The Journal of Clinical Investigation     REVIEW

Fructose metabolism and metabolic disease

Sarah A. Hannou,1 Danielle E. Haslam,2 Nicola M. McKeown,2 and Mark A. Herman1
Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism and Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA. 2Nutritional Epidemiology Program, Jean Mayer US
1

Department of Agriculture Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

Increased sugar consumption is increasingly considered to be a contributor to the worldwide epidemics of obesity and
diabetes and their associated cardiometabolic risks. As a result of its unique metabolic properties, the fructose component
of sugar may be particularly harmful. Diets high in fructose can rapidly produce all of the key features of the metabolic
syndrome. Here we review the biology of fructose metabolism as well as potential mechanisms by which excessive fructose
consumption may contribute to cardiometabolic disease.

Introduction recent prospective study showed that daily SSB consumers had a
Glucose is the predominant form of circulating sugar in animals, 29% greater increase in visceral adipose tissue volume over 6 years
while sucrose, the disaccharide composed of equal portions of glu- compared with nonconsumers (9). A causal association is sup-
cose and fructose, is the predominant circulating sugar in plants. ported by evidence that intake of 1 liter of SSB daily for 6 months
As plants form the basis of the food chain, herbivores and omni- increased visceral and liver fat, but increases were not observed in
vores are highly adapted to use sucrose for energetic and biosyn- those consuming isocaloric semiskim milk, noncaloric diet soda, or
thetic needs. Because fructose does not circulate at high levels in water (10). While increased visceral adiposity is a major cardiomet-
animals, ingested fructose may be uniquely positioned to convey abolic risk factor, SSBs may increase risk independently of adi-
signals related to sugar consumption. Therefore, understanding posity. For instance, daily SSB consumption is associated with an
mechanisms by which fructose is sensed may be of consequence unhealthy metabolic profile across BMI strata and with increased
for understanding the adaptive physiology of sucrose metabolism risk for type 2 diabetes independently of obesity (11, 12).
as well as potential pathophysiological consequences of excessive Hypertriglyceridemia is a major cardiovascular risk factor and
sugar consumption. is another mechanism by which SSBs might increase cardiovascu-
Sugar in the form of sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup, lar risk. Few large cross-sectional studies have examined the risk of
both of which are composed of nearly equal amounts of glucose dyslipidemia with SSB intake, and these studies show that dyslipid-
and fructose, is added to numerous manufactured food products. emia prevalence increases with higher SSB intake (13, 14). One pro-
Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) are a major source of added spective study reported that consuming more than 1 soft drink per
sugar in diets worldwide and include sodas, fruit-flavored drinks, day increased the odds of developing hypertriglyceridemia by 25%
and sport drinks. On average, SSBs contribute approximately 7% over 4 years compared with consuming less than 1 soft drink per
of daily calories (1) and nearly 50% of added sugars in the diet day (15). Moreover, two recent prospective cohort studies showed
(2). Although trends in SSB consumption have declined in recent that daily SSB consumption was associated with approximately
years, almost 66% of US youths still consume at least one SSB per 25% greater risk of developing coronary heart disease in both men
day (3). Other major contributors to added sugar intake include and women compared with nonconsumers (13, 16).
candy and desserts, contributing approximately 4% to 9% of daily SSB consumption also associates with hypertension, another
energy intake depending on age (2, 4). major cardiovascular risk factor. A recent meta-analysis found a
Whether increased sugar consumption is a major contributor modest 12% increase in hypertension risk among the highest SSB
to the epidemics of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty consumers compared with the lowest (17). Thus, SSB intake may
liver disease remains controversial (5–7). While the relationships contribute to hypertension, but it may play a lesser role in this risk
between some measures of dietary sugar exposure and cardiomet- factor compared with other cardiometabolic risk factors.
abolic risk factors are inconsistent, greater SSB consumption con- On the basis of short-term overfeeding studies conducted
sistently associates with indices of higher cardiometabolic risk (5). predominantly in animals, the fructose component of SSBs and
Several large meta-analyses associate increased SSB consumption added sugar appears to be particularly harmful. Feeding animals
with increased body weight, and much, though not all, of this large amounts of fructose can rapidly produce multiple features
increased weight is likely due to increased total energy consump- of the metabolic syndrome, including obesity, dyslipidemia, fatty
tion (5, 8). SSBs may increase cardiometabolic risk by increasing liver, hypertension, insulin resistance, and diabetes (18, 19). Some,
visceral adiposity, which accounts for much of the weight gain. A but not all, short-term dietary intervention studies in humans
also demonstrate that overfeeding fructose, but not glucose, can
Conflict of interest: M.A. Herman has received research support from Eli Lilly and Co.
increase visceral adiposity, postprandial hypertriglyceridemia, and
Reference information: J Clin Invest. 2018;128(2):545–555. insulin resistance, and effects on specific traits may be impacted by
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI96702. gender (20, 21). One concern with such studies is that the amount

