transistor Symbols and as Switches
(a) Transistor symbols, (b), (c), (d), (e) transistor switch

Transistor as switch
• Common-emitter circuit,
• Relationship between the collector current IC and the
potential difference between the collector and emitter
VCE is described by the series of graphs
• When the base current Is is zero the transistor is cut off.
In this state both the base emitter and the base
collector junctions are reverse biased.
• When the base current is increased, tranistor is in
forward bias, Voltage drops across RC
• When VCE reaches a value VC, collector current can
increase no further, even if the base current is further
increased. This is termed saturation.
• By switching the base current between 0 and a value
that drives the transistor into saturation, bipolar
transistors can be used as switches.
Solid state switches: BJT Transistors
Darlington connections to increase drive current
• BJT is implemented by base currents and higher frequencies of switching are

possible than with thyristors.
• The power handling capability is less than that of thyristor
MOSFETs (METAL OXIDE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS)
• Here no current flows into the gate
to exercise the control.
• The gate voltage is the controlling
signal.
• Thus drive circuitry can be
simplified, e.g. no need to
concerned about the size of the
current
• When MOSFET is turned on
current flows from source to drain.
• Voltage is applied between gate- MOSFETs: (a) n-channel, (b) p-channel, (c) used
source to turn on MOSFET. to control a d.c. motor
• MOSFET can be turned off by
removing gate voltage. With MOSFET, higher frequency switching is
possible, upto 1 MHz level voltage
SOLENOIDS
• Electromechanical device in which
the solenoid uses an electric current to
generate a magnetic field and thereby
operate a mechanism which regulates the
opening of fluid flow in a valve.
• Current passes through a coil. Due to this
current, a soft iron core is pulled into the
coil. In doing so it can open or close the
ports to allow the flow of a fluid.
• Force exerted on the core is a function of
the current in the coil and the length of the
core within the coil
Drive systems
Drive actuators are essentially Electro-

mechanical actuators; are used to
efficiently convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
• Magnetism is basis of their principles of operation.

• They use permanent magnets and/or electromagnets, and exploit the
electromagnetic phenomenon in order to produce the actuation.
• Electromechanical actuators are DC, AC and stepper motors.
Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule
Direction of Rotation
Fixed Magnetic Field Direction
Conventional
Current Direction S
N
BASIC COMPONENTS OF DC MOTOR
Magnetic Field
This is a permanent magnet which generates a magnetic field through
which the coil is rotated.
Armature
This generates an electric current within the armature coil..
Commutator
The commutator has the ability to transfers the current to the
brushes through the wire coil.
Brushes
The brushes always maintain constant contact with the commutator,
they are attached to the wires leading from the generator. Though,
the commutator spins while the brushes always remain static, making
sure that current is transferred from the commutator.
Shaft
Through shaft, mechanical energy can be transferred to the
generator.
Sectional view of a DC machine
Poles:
• pole of a dc motor is an electromagnet.
• The field winding is wound over the poles.
• Poles produces magnetic flux when the filed
winding is excited.
• serve two purposes;
– (i) they support field coils and
– (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
Commutator: Mechanical rectifier
• A split ring type cylindrical drum
mounted on the shaft along with the
armature core.
• Collects the current from the
armature conductors and pass it to
the external load via brushes. To achieve
uni-directional torque
• Converts the induced alternating
current in the armature conductor
into unidirectional current in the
external load circuit in DC Generator
action,
• Converts the alternating torque into
unidirectional (continuous) torque
produced in the armature in motor
action.
Brushes:
 Commutator is rotating. So it is not possible to connect the
load directly to it.
 Hence current is conducted from the armature to the external
load by the carbon brushes which are held against the surface
of commutator by springs.
 Maintain a close contact with rotating part
Types of DC Motors
• Depending on the way of connecting the

armature and field windings of a d.c. motors
are classified as follows:
DC Motor
DC series Shunt motor Compound Separately

motor motor excited motor
Short shunt Long shunt

compound compound
DC Shunt Motor
• In DC shunt type motor, field and armature winding are connected
in parallel and this combination is connected across a common dc
power supply.
• The resistance of shunt field winding (Rsh) is always much higher
than that of armature winding (Ra).
• This is because the number of turns for the field winding is more
than that of armature winding.
• The field current Ish always remains

constant. Since V and Rsh both are
constant
∴ ø ∝ Ish
DC Series Motor
• In DC series motor, the armature and field windings are
connected din series with each other as shown in fig.(1).
• The resistance of the series field winding (Rs) is much smaller as
compared to that of the armature resistance (Ra).
• The flux produced is proportional to the field current. But in
series motor, the field current is same as armature current.
∴ ø ∝ Ia or ∴ ø ∝ Is
• DC series motor the flux does not remains constant.
Compound wound
• Two field windings one
in series an another in
parallel with armature
windings.
• High starting torque
with good speed
regulation.
Separately excited
• Separate control of
armature and field coils.
• Speed of these motors
can be controlled by
separately varying the
armature or field
current.
Control of D.C. Motor:
• The speed of the motor depends
upon the current through the
armature coil.
• Speed can be changed by varying the
armature current or the field
current.
• Generally it is the armature current
that is varied.
• Usually the D.C motors are
controlled by the signals coming
from microprocessors.
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is used in such cases, to obtain a variable voltage.
• This PWM can be obtained by means of a basic transistor circuit.
• This technique can be used to drive the motor in one direction only.
• By involving four transistors which is know as H - circuit, the direction change in
rotation of motor can be obtained
Control of D.C. Motor: Contd.
• In a closed loop control system, the feed back signals are used to modify the motor
speed. There are three methods for doing it.
Method - I
 Feed back signal is provided by a tachometer.

