Submarine and Deep-Sea Mine Tailing Placement

Marine Pollution Bulletin 97 (2015) 13–35
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul
Review
Submarine and deep-sea mine tailing placements: A review of current

practices, environmental issues, natural analogs and knowledge gaps in
Norway and internationally
Eva Ramirez-Llodra a,⇑, Hilde C. Trannum a, Anita Evenset b, Lisa A. Levin c, Malin Andersson d,
Tor Erik Finne d, Ana Hilario e, Belinda Flem d, Guttorm Christensen b, Morten Schaanning a, Ann Vanreusel f
a
Norwegian Institute for Water Research, NIVA, Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
b
Akvaplan-niva, Fram Centre, High North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment, Tromsø, Norway
c
Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation and Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0218, USA
d
Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
e
Departamento de Biologia & CESAM, Universidade de Aveiro, Portugal
f
Marine Biology Research Group, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The mining sector is growing in parallel with societal demands for minerals. One of the most important
Received 26 March 2015 environmental issues and economic burdens of industrial mining on land is the safe storage of the vast
Revised 21 May 2015 amounts of waste produced. Traditionally, tailings have been stored in land dams, but the lack of land
Accepted 24 May 2015
availability, potential risk of dam failure and topography in coastal areas in certain countries results in
Available online 1 June 2015
increasing disposal of tailings into marine systems. This review describes the different submarine tailing
disposal methods used in the world in general and in Norway in particular, their impact on the environ-
Keywords:
ment (e.g. hyper-sedimentation, toxicity, processes related to changes in grain shape and size, turbidity),
Submarine
Tailing
current legislation and need for future research. Understanding these impacts on the habitat and biota is
Environment essential to assess potential ecosystem changes and to develop best available techniques and robust man-
Impact agement plans.
Mining Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Waste
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1. Mining and economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2. Mining waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3. Tailing disposal methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4. Brief history of practices and methods for tailing disposal at sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. STDs and DSTPs in Norway and globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1. Current and potentially new Norwegian STDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2. Global STDs and DSTPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3. Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1. The framework: ecosystem functions and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2. Hyper-sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.1. Soft sediment biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2. Hard-substratum fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3. Toxic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Ramirez-Llodra), [email protected] (H.C. Trannum), [email protected] (A. Evenset), [email protected]
(L.A. Levin), [email protected] (M. Andersson), tor.fi[email protected] (T.E. Finne), [email protected] (A. Hilario), belinda.fl[email protected] (B. Flem), guttorm.christensen@
akvaplan.niva.no (G. Christensen), [email protected] (M. Schaanning), [email protected] (A. Vanreusel).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.05.062
0025-326X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
14 E. Ramirez-Llodra et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 97 (2015) 13–35
3.3.1. Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.2. Process chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4. Grain size and angularity effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5. Plume dispersal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.6. Upwelling and slope failure risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6.1. Tailings upwelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6.2. Slope failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4. Recovery potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Results from environmental research in Norwegian STP sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.1. Bøkfjorden (Arctic Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2. Stjernsundet (Arctic Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3. Repparfjord (Arctic Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.4. Ranfjorden (Northern Norway). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5. Førdefjorden (Western Norway). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.6. Frænfjorden (Western Norway) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.7. Jøssingfjorden (Western Norway). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6. Parallels with other forms of disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7. The legal framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.1. International initiatives and legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.2. Norwegian legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8. Knowledge gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.1. Abiotic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.2. Biotic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.3. Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.4. Socioeconomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9. Final recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1. Introduction producer among the continents and its expansion over the period
was 171%, so that from 2005 to date, more than half of the world’s
To date, there is no peer-reviewed overview of the environmen- mineral production originated from Asian countries. By 2012,
tal impacts of mine tailing disposal in the marine ecosystem at the China was the number one country of mineral producers in all
global scale, with lessons learnt and knowledge gaps. Such a classes of commodities except noble metals. Sorted by commodi-
review can help compile lessons across regions and settings to pro- ties, production volumes worldwide over the period 1984–2012
mote more effective disposal practices and management. increased from 62% for industrial minerals to 211% for iron and
Furthermore, a large amount of the scientific data on STDs from alloy metals used in steel manufacturing (Fig. 2).