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of fructose consumed often exceeds that commonly found in ad carbohydrate nutrients and a known transcriptional regulator of
libitum diets. The average consumption of fructose in US popula- TXNIP (37), also regulates intestinal GLUT5 expression and is
tions accounts for approximately 9% of total energy intake, while required for systemic fructose tolerance (38). In the future, it will
consumers in the 95th percentile average approximately 15% of be interesting to determine whether variability in the expression
total energy from fructose (22). In contrast, many interventional or function of GLUT5 or its regulatory factors contributes to the
studies are short in duration (less than 4 weeks) and include dietary variability in fructose absorption in humans.
intakes closer to 25% of total energy intake from fructose (23, 24).
Large randomized controlled dietary intervention studies Intermediary fructose metabolism
assessing the effects of added sugars on cardiometabolic risk Fructose concentrations in peripheral plasma are typically about
factors over long periods of time are lacking. Complexity, cost, 0.04 mM, can acutely increase 10-fold after fructose consump-
compliance, and potential ethical issues likely prohibit the con- tion, and return to fasting levels within 2 hours (39–41). This rap-
ducting of such studies. Nevertheless, some short-term interven- id clearance is mediated in large part by efficient extraction by
tional studies, even those within the range of “normal” fructose the liver. Whereas the liver extracts only 15% to 30% of an oral
consumption, show that fructose can rapidly impair intermediate glucose load, it is capable of extracting 70% of an oral fructose
physiological endpoints like circulating lipids and insulin sensitiv- load (42, 43). Following fructose ingestion, plasma fructose can
ity in humans (25). Several recent reviews comprehensively dis- achieve low millimolar concentrations in the portal vein accom-
cuss the physiological effects of added fructose or sugar on patho- panied by peripheral circulation levels of approximately 0.2 mM,
physiological endpoints in human subjects (26, 27). indicating that peripheral fructose concentrations rarely exceed
Understanding the mechanisms by which the isolated mono- the high micromolar range (44).
saccharide fructose might contribute to the development of met- The SLC2A2 glucose transporter, also known as GLUT2, has
abolic disease may provide fundamental insights into pathogenic lower affinity for fructose (Km = 11 mM) than GLUT5 (45). GLUT2
mechanisms that can be used to develop new diagnostic, preven- is a minor contributor to intestinal fructose transport (45), where-
tative, and therapeutic strategies. Here we will review the bio- as it is likely a major contributor to hepatic fructose uptake, since
chemistry and molecular genetics of fructose metabolism as well GLUT5 is not robustly expressed in the liver (46, 47). SLC2A8, also
as potential mechanisms by which excessive fructose consump- known as GLUT8, may also contribute to hepatocellular fructose
tion contributes to cardiometabolic disease. We hope that lessons transport (48). Fructose is a poor substrate for the hepatic hex-
learned from improved understanding of fructose metabolism okinase glucokinase (GCK). Instead, ketohexokinase (KHK, also
and fructose-induced cardiometabolic risk may also apply to other known as fructokinase) rapidly phosphorylates fructose to gener-
forms of diet-induced and genetically induced metabolic disease. ate fructose-1-phosphate (F1P). KHK’s high activity and insensi-
tivity to cellular energy status account for the liver’s ability to effi-
Fructose absorption ciently extract fructose. F1P is metabolized to dihydroxyacetone
Ingested fructose is predominantly absorbed passively from the phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), which
intestinal lumen via the hexose transporter SLC2A5, also known as enter the glycolytic/gluconeogenic metabolite pools (Figure 1).
GLUT5, which has high affinity for fructose (Km = 6 mM). GLUT5 Cellular metabolic status and energy status tightly regulate the
is highly expressed on enterocytes’ luminal membrane and is also phosphofructokinase (PFK) step in glycolysis, which limits hepatic
expressed basolaterally (28). Deletion of Glut5 in mice reduces glycolytic flux (49). In contrast, fructose-derived metabolites enter
fructose absorption by 75% and causes cecum and colon dilatation the triose-phosphate pool distal to PFK and therefore bypass this
as well as gas accumulation (29). These features are suggestive of restriction. As hepatic fructolysis is unrestricted, fructose loads can
fructose malabsorption, frequently cited as a cause of gastroin- lead to large, rapid expansions in the hexose- and triose-phosphate
testinal symptoms in humans (30, 31). The intestine’s capacity to pools, potentially providing increased substrate for all central car-
absorb fructose is saturable (32), and a healthy adult’s ability to bon metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, glycogenesis, gluco-
absorb free fructose ranges from less than 5 g to more than 50 g neogenesis, lipogenesis, and oxidative phosphorylation.
(33). Unabsorbed fructose can impose an osmotic load on the distal The disposition of fructose-derived carbon among the major
small intestine and the colon, which may contribute to gastrointes- metabolic pathways depends on the overall nutritional and endo-
tinal symptoms (32). Moreover, fructose can serve as a substrate for crine status of the animal as well as the status of key regulatory
bacterial fermentation, leading to formation of gas and other bac- checkpoints in intermediary metabolism. For instance, in starved
terial metabolites, which can affect intestinal motility and cause animals, low levels of fructose-2,6-biphosphate inhibit PFK activi-
various symptoms such as abdominal pain and bloating (34). ty and glycolysis and activate fructose-1,6-biphosphatase and glu-
Intestinal GLUT5 mRNA levels and fructose transport rates cose production (50). Thus, in a starved animal, fructose-derived
are very low prenatally and rapidly increase with weaning inde- triose-phosphates are preferentially routed through the gluconeo-
pendently of diet, but they can be further induced following wean- genic path (51, 52). The fate of ingested fructose may also depend
ing to diets containing fructose (35). Recent data showed that on coingested nutrients. For instance, infusing physiological con-
high-fructose feeding induces intestinal thioredoxin-interacting centrations of fructose to fed rats and humans increases serum
protein (TXNIP), which binds and regulates GLUT5-mediated glucose and lactate levels without affecting hepatic glycogen accu-
intestinal fructose transport (36). Consistent with this, we recent- mulation (53, 54). However, when fructose is infused with glucose,
ly showed that carbohydrate-responsive element–binding protein which stimulates insulin secretion, marked glycogen accumulation
(ChREBP), a transcription factor that responds to intracellular occurs (55). Chronic fructose consumption can affect metabolic