 Analogue signal from the tachometer is converted into digital signal by using ADC.
 Digital signal is given as input to the microprocessor is converted into analogue by
using DAC.
 This signal is used to vary the voltage applied to the armature of the D.C. motor.
Method - II
1. Feed back signal is coded using a encoder.

2. In the code converter, the digital output is obtained.
3. This digital signal is given as an input to the microprocessor.
Method - III
1.The system is completely digital.

2.PWM is used to control the average
voltage applied to the armature.
AC Motors
• They are used as the final control element in positional or speed-
control systems.
• AC motors have the great advantage over DC motors of being cheaper,
more rugged, reliable, and maintenance free.
• Single phase – Low Power requirements
• Polyphase - High Powr requirements
• Induction
• Synchronous
Why AC Machines?
 AC machines have no commutators and brushes; consequently,

they require less maintenance.
 AC machines cost less and weigh less than DC machines
 AC machines are more rugged and work better in hostile
environments AC machines can operate at much higher voltages:
up to 25 kV. DC machines are limited to about 1000 V.
 AC machines can be build in much larger sizes: up to 50000 kW
machines. DC machines are limited to about 2000 kW.
 AC machines can run at speeds up to 100000 r/min, whereas
large DC machines are limited to about 2000 kW.
Construction (Stator construction)
• The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor.
• The stator core of a National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
motor is made up of several hundred thin laminations.
• Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of
insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.
• Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation. Each grouping of
coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, form an electromagnet.
• Stator windings are connected directly to the power source.
22-08-2018 RMKP-EMD-INDM-UNITII 41
AC Machine Stator
Construction (Rotor construction)
• Wound rotor type – Slip Ring Rotor:
 Rotor winding is wound by wires. The winding terminals can
be connected to external circuits through slip rings and
brushes.
 No. of rotor slots = No. of Poles of stator
 End of windings are connected to 3 slip rings on shaft
 Usually for 3 Phase motors
 Easy to control speed, more expensive.
https://product.tdk.com/info/en/techlibrary/developing/wireless/index.html
Principle of Operation
– When a 3 phase stator winding is connected to a 3 phase
voltage supply, 3 phase current will flow in the windings,
hence the stator is energized.
– A rotating flux Φ is produced in the air gap. The flux Φ
induces a voltage Ea in the rotor winding (like a transformer)
E=BVL
– The induced voltage produces rotor current, if rotor circuit is
closed.
– The rotor current interacts with the flux Φ, producing
torque. The rotor rotates in the direction of the rotating flux.
F=BIL
Principle of Operation (contd.)
• Stator – AC Sinusoid – Magnetic Field Pulsates with sinusoid
• Field Polarity reverses after each half cycle
• Hence field doesn’t rotate
•  Alternating Flux cannot produce any rotation in rotor
What could be done? Use some starting Mechanism
• Rotate the rotor by some means in one direction

• Motor reaches the speed less than the synchronous speed
• Applicable only for small motors. Large motor?
In general the direction of the rotation of the
rotor is the same as the direction of rotation of
the revolving magnetic field in the air gap.
Control of A.C Motor:
• The speed control of A.C motor is more complex than the D.C motors.
• The speed of the A.C motor is determined by the frequency of supply.
• N= 120 F/P Where, N = speed in rpm.
• F = frequency
• P = no. of poles.
• Therefore the control of A.C motor is based on the variable frequency supply.
• The change in the frequency can be achieved by two methods.
a. using a converter and an inverter.
b. using cyclo converter.
Control of A.C Motor:
Using a converter and an inverter:
1. The three phase A.C is rectified to D.C by a converter.
2. Then it is inverted back to A.C. again but at a frequency that can be selected.
Cyclo converter:
1. It is used to operate slow speed motors.
2. This converts A.C at one frequency directly to A.C at another frequency without
the intermediate D.C conversion.
Variable speed a.c. motor
STEPPER MOTOR
• Electromechanical device it converts
electrical power into mechanical power
• Rotor rotates through a fixed angular
steps
• Full rotation of the rotor is divided into
equal number of steps, and rotor rotates
through one step for each current pulse.
• Very popular due to the fact that they can
be controlled directly by computers,
microprocessors or microcontrollers
• Precise positioning of an object or precise
speed control without closed loop
feedback.
Construction of Stepper Motor
Working Principle like magnetic poles repel and unlike
magnetic poles attract
Working Principle
• An important principle that applies to the operation of dc
stepping motors is the basic law of magnetism:
• like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract
• Converts the train of electric pulses applied at their excitation
windings into precisely defined step-by-step mechanical shaft
rotation.
• When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain
angle.
• The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the step
angle and hence the position of motor shaft is controlled by
controlling the number of pulses
Working Principle (contd..)
Working Principle
• If the step angle is smaller, the greater will be the number of
steps per revolutions and higher will be the accuracy of the
position obtained.
• The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of