Norway (the country with most inactive and active STDs) is in The world data comprise computed amounts of the economic
internal reports in Norwegian and, thus, not easily accessible to compound of the different products. Similar figures are available
the international community. The current paper reviews for the Norwegian mining industry for the period 2010–2013
STD/DSTP settings, environmental impacts, recovery potential, sta- (Neeb and Brugmans, 2011; Neeb, 2012, 2013, 2014). Norwegian
tus of Norwegian studies, legal issues, natural analogs and knowl- figures are given as tonnes of concentrates produced and are
edge gaps, providing a central and up to date source of information grouped slightly differently than the international data, but they
on this topic. We close with recommendations to advance scientific nevertheless show a similar increase in produced volumes over
understanding, governance and decision making regarding sub-
marine and deep-sea mine tailings placement.
1.1. Mining and economics
With increasing societal demands for mineral resources, mining

at the global scale is in a phase of rapid growth (Vogt, 2013; Dold,
2014). However, the role and importance of the mining sector in
individual countries’ economies is not well established as a topic
in economic analysis (Roe and Haglund, 2012). The nominal value
of the world’s mineral production was almost four times higher in
2010 than in 2008, caused by higher market prices and increased
production volumes. Over the same period, increase in world min-
eral production value was clearly greater than world Gross domes-
tic product (GDP). Statistics compiled by the International
Organizing Committee for the World Mining Congresses show that
from 2002 onwards, there has been marked increase in world min-
ing production volumes, only interrupted by a minute decrease in
Fig. 1. Annual mineral production by continent, based on evaluation of reports
2009 (Reichl et al., 2014). Worldwide, the production has increased from National Committees of member countries of the World Mining Congress.
by 79% from 9418 megatons (Mt) in 1984 to 16 863 Mt in 2012 Numbers (million tonnes) are calculated content of valuable element or compound,
(Fig. 1). During the same period, Asia has always been the largest not mine production or produced concentrate. Data from Reichl et al. (2014).
E. Ramirez-Llodra et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 97 (2015) 13–35 15
safe tailing disposal include ensuring that the tailings are physi-
cally stable and chemically inert and involve issues of isolation,
local/regional climate and geography, and societal/community
concerns (Franks et al., 2011).
1.3. Tailing disposal methods
Most industrial-size mines currently operating world-wide dis-

pose their tailings in conventional dams (Shimmield et al., 2010;
Cornwall, 2013; Vogt, 2013). These dams are constructed using a
naturally formed depression, closed by an earthen barrier, in which
Fig. 2. Annual mineral production by commodity, based on evaluation of reports
the tailing slurry is dumped. Dam deposits may create, however,
from National Committees of member countries of the World Mining Congress.
Numbers are calculated content of valuable element or compound, not mine significant management issues, and this tailing disposal method
production or produced concentrate, and are million tonnes, (kg for the precious is not always acceptable, depending on the characteristics of the
metals). Data from Reichl et al. (2014). area. Poor tailing management can have major environmental
and societal consequences, including the devastation of large areas,
populated or of natural value, during major dam failures, the leach-
ing of toxic chemicals and heavy metals and acidification of water
ways (rivers, lakes) by oxidation of sulfide minerals resulting in
acidic rock drainage (ARD) (Arnesen et al., 1997; Koski, 2012).
The effects can last for hundreds and even thousands of years,
resulting in the call for policy development in relation to perpetual
management of mines, including the mine walls, waste rock and
tailings (Kempton et al., 2010). For dams to be suitable, it is critical
that the area has adequate amounts of precipitation and low seis-
mic activity, to avoid erosion, leaching and, potentially, dam-wall
failure (Franks et al., 2011; Cornwall, 2013). A recent study on
dam storage for mine tailings estimated that there are, worldwide,
about 2–5 major (0.1%) and about 35 minor (1%) dam failures
per year (Martin and Davies, 2010), some of which have had and
Fig. 3. Annual mineral production by commodity, based on reports from 865
still have major environmental and societal additional
companies (2013) throughout Norway. Numbers reflect tonnage of commercial
product, regardless of grade. Data from Neeb (2014, 2013, 2012) and Neeb and consequences.