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Figure 1. Fructose biochemistry. Upon entering hepatocytes, fructose is phosphorylated by KHK to F1P. F1P is cleaved to DHAP and glyceraldehyde by
ALDOB. Glyceraldehyde is phosphorylated by triose-kinase (TKFC, also known as dihydroxyacetone kinase 2 or DAK) to form the glycolytic intermediate
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GA3P). Both fructose-derived DHAP and GA3P enter the glycolytic/gluconeogenic metabolite pool at the triose-phosphate
level, and these metabolites have numerous metabolic fates. F1P also allosterically regulates metabolic enzymes (red and green lines) to regulate the
disposition of fructose-derived substrate and other metabolic products like uric acid. AMPD3, adenosine deaminase; GA, glyceraldehyde; IMP, inosine
monophosphate; MTTP, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein; PYGL, glycogen phosphorylase L; GYS2, glycogen synthase 2; PKLR, pyruvate kinase, liver
and red blood cell; PEP, phosphoenolpyruvate; TAG, triacylglycerol.

gene expression programs that further affect fructose disposition. glucose uptake and phosphorylation, leading to rapid glycogen
These mechanisms will be described in greater detail below. accumulation (66). F1P may also enhance glycogen synthesis by
Although the liver metabolizes the majority of ingested fruc- allosterically inhibiting glycogen phosphorylase (67, 68). Lastly,
tose, the intestine itself can metabolize up to 30% of an oral F1P also allosterically activates pyruvate kinase, the terminal step
fructose load (56, 57). All of the fructolytic enzymes are highly in glycolysis, contributing to increased circulating lactate levels fol-
expressed in the small intestine and notably in the jejunum, where lowing fructose ingestion (69). In rodent liver, hepatic F1P levels
the highest levels of GLUT5 are observed (58). Similarly to GLUT5, increase 10-fold to approximately 1 mM within 10 minutes after
intestinal expression of fructolytic and gluconeogenic enzymes fructose ingestion and remain elevated for several hours (70). F1P
including glucose-6-phosphatase (G6PC) increases upon fructose concentrations of only approximately 200 μM are sufficient to alle-
feeding (59) and depends on GLUT5 and KHK activity (60). How- viate the inhibitory effect of GCKR on GCK (71). Thus, fructose
ever, most prandial fructose is not metabolized in the intestine but ingestion is likely to have rapid, robust, and sustained effects on
rather passes via the portal vein to the liver (61, 62). hepatic glucose uptake and intermediary metabolism.
In addition to providing substrate for metabolic processes, While the efficiency and rapidity with which the liver can
hepatic fructose metabolism generates specific metabolites that extract and phosphorylate ingested fructose are likely important
also perform signaling functions (Figure 2). Importantly, F1P, the for its role in integrating nutritional and systemic fuel metabolism,
fructose-specific metabolite produced by KHK, exerts strong pos- this robust metabolism may also have deleterious consequenc-
itive regulatory control on GCK by promoting its release from the es. For instance, decreases in intracellular free phosphate due
inhibitory GCK regulatory protein (GCKR). GCKR sequesters GCK to rapid hepatic fructose phosphorylation can increase uric acid
in an inactive state in the nucleus (63–65). “Catalytic” amounts of production through activation of AMP deaminase, which leads to
fructose, in part through activation of GCK, can promote hepatic catabolism of AMP to uric acid (72, 73). Fructose feeding may also