pulses applied to the stator.
• The speed of the shaft or the average motor speed is directly

proportional to the frequency (the rate of input pulses) of input
pulses being applied at excitation windings.
Step Angle in Stepper Motor
• Defined as the angle which the rotor of a stepper motor moves when one pulse
is applied to the input of the stator.
• The positioning of a motor is decided by the step angle and is expressed in
degrees
• The resolution or the step number of a motor is the number of steps it makes in
one revolution of the rotor.
• Smaller the step angle higher the resolution of the positioning of the stepper
motor.
• A standard motor will have a step angle of 1.8 degrees with 200 steps per
revolution. The various step angles like 90, 45 and 15 degrees are common in
simple motors.
Working Principle (contd..)
Stepper Motor Construction and Control ADCB, ADCB, ADCB, A…” etc
“ABCD, ABCD, ABCD, A…”

360o/24 = 15o.
Classification of Stepper Motor
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
• Based on the property of the flux lines which
capture the low reluctance path
• No permanent magnets either on stator or rotor
• Have a rotor made of ferromagnetic substances
• When the stator is excited it becomes an
electromagnet and the rotor feels a pull in that
direction
• The ferromagnetic substance always tries to align
itself in the minimum reluctance path.
• By exciting the coils, a magnetic field is produced
and air gap reluctance is varied
• Hence it is called a variable reluctance stepper
motor
Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor:
• Rotor is of Permanent Magnet and
Cylindrical
• Stator is of electromagnet
• Stator windings are wound on stator
poles
• When stator energized, produces
magnetic field, rotor tends to follow
the revolving field and align with
stator
• Direction of rotation depends upon
the polarity of stator current
• Speed or torque of a permanent
magnet type motor is changed by the
number of poles used in stator.
• If large number of poles in stator then
the speed of motor will increase and
Vice Versa
Hybrid Stepper Motor
• Combination of the features of
the Variable Reluctance Stepper
Motor and Permanent Magnet Stepper
Motor
• In the center of the rotor, an axial
permanent magnet is provided
• Rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor
and contains an axially magnetized
concentric magnet around its shaft.
• The teeth on the rotor provide an even
better path which helps guide the
magnetic flux to preferred locations in
the air gap.
• At both the end of the axial magnet the end caps are provided, which contains an
equal number of teeth which are magnetized by the magnet.
Cross section of the two end caps of the rotor is shown above
The stator has 8 magnetic poles with 5 small teeth, each pole being provided
with a winding.
There are 50 small teeth on the outer perimeter of each rotor
As the stator and rotor teeth are 40 and 50 respectively, the step angle is expressed
as shown below.
• Coils on poles 1, 3, 5 and 7 are connected in series to form phase A.

• Similarly, the coils on the poles 2, 4, 6 and 8 are connected in series to form
phase B.
• When Phase A is excited by supplying a positive current, the stator poles 1 and 5
becomes South poles and stator pole 3 and 7 becomes north poles.
• Now, when the Phase A is de-energized, and phase B is excited, the rotor will
turn by a full step angle of 1.8⁰ in the anticlockwise direction.
• The phase A is now energized negatively; the rotor moves further by 1.8⁰ in the
same anti-clockwise direction.
• Further rotation of the rotor requires phase B to be excited negatively.
• Anticlockwise motion +A, +B, -A, -B, +B, +A…….., Clockwise rotation, the
sequence is +A, -B, +B, +A……..
MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
TYPES OF MOTIONS
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
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ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL

• Understand the operational characteristics of Electrical Actuation

SPCO Single pole, centre switches with a stable off

Double pole Equivalent to DPDT. Some

If the forward breakdown is at 300 V then, when

(a) Transistor symbols, (b), (c), (d), (e) transistor switch

• BJT is implemented by base currents and higher frequencies of switching are

Drive actuators are essentially Electro-

• Magnetism is basis of their principles of operation.

Fixed Magnetic Field Direction

• Depending on the way of connecting the

DC series Shunt motor Compound Separately

Short shunt Long shunt

• The field current Ish always remains

 Feed back signal is provided by a tachometer.

1. Feed back signal is coded using a encoder.

1.The system is completely digital.

 AC machines have no commutators and brushes; consequently,

What could be done? Use some starting Mechanism

• Rotate the rotor by some means in one direction

Variable speed a.c. motor

• The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of

• The speed of the shaft or the average motor speed is directly

“ABCD, ABCD, ABCD, A…”

• Coils on poles 1, 3, 5 and 7 are connected in series to form phase A.

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