Brugmans (2011). Vast areas needed for tailing storage on land, with up to one
half of the total area affected by the mining activity being
devoted to tailing storage, are increasingly creating management
issues (Cornwall, 2013). The need for large spaces has two major
the years 2010–2012, and a very stable number of production implications. First, the land-based storage of tailings may be
localities (Fig. 3). Note that the Norwegian figures do not include competing for space with other major activities, including agri-
petroleum and gas in the energy mineral class. Included are, how- culture, farming, recreation, residential areas and areas of high
ever, the commodity aggregates and gravel, which makes up about natural value (Vogt, 2013; Sierralta, 2014). Second, dams result
three times as much as the other groups combined. Under in negative physiological impacts and esthetics, with impacts
Norwegian conditions, aggregates and gravel are produced with on the local communities (dust, odors) and potentially on tour-
only 3% waste on average, which is almost always deposited within ism (Cornwall, 2013). Other methods used for the disposal of
the quarry. mine tailings on land include the production of a thick tailing
paste through dehydration, which can be disposed into dams
1.2. Mining waste or in mine voids in open pits or underground. Riverine tailing
disposal was historically used since the start of mining, thou-
The mining activity produces large volumes of waste, formed by sands of years ago (Leblanc et al., 2000). Recently, in Papua
the non-processed rock from overburden or access tunnels and New Guinea, the dam failure for the Ok Tedi mine during con-
shafts, and by the processed tailings. The tailings are the waste struction led to the decision to dispose the mine tailings directly
produced after the extraction of the targeted metal from the ore into the Ok Tedi and Fly river systems, causing major environ-
through crushing and milling to obtain particles that consist of mental and societal impacts between 1983 and 2013. The dra-
one mineral and separating the minerals by their physical or sur- matic consequences (acidification and chemical pollution of
face characteristics. This fine-fraction slurry waste usually waterways) of riverine discharges has resulted in the end of
accounts for a high proportion of the ore (e.g. up to 99% for copper such practices across the world, expect for 1 mine in Indonesia
and a staggering 99.99% for gold (MMSD, 2002) and often includes and 3 in Papua New Guinea (Shimmield et al., 2010; Vogt,
chemicals used during processing. Thus, with their vast volumes 2013).
and potential toxicity, mine tailings management is considered To overcome problems associated with deposition of produced
the main environmental issue of any mining activity, be it of indus- mineral waste on land, alternative options have been developed
trial or artisan character (Canada, 2002; Government, 2007; and new ones are being planned and/or sought. In particular, the
Cornwall, 2013), as well as a major financial burden to operators discharge of tailings in the sea has been used as an additional
(Canada, 2002; EU, 2009). The main objective of mine tailing stor- way to dispose of mining waste. There are 3 different types of tail-
age is to provide safe and economical storage of the mine residues ing disposal in the sea: coastal shallow-water disposal (CTD), sub-
with negligible public health and safety risks and minimized social marine tailing disposal (STD) and deep-sea tailing placement
and environmental impacts (Vogt, 2013). The main principles for (DSTP). In Box 1 we provide a definition for each of these methods,
summarizing previously published definitions. In this review, we moved by global geological processes (Hudson-Edwards et al.,
will consider only STDs and DSTPs. 2011). Although most of this waste is disposed on land, there is
also a long history of dumping tailings into water ways, either in
rivers that flow out to the sea, or directly in the sea in
Box 1 Definitions for marine disposal of mine tailings. shallow-coastal areas (Brunskill, 2012; Koski, 2012). Riverine dis-
charge was one of the most common tailing disposal methods
Coastal Tailing Disposal (CTD): disposal of tailings near the worldwide before environmental issues and legislation came into
water surface in shallow coastal waters in the euphotic force (Vogt, 2013). Today, one mine in Indonesia and 3 mines in
zone (Franks et al., 2011). This practice, using inert tail- Papua New Guinea still conduct riverine disposal of waste, causing
ings, is found in coastal nations, under the term ‘‘land extensive damage to the environment and the local population
reclamation’’. Additionally, riverine disposal of tailings, (Ellis and Ellis, 1994; Shimmield et al., 2010; Vogt, 2013).
which currently takes place in Indonesia and Papua New Dumping mine tailings in shallow-water coastal areas within the
Guinea (Shimmield et al., 2010; Vogt, 2013), have also euphotic mixed zone was also commonly used until recently
direct impacts on shorelines and euphotic marine systems (Medina et al., 2005), but the current trend is towards disposal of
(Fig. 4A). mine tailings in deeper waters, below the mixed layer (Ellis and
Submarine Tailing Disposal (STD): disposal of tailings Ellis, 1994). In Norway, there is a long history of depositions of
through an underwater pipeline at relatively shallow mine tailings in the marine environment dating from the late
(<100 m) but submerged water depths in the euphotic 17th Century, with currently 7 active sites and two mines that have
zone (Ellis and Ellis, 1994; Shimmield et al., 2010; Vogt, started a permit application process (Kvassnes and Iversen, 2013).