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Figure 2. Fructose-induced gene expression programs. Fructose metab-

olism activates transcription factors including ChREBP and SREBP1c and
their coactivator PGC1β to coordinately regulate gene expression of met-
abolic enzymes that contribute to fructolysis, glycolysis, lipogenesis, and
glucose production. These metabolic pathways contribute to steatosis,
VLDL packaging and secretion, as well as glucose production and the gen-
eration of lipid intermediates that may affect hepatic insulin sensitivity
and other biological processes. ACACA, acetyl-CoA carboxylase α; FASN,
fatty acid synthase; GPAT, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferases; AGPAT,
acylglycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase; DGAT, diacylglycerol acyltrans-
ferase; DAG, diacylglycerol.

sugars are consumed. This activation enhances net hepatic glu-

cose uptake and storage as glycogen and lipid. Interestingly, at
supraphysiological/pathological levels, glucose itself can dissoci-
ate GCK from GCKR and may contribute to the increased hepatic
GCK activity described in obese diabetics and in genetic models of
obesity and diabetes (85, 86). Thus, in the setting of uncontrolled
diabetes, the liver may aberrantly sense hyperglycemia as a state of
increased sugar consumption. Understanding the metabolic effects
of hepatic “sugar sensing” may be of consequence for understand-
ing the pathophysiology of diabetes and hyperglycemia.

Genetic lessons about fructose metabolism

KHK exists as two alternatively spliced isoforms produced by
mutual exclusion of the adjacent exons 3C and 3A within the KHK
gene (87, 88). The “A” isoform is ubiquitously expressed but has
low activity due to relatively low affinity for its substrate (Km = 8
mM) (89). Expression of the “C” isoform is primarily restricted to
metabolic tissues including the liver, kidney, and intestine, and
this isoform has much higher affinity for fructose (Km = 0.8 mM)
stimulate purine synthesis, contributing to uric acid production (89, 90). Mice deficient in both isoforms were fully protected from
(74). Increased circulating uric acid levels increase the risk of gout, fructose-induced metabolic disease even though blood and uri-
a condition characterized by painful inflammation due to deposi- nary fructose levels were markedly increased (91). Thus, elevated
tion of uric acid crystals in joints. Indeed, a growing body of evi- blood fructose itself is not deleterious; rather, fructose metabo-
dence implicates sugar intake as a risk factor for gout (75). More- lism is essential for fructose-induced metabolic disease. Loss-
over, elevated serum uric acid levels and gout are associated with of-function mutations in KHK cause the benign human disorder
other cardiometabolic risk factors in diverse populations (76–78). essential fructosuria, characterized by impaired hepatic fructose
A substantial body of work suggests that increased uric acid levels metabolism leading to high blood and urine fructose levels after
may independently regulate important aspects of metabolism and sucrose or fructose consumption (92). Consistent with observa-
contribute to cardiometabolic risk (79–83). However, Mendelian tions in mice, there are no documented adverse health effects
randomization studies do not strongly support a causal role for observed in people with this condition. Altogether, these results
circulating uric acid in mediating cardiometabolic disease (84). suggest that inhibiting KHK may be a safe therapeutic strategy to
The association between uric acid levels and cardiometabolic risk prevent fructose-induced metabolic disease.
may be indirect and may reflect activation of distinct fructose- In contrast with global KHK deletion, selective deletion of the
regulated processes that contribute both to uric acid production A isoform exacerbates the adverse metabolic effects of fructose
and cardiometabolic risk. feeding (91). These results suggest two important hypotheses: (a)
The liver is at a metabolic crossroads and is crucial for gauging fructose metabolism outside of tissues that express the C isoform is
nutrient consumption and integrating peripheral nutrient status non-negligible and contributes to whole-body fructose clearance,
to regulate systemic fuel storage versus provisioning. While hor- and (b) fructose metabolism within the tissues expressing KHK-C
mones like insulin and glucagon help inform the liver of system- is critical for fructose-induced metabolic disease. This is supported
ic fuel status, the liver is also well configured to integrate signals by recent data showing that selective knockdown of KHK in mouse
derived directly from fuel substrates. In this sense, the signaling liver protects against fructose-induced steatosis (93). Recent data
properties of fructose-derived F1P, and particularly its regulation also indicate that altered splicing between KHK-A and KHK-C iso-
of GCK activity, may function as an evolved mechanism allowing forms may contribute to the development of distinct diseases like
the liver to use fructose metabolism to “sense” sugar (i.e., sucrose hepatocellular carcinoma and heart failure (94, 95).
or high-fructose corn syrup) consumption. Robust physiological Hereditary fructose intolerance (HFI) is a rare autosomal
activation of hepatic GCK occurs only when fructose-containing recessive disease caused by a deficiency of aldolase B (ALDOB),