2013; Skei, 2014). The discharge creates a gravity flow that But other countries such as Canada (Jordan River Mine), Philippines
deposits the tailings on the seafloor in deeper areas below (Atlas Mine) and Greenland (Black Angel Mine) have also con-
the euphotic zone (Ellis et al., 1995). This practice used to ducted STDs at shallow depths (Ellis et al., 1995; Ellis and Ellis,
be common in fjord basins in Norway, Canada and 1994; Mining Watch Canada, 2002) with a consequent large envi-
Greenland and is still the main method used in Norway ronmental impact (Ellis et al., 1995). These environmental effects
(Kvassnes and Iversen, 2013; Skei, 2014) (Fig. 4B). led to the development of new submarine disposal methods where
Deep-Sea Tailing Placement (DSTP): disposal of tailings in the pipe discharges tailings in the sea below the euphotic surface
relatively deep waters (>100 m) through a submerged pipe mixing zone (Ellis and Ellis, 1994). STD methods were first used
below the euphotic zone, at the edge of a drop-off. The in 1971 by the Island Copper Mine in Canada (Ellis et al., 1995),
tailings create a gravity flow that deposits the material which evolved in the 1980s into Very Deep Submarine Tailing
on the deep seafloor below 1000 m depth (Ellis and Ellis, Placement (Ellis and Ellis, 1994), now known as DSTP. According
1994; Shimmield et al., 2010; Franks et al., 2011; to Ellis et al. (1995), STDs do not include disposal of mine waste
Sierralta, 2014; Skei, 2014; Hughes et al., 2015) (Fig. 4C). in shallow water ecosystems, rivers or beaches, where upwelling,
mixing and wave action can bring the tailings back to surface
waters. STDs and DSTPs are currently active in Norway (7), Papua
New Guinea (3), Indonesia (1), France (1), Greece (1) and Turkey
It is important to note that these definitions differentiate (1). STDs are legally banned in the USA and Canada, and
between STD and DSTP according to the depth of discharge (above STDs/DSTPs in Australia are considered unsuitable because of geo-
or below 100 m) and the final deposition depth of the tailings, logical reasons (Mining Watch Canada, 2002).
which is always deep (below 1000 m) for DSTPs, whereas STDs In a comparison of STD and DSTP versus other disposal meth-
may or may not reach deep-sea ecosystems (i.e. below 250 m ods, it is argued that tailings may be more stable on the ocean floor,
depth, Gage and Tyler, 1991; Thistle, 2003). Ecologically and envi- if in a depression or canyon, compared with an impoundment or
ronmentally, the final deposition depth is the critical factor, as it is dam; tailings are less likely to oxidize in the submarine environ-
related to the ecosystem that will be most impacted by the tailings ment, thereby reducing the breakdown of minerals releasing toxic
and deep-sea ecosystems are often less studied than shallow-water metals; the alkalinity of seawater inhibits mobilization of metals;
ones. They have unique characteristics that result in specific the technique is more visually esthetic; and finally, up front capital
responses to impact and recovery potential (Ramirez-Llodra and operating costs are lower (Franks et al., 2011). However, due to
et al., 2010; Mengerink et al., 2014). These considerations are thus a lack of scientific knowledge of the biodiversity patterns and func-
important when developing management options. tioning of the marine ecosystems, particularly in the deep-sea, as
well as of (sub)lethal effects of metals and added chemicals on
1.4. Brief history of practices and methods for tailing disposal at sea deep-sea biota, the potential impacts of STPs and DSTPs are far
from understood.
Mining has been at the base of human society since the early
ages (Abbott and Wolfe, 2003; Lee et al., 2008; Elbaz-Poulichet
2. STDs and DSTPs in Norway and globally
et al., 2011; Koski, 2012), providing the resources that resulted in
the development of powerful societies in the Bronze Age (3rd mil-
To date, only 0.6% of industrial-sized mines deposit their mine
lennium BC), the Roman Empire (27 BC to 1453 AD) and the
tailings in the marine environment (Vogt, 2013). Here we provide
Industrial Revolution (1760–1840) (Edinger, 2012; Koski, 2012).
a short overview of the currently active mines that conduct
Some of these early mining activities were already affecting rivers
STD/DSTPs, first in Norway and then globally.
and coastal areas, such as the mining of massive sulfide deposits in
southern Spain during the Copper and Bronze Ages, which resulted
in the pollution of the Rio Tinto fluvial-estuarine complex (Davis 2.1. Current and potentially new Norwegian STDs
et al., 2000), or gold mining during the Roman Empire, from which
reports of environmental impact have been found (de Lacerda, In Norway, many mines lie amongst rugged terrain making
2003). At present, the mining industry at the global scale produces land-based tailing storage often un-suitable. Since these mines
several thousand million tonnes per year of waste (overburden are also situated close to fjords, despite being highly biologically
rock and tailings), comparable to the weight of Earth materials productive, STDs are common practice in Norway, with currently
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the three methods for disposal of mine tailings in the marine environments. (A) Coastal Tailing Disposal; (B) Submarine Tailing Disposal
and (C) Deep-Sea Tailing Placement.
11 inactive STD sites, 7 active ones and 2 applications in process Simberi Island. In-depth information on the characteristics and
(Fig. 5). An overview of current and planned tailing deposit sites environmental impacts of these DSTPs is available in Shimmield
in Norway, including their geographic location, mine type, tailing et al. (2010) and Hughes et al. (2015). Thus, here, we provide only
and STD characteristics has been compiled (Table 1), updating a short summary of DSTP activities in PNG based on these publica-
the table from Kvassnes and Iversen, 2013 and including only ver- tions. Lihir is an open pit gold mine that discharges up to 4.5 M
ified mine tailing disposal in the marine system. tonnes of processed tailings per year at 115 m depth, with a final
deposition depth between 900 and 2000 m (Shimmield et al.,
2.2. Global STDs and DSTPs 2010; Reichelt-Brushett, 2012). The Ramu Nickel Project in
Kurumbukari is an open pit laterite mine that produces nickel
Papua New Guinea is second to Norway in terms of the number and cobalt sulfide in its processing plant at Basamuk. Since the
of current STDs. In this region, land disposal of mine tailings is con- start of operations in 2012, the tailings have been discharged into
sidered unsuitable owing to geological instabilities, high seismic the Basamuk submarine canyon via a pipeline opening at 150 m
activity and high rainfall (Shimmield et al., 2010). Thus, riverine depth, with a final deposition depth of 1500 m (Shimmield et al.,
discharges have been used, but this approach raises health and 2010; Vogt, 2013). The DSTP permit to Ramu Nickel was very con-
social justice issues for local residents and DSTPs are increasingly troversial and granted mostly based on previous investment in the
considered a preferred tailing disposal method. There are 3 active mine, which won over the potential unacceptable impact that the
DSTPs in PNG, one in Lihir Island, one in Basamuk and one in DSTP will have on the marine environment (Shearman, 2011; Vogt,
Fig. 5. Map showing the distribution of Norwegian mines in relation to the coast, their status (active/inactive) and the distribution of current (red circles) and abandoned
(open circles) STDs. The numbers refer to the STDs reported in Table 1. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
Table 1
Information on the 7 active STDs in Norway and the two mines with permit applications. # STD reference number relating to the number on the map (Fig. 5). Data from NGU’s Mineral Resources database (http://geo.ngu.no/kart/
mineralressurser/?lang=English) and the following websites: http://www.miljostatus.no/Tema/Ferskvann/Miljogifter_ferskvann/Avrenning-fra-gruver/ and http://www.norskeutslipp.no/en/Frontpage/.