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which is highly expressed in the liver, kidney, and small intestine also acutely suppresses hepatic fatty acid oxidation (116). Thus,
(96). People with HFI develop abdominal pain, vomiting, diar- fructose contributes to hepatic triglyceride production both by
rhea, symptomatic hypoglycemia, hyperuricemia, and potential- providing substrate for fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis and by
ly liver failure and death following ingestion of foods containing activating signaling systems to enhance lipid production (Figure 2).
fructose, sucrose, or sorbitol (97). The precise mechanisms by The liver is the primary site of DNL, the process by which fat-
which ALDOB deficiency causes symptoms are not entirely clear. ty acids are synthesized from dietary precursors, predominantly
An Aldob-deficient mouse model mimics the human HFI condi- carbohydrates (117). Due to the differences in hepatic glucose and
tion (98). These mice fail to thrive and die when exposed to high- fructose metabolism, a larger fraction of diet-derived fructose
fructose diets. Interestingly, even on a fructose-free diet, Aldob- than glucose metabolites are available for conversion to fat in the
deficient mice develop steatosis (98), possibly due to impaired liver via DNL in animals and humans (20, 118–120). Additional-
metabolism of endogenously synthesized fructose (99). ly, fructose metabolites entering the triose-phosphate pool are in
equilibrium with glycerol 3-phosphate, which is used to synthesize
Endogenous fructose production the glycerol backbone in triglyceride. Moreover, the metabolite
While the vast majority of metabolized fructose is derived from malonyl-CoA generated via DNL limits fatty acid oxidation by
dietary sources of sugar, animals including humans are capable inhibiting carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A), the enzyme
of synthesizing fructose endogenously. The sorbitol (polyol) path- required for translocation of fatty acids into the mitochondria
way, which is active in a wide range of tissues, is responsible for (121). CPT1A inhibition further increases the availability of fatty
endogenous fructose formation from glucose (100, 101). In this acids for triglyceride production. Triglyceride can be incorporated
pathway, glucose is first reduced to sorbitol by aldose reductase into lipid droplets, leading to steatosis, or can be incorporated into
(102). Sorbitol is then oxidized to fructose by sorbitol dehydroge- VLDL and secreted from the liver.
nase (103). Physiologically, endogenously synthesized fructose In addition to providing substrate for lipogenesis, chron-
is the primary energy source for sperm and may be important for ic fructose consumption increases transcriptional regulation of
fertility (104–106). The placenta may also synthesize sorbitol that DNL by activating key transcription factors, including sterol reg-
the developing fetus may use to synthesize fructose, suggesting a ulatory element–binding protein 1c (SREBP1c) and carbohydrate-
broader role for endogenous fructose in reproductive and devel- responsive element–binding protein (ChREBP) (122). SREBP1c
opmental biology (107). promotes lipid synthesis and is regulated at the transcriptional and
Sorbitol pathway activity increases during diabetic hypergly- posttranslational levels by nutrients and hormones. Insulin is a
cemia (108). Endogenous fructose synthesis and polyol metab- major hormonal activator of hepatic SREBP1c (123, 124). Although
olites are considered key players in the development of diabetic acute fructose feeding does not directly stimulate insulin secre-
microvascular complications (109). Interestingly, semen fructose tion, chronic fructose ingestion can lead to hyperinsulinemia,
concentrations are increased in type 1 diabetes and in obesity, which may increase hepatic SREBP1c expression and activation
in which it is associated with impaired sperm parameters (105, (125, 126). Fructose may also activate SREBP1c independently of
110). Whether endogenous fructose synthesis might occur at suf- insulin, since SREBP1c responds to high-fructose feeding in liv-
ficient rates to contribute to other aspects of fructose-induced er-specific insulin receptor–knockout (LIRKO) mice (125). Fruc-
cardiometabolic risk has only recently been addressed. Glucose tose consumption may also promote ER stress, which may induce
dose-dependently induces aldolase reductase in human tissues, proteolytic cleavage of SREBP1c and the lipogenic program (127,
and chronic exposure to a high-glucose diet induces polyol path- 128). Fructose-induced ER stress may also enhance lipogenesis
way activation in mice (99, 111). This may be a mechanism by via activation of the transcription factor x box-binding protein 1
which severe hyperglycemia may exacerbate cardiometabolic independently of other lipogenic transcription factors (129).
risks. Additionally, Lanaspa et al. report that endogenous fructose ChREBP couples carbohydrate metabolites to lipid synthesis
production and KHK activation within the kidney contribute to by inducing enzymes required for DNL (130). ChREBP may also
the development of diabetic nephropathy (112). Although sorbitol suppress fatty acid oxidation by downregulating enzymes like
dehydrogenase is expressed at high levels in human liver (113), CPT1A, in part by antagonizing peroxisome proliferator–activated
whether this pathway is sufficiently active in humans to play an receptor α (PPARα), a key transcriptional regulator of the fatty acid
adverse metabolic role will require further investigation. oxidation gene program (131, 132). ChREBP is highly expressed
in key metabolic tissues, including liver, adipose tissue, small
Fructose effects on lipid homeostasis intestine, pancreatic islets, and kidney, where it regulates carbo-
As noted above, excessive fructose consumption may have sig- hydrate metabolism in an insulin-independent manner (37, 125,
nificant effects on lipid metabolism, contributing both to steato- 130). The observation that ChREBP-deficient mice are intolerant
sis and to increased circulating triglyceride levels in the form of to diets containing fructose but not to diets containing dextrose
very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). Hepatic lipid accumulation suggests a specific role for ChREBP in regulating fructose metab-
results from a combination of increased hepatic de novo lipogene- olism (37, 133). Moreover, ChREBP activity was markedly higher
sis (DNL), esterification of preformed fatty acids derived from the in rats fed high-fructose compared with isocaloric high-glucose
diet or adipose stores, decreased VLDL secretion, and decreased diets (126). We recently demonstrated that ingesting fructose, but
hepatic fatty acid oxidation. Activation of the lipogenic program is not glucose, acutely and robustly induces hepatic expression of
observed immediately after a single load of fructose and contrib- the potent ChREBP-β isoform along with its lipogenic, fructolytic,
utes to increased VLDL triglyceride secretion (114, 115). Fructose and glycolytic targets (133, 134). The mechanism by which sugar