# Mine Location Commodity Process Added substances Start of deposition Pipe depth Distance Final deposition Tailings permit tonnes/yr
(present permit) (m) from shore depth (m) (reported 2013)
(m)
1 Sydvaranger Gruve AS Bøkfjorden Iron Magnetic Polyacrylamide 1974–1997, 2009 28 500 500 220 4 000 000 (2 674 500)
Finnmark (magnetite) separation 50 tonnes/yr (2008–2014)
E. Ramirez-Llodra et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 97 (2015) 13–35

PolyDADMAC 10
tonnes/yr
2 Sibelco Nordic Stjernøy Stjernsundet Nepheline Magnetic None 1961–2000 Tidal zone <50 ca. 400, by 300 000 (213 665)
Finnmark syenite separation turbidity flows
3 Skaland Graphite AS Senja Island Graphite Reverse MIBC (5 tonnes/yr) 1917–1920, 1931–2002 30 150 150–300 40 000 (21 800)
Troms flotation
4 The Quartz Corp. Drag i High purity Reverse Petroleum-sulfonate 39 1996–2010 30 300 329 19 000 (11 000)
(formerly Norwegian Tysfjord quartz flotation Flotanol 6
Crystallites AS) Nordland Diamine 6
5 Norcem AS Kjøpsvik Kjøpsvik Limestone for Unknown Pre 2002, (2002, 2007, 2013) ? ? Seashore Inert rock and bypass dust
Nordland cement 600 000 (524)
6 Rana Gruber Ranfjorden Iron Magnetic Lilaflot D 817M 1964–2012 Fines: 45; ca. 1000 530 m, with Fines + middle: 229 000;
Nordland (magnetite separation Coarse: 35 30 000 tonnes/ Coarse: 1 950 000
and hematite) Reverse 40 kg/yr in tailings yr river If water quality to 20 m is
flotation for a sediments kept OK: Fines + middle:
small part of 350 000; Coarse: 2 650 000
production Total = 2 243 248
7 Hustadmarmor AS Elnesvågen Limestone for Reverse Lilaflot 1596 1978–2003 30 Flexible Minimum 30 No limit (291 693) Deposit
Møre og calcium flotation FLOT2015 Present area and quality
Romsdal carbonate Sepco AE 6000s 500 acceptance criteria
Flocc2014 outside are defined
E Nordic Mining Engebøfjellet Rutile Flotation Flotinor SM15 2–3 yrs after permission given NA NA 150 m by end of Up to 5 600 000
Førde Flotinor FS2 mining era
Flotol B
Magnafloc 155
N Nussir ASA Kvalsund Copper Flotation Na-isopropyl, xanthat, 2015–2016 (permit pending) 40 ca. 3000 38 2 000 000
Finnmark methyl isobutyl
karbinol, Magnafloc 10
19
2013). The Simberi gold mine has since 2008 discharged its tailings Important ecosystem functions provided by marine ecosystems
at Pigiput Bay, Simberi Island, through a pipe located at 130 m include, primary productivity in the euphotic zone; microbial and
depth (Reichelt-Brushett, 2012; Vogt, 2013). In August 2014, an faunal processes in the water column and on the seafloor that play
intense debate was initiated in Papua New Guinea, where a ban a key role in nutrient recycling; carbon sequestration through the
on riverine and deep-sea tailing disposal was proposed by the biological pump; fluxes of energy through the pelagic and benthic
Constitutional and Law Reform Commission for examination and food chain; habitat provision; and refuge, spawning and nursery
presentation to the National Executive Council for approval grounds in support of commercially valuable species or their prey.
(PNGLOOP, 2014). In Indonesia, the Batu Hijau copper and gold These functions, in turn, may provide fundamental services to soci-
mine discharges its tailings through a pipeline opening at 125 m ety, such as the maintenance of commercial stocks (fisheries), pro-
depth in the Senunu submarine canyon, with most tailings deposit- vision of genetic and chemical resources from marine fauna,
ing at 3000 m, but some reaching the bottom of the Lombok basin climate regulation from CO2 sequestration in deep-sea sediments,
below 4000 m depth (Reichelt-Brushett, 2012; Newmont, 2014). waste absorption and detoxification from microbial processes, as
This is the deepest tailing deposition site in the world. In the well as important cultural services at the center of the human civ-
Coral Triangle, comprising the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, ilization, such as education, knowledge, arts and cultural meaning
Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, 3 mines con- (Armstrong et al., 2012).