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Figure 3. Consequences of fructose overcon-

sumption. Fructose metabolism in key metabolic
tissues including the small intestine, liver, and
kidney may contribute to diverse cardiometabolic
risk factors including steatosis, increased glucose
production, hypertriglyceridemia, increased
adiposity, and hypertension. Fructose provides
substrate for metabolic processes that contribute
to cardiometabolic risk and engages cellular
and hormonal signaling systems that regulate
these metabolic and pathological processes. LPL,
lipoprotein lipase.

factors, such as PPARγ, PPARα, estro-

gen-related receptors (ERRs), and liver X
receptor (LXR) (145, 146). PGC1β can also
bind SREBP1 and ChREBP and enhance
their transcriptional activity (147, 148).
ASOs targeting PGC1β prevented SREBP1c
expression and lipogenesis, which in turn
decreased lipid accumulation in fructose-
fed rat livers. PGC1β-targeting ASOs also
prevented increases in adiposity, glycemia,
and plasma insulin and triglycerides in
fructose-fed rats. Thus, PGC1β is uniquely
positioned to coordinately regulate both
ChREBP and SREBP1c activities in the con-
text of high-fructose feeding.
metabolites activate ChREBP remains controversial but involves Increased sugar and fructose consumption is implicated in
allosteric activation by glucose-6-phosphate as well as modulation both simple steatosis and the progression toward more advanced
by other carbohydrate metabolites and posttranslational modifi- forms of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), including non-
cations (135–137). ChREBP knockdown using antisense oligonu- alcoholic steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma
cleotides (ASOs) in fructose-fed rats reduced circulating triglycer- (149). Important steps in DNL and VLDL synthesis occur at the ER
ide levels and confirmed a role for ChREBP in fructose-mediated membrane, and fructose-induced lipogenesis may elicit ER stress
dyslipidemia, although steatosis was unaffected (138). Consistent and the ER stress response (150). Moreover, signaling elements
with this, GWAS have identified multiple common SNPs within in the ER stress response may contribute to NAFLD pathogene-
the ChREBP locus associated with increased serum triglyceride sis and progression (151). Recent work from Zhang et al. suggests
and low HDL cholesterol levels (139, 140). that ChREBP may protect the liver against fructose-induced ER
ChREBP knockdown’s selective effect on circulating tri- stress and hepatic inflammation (152). However, we have recent-
glycerides but not steatosis in the experiment described above ly observed that liver-specific ChREBP-knockout mice do not
highlights the fact that fat accretion in lipid droplets and VLDL develop ER stress or hepatic inflammation when challenged with
secretion are distinct processes. ChREBP potently regulates DNL, high-fructose diets (38). Mechanisms by which fructose may con-
and fructose-induced DNL strongly correlates with fructose- tribute to progression of NAFLD will require further investigation.
induced hypertriglyceridemia (141). However, in steatotic human
subjects, DNL-derived fatty acids contribute a minor fraction of Fructose effects on glucose homeostasis
fatty acids to VLDL (142), and the mechanistic connection between Fructose does not directly stimulate pancreatic β cell insulin secre-
DNL and VLDL secretion remains uncertain. Moreover, ChREBP tion (153, 154). However, high-fructose feeding readily induces
may have effects to increase circulating triglycerides independent- hyperinsulinemia in animal models. Moreover, hyperinsulinemia
ly of increasing VLDL secretion. ChREBP may transactivate expres- is more pronounced in rodent models with high-fructose com-
sion of the apolipoprotein APOC3 as well as angiopoietin-like 8 pared with high-dextrose feeding despite similar increases in
(ANGPTL8), both of which may inhibit lipoprotein lipase and limit body weight and adiposity (155, 156). Similarly, hypercaloric fruc-
VLDL clearance (refs. 143, 144, and Figure 3). Thus, it is possible tose feeding increases circulating insulin in human subjects (157).
that high-fructose feeding may increase circulating VLDL both by Fructose-induced hyperinsulinemia, often considered a proxy for
enhancing VLDL production and secretion and by reducing VLDL insulin resistance, might be the result of insulin resistance in some
clearance, but the precise mechanisms remain to be determined. combination of liver, muscle, and/or adipose tissue.
PPARγ coactivator 1β (PGC1β) is a transcriptional coacti- The mechanisms by which high-fructose feeding caus-
vator that increases the activity of multiple key transcription es hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance remain uncertain.

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Fructose-induced steatosis may contribute to hepatic insulin and glucose differentially regulate appetite and feeding behavior
resistance through increased hepatic diacylglycerol accumula- remain to be determined.
tion, PKC activation, and impairment of insulin-mediated Akt2 Prospective studies in which excess fructose is added on top
activation (158–160). However, whether steatosis itself can cause of habitual diets often document spontaneous reductions in other
hepatic insulin resistance remains controversial (131, 161). In addi- forms of sugar consumption, suggesting strong feedback mecha-
tion to ChREBP’s role in fructose-induced dyslipidemia, Erion et nisms that specifically regulate sugar consumption (141). Such com-
al. demonstrated that ChREBP knockdown enhanced peripheral pensatory mechanisms may contribute to difficulties in accurately
insulin sensitivity in high-fructose-fed rats (138). Whether the assessing dietary sugar consumption in both observational and
improvement in peripheral insulin sensitivity was directly relat- interventional studies. FGF21 is a liver-derived hormone that regu-
ed to the improvement in circulating lipid levels or adiposity is lates energy, glucose, and lipid homeostasis and may also participate
uncertain. We recently demonstrated that while hepatic ChREBP in a feedback mechanism regulating macronutrient selection (refs.
is essential for fructose-mediated upregulation of fructolytic, gly- 174–178 and Figure 3). Increased circulating FGF21 is associated
colytic, and lipogenic enzymes, ChREBP also mediated upregu- with cardiometabolic risk factors including obesity, NAFLD, type 2
lation of G6PC, the terminal enzyme in glucose production (133). diabetes, and insulin resistance (179–181). FGF21 is a ChREBP tran-
We showed that a fructose-induced, ChREBP-mediated increase scriptional target (182), and fructose ingestion acutely and robustly
in G6PC activity is a major determinant of endogenous glucose induces circulating FGF21, whereas the response to glucose inges-
production. Moreover, fructose activated ChREBP and induced tion is less substantial and is delayed (175). Fructose-induced, circu-
G6PC in the absence of FOXO1a, indicating that substrate- lating FGF21 may protect the liver from fructose-induced metabolic
driven activation of ChREBP and G6PC to enhance glucose pro- disease (183). Interestingly, data from animal models suggest that
duction dominates over the suppressive effects of insulin (133). sugar-induced circulating FGF21 may signal to the brain to suppress
This ChREBP/G6PC signaling axis is also conserved in humans. additional sugar consumption (184, 185). GWAS also support a role
These results are consistent with dietary intervention studies in for FGF21 in macronutrient preference, as variants in the FGF21
humans indicating that either eucaloric substitution or hyperca- locus associate with increased dietary carbohydrate consumption
loric addition of fructose may have more significant effects on relative to dietary fat in human populations (186, 187). However,
hepatic insulin resistance than peripheral insulin resistance (157). variants associated with increased carbohydrate consumption also
However, as hyperinsulinemia itself can induce peripheral insulin associate with increased circulating FGF21 levels, which is inconsis-
resistance (162, 163), we speculate that chronic hyperinsulinemia tent with the negative feedback model. More investigation will be
that compensates for fructose-induced glucose production may required to understand the role of FGF21 in the context of increased
subsequently lead to peripheral insulin resistance. This hypothe- sugar and fructose consumption.
sis remains to be tested experimentally.
Effects of fructose on hypertension
Fructose effects on appetite and adiposity The mechanisms by which fructose contributes to the develop-
Increased SSB consumption and fructose overconsumption are ment of hypertension are less well characterized than its effects
consistently associated with increased adiposity, which may be on glucose and lipid homeostasis. High-fructose feeding in
attributed to increased caloric intake as well as effects on energy rodents can increase intestinal salt absorption in part through
balance and nutrient partitioning that are independent of calor- induction of an intestinal anion exchanger, Slc26a6 (188). More-
ic intake. Fructose is among the sweetest of sugars, and sweet- over, this induction and associated hypertension are prevented
ness generally enhances food palatability. This likely contributes in GLUT5-knockout mice (188). However, these results are con-
to the addition of fructose-containing sugars like sucrose and founded by the fact that GLUT5-knockout mice suffer generalized
high-fructose corn syrup to the food supply. Enhanced palatabili- malabsorption and become ill when challenged with fructose.
ty may increase feeding behavior and thus encourage overeating Johnson and colleagues have hypothesized that fructose-induced
(164). Moreover, fructose and sucrose can enhance palatability hyperuricemia may impair kidney function, contributing to
and induce addiction-like behaviors such as binging and depen- hypertension (189). However, as discussed above, genetic data do
dence in part by stimulating dopaminergic pathways (165–168). not strongly support a major role for hyperuricemia in cardiomet-
Distinct from fructose’s hedonic value, whether fructose impacts abolic disease. As fructose is robustly metabolized in the kidney,
additional signaling systems to regulate appetite and feeding fructose-mediated changes in renal salt handling may also be
behavior has also been studied. For instance, high-fructose important. However, this has yet to be rigorously studied and is
feeding may induce leptin resistance, which in turn may lead an area ripe for further investigation.
to increased food intake and obesity (169, 170). Additionally,
dietary fructose decreases leptin excursions compared with iso- Conclusions and future directions
caloric dietary glucose, and fructose is less potent than glucose The combination of mechanistic data supporting a role for exces-
in suppressing the orexigenic hormone ghrelin (171). In human sive fructose ingestion and epidemiological data supporting a
subjects, fructose versus glucose ingestion has differential role for SSBs in the development of cardiometabolic disease sup-
effects on hypothalamic blood flow and cerebral cortex reac- ports recent dietary recommendations to limit sugar consump-
tivity to food cues, suggesting the possibility that fructose and tion published by several public health agencies, including the
glucose have distinct effects on brain function that may impact American Heart Association, the World Health Organization,
feeding behavior (172, 173). The mechanisms by which fructose and the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (2, 190, 191).

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REVIEW The Journal of Clinical Investigation   

Safe thresholds for sugar consumption and concrete recommen- Acknowledgments

dations for targets to reduce cardiometabolic risk remain in dis- This work is supported by American Heart Association
pute. Moreover, implementing effective programs to alter dietary 16CSA28590003 (to MAH and NMM), NIH R01DK100425 (to
habits remains challenging. However, initial reports indicate MAH), NIH 5T32HL069772-15 (to DEH), and US Department of
that “sugar taxes” may be effective in reducing SSB consumption Agriculture Agricultural Research Service agreement 58-1950-4-
(192, 193). Time will tell whether such approaches can improve 003 (to NMM).
health outcomes. Hopefully, by improving our understanding
of the underlying mechanisms by which sugar and fructose can Address correspondence to: Mark A. Herman, 300 N. Duke Street,
cause disease, we will be able to bring informed, comprehensive Carmichael Building, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
approaches to bear on our current metabolic epidemics. 27705, USA. Phone: 919.479.2378; Email: [email protected].

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