duct active DSTPs at the time of writing (Lihir and Simberi in Papua Many tailing placement activities occur or are being planned for
New Guinea, and Batu Hjiatu in Indonesia) and 14 mines have continental and island margins. These regions support diverse
recently considered STDs – 2 in Papua New Guinea, 1 in the ecosystems (e.g., canyons, cold-water coral and sponge reefs, oxy-
Philippines and 1 in Solomon Islands with assessments moving for- gen minima, methane seeps, ridges and seamounts) whose biodi-
ward (Reichelt-Brushett, 2012). versity provides multiple key ecosystem functions (Levin and
Other countries currently conducting STDs or DSTPs include Dayton, 2009; Levin and Sibuet, 2012). Habitat heterogeneity –
France, Greece and Turkey (Vogt, 2013). Details on mining and often compromised by tailings placement – is a fundamental ele-
STD/DSTP activities for these countries can be found in Vogt ment underlying biodiversity and the related functions and ser-
(2013) and references therein and below. Here, we provide only vices of margin ecosystems (Levin et al., 2010). Recently, direct
a short summary for each STD/DSTP. Since 1967, the French relationships have been described between benthic biodiversity
Gardanne alumina refinery has been discharging its residues (red and ecosystem function, suggesting that anthropogenic or
muds) into the submarine Cassidaigne Canyon in the NW naturally-caused variations in biodiversity can result in major
Mediterranean Sea through an outflow pipe at 330 m depth changes in ecosystem functioning (Danovaro et al., 2008). Thus,
(Dauvin, 2010). This DSTP will end in 2015. In Greece, the process understanding the impacts of anthropogenic activities such as
plant at Agios Nikolaos discharges bauxite residues (red muds) into STD/DSTPs on the pelagic and benthic biota, as well as on substrate
the Gulf of Corinth, through a pipe at 120 m depth and a final dis- type, habitats and heterogeneity, is essential to assess potential
position of approximately 800 m in the basin (Varnavas et al., ecosystem changes and the effect on related ecosystem services.
1986). In Turkey, the Cayeli Bakir copper–zinc mine discharges However, a major issue in the evaluation of environmental impact
tailings through a pipe opening at 275 m depth in the Black Sea, from STD/DSTP is the lack of baseline information on the habitat,
with a final deposition below 2000 m depth in an anoxic environ- environmental conditions, and associated microbial and faunal
ment (Berkun, 2005; Shimmield et al., 2010). components that are affected by the discharges. Often, the ecosys-
In Central Chile, tailings from copper mines are currently depos- tems to be affected have not been studied in detail and fundamen-
ited in dams, but these dams will reach their capacity in approxi- tal information on physico-chemical environments, species
mately 20 years. By then, copper mines will be competing for composition and distribution, life-history patterns and ecosystem
land space with important agricultural activities in a densely pop- function (from microbes to megafauna) is lacking. This is particu-
ulated region (Sierralta, 2014). Thus, alternative disposal options larly true for deep-sea ecosystems, where their remoteness and
are being sought. Deep-sea tailing placement is one such option, difficult access, particularly in terms of cost and logistics, strongly
and Chile is currently conducting a large research program to eval- limits our understanding of their biodiversity and functioning and
uate the feasibility of DSTP for copper mines from Central Chile the capacity to conduct exhaustive studies under an ecosystem
(Sierralta, 2014), with a strong emphasis on engaging expertise approach (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010; Hughes et al., 2015).
of the international scientific community, and in particular Several major categories of impact from STD and DSTP are rec-
Norway. ognized here. These result from (1) hyper-sedimentation, (2) metal
toxicity, (3) process chemicals, (4) changes in organic content,
grain size and angularity, (5) sediment plumes and turbidity, and
3. Environmental impacts (6) materials re-suspension, upwelling and slope failure. Mine tail-
ings will smother everything in the intended footprint on the sea-
3.1. The framework: ecosystem functions and services floor, destroying habitat, changing seafloor topography, impacting
species abundance and diversity and resulting in increased risks of
The vast majority of the marine systems, excluding the coastal bioaccumulation of heavy metals in aquatic organisms with poten-
areas, are mostly out of sight and, thus, out of mind for most peo- tial human health risks from fish and shellfish consumption. The
ple. This has promoted, historically, the dumping of waste in the main direct impact on fauna from submarine tailings is the alter-
marine environment, often with unknown impacts on the ecosys- ation in the physical environment caused by the injection of large
tems themselves (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). However, the mar- amounts of fine-grained waste material. The organisms that are
ine fauna has important functions that sustain essential ecosystem expected to be most affected by smothering are the benthic sessile
services (i.e. the services from ecosystems that benefit humans) fauna and the infauna, with reduced mobility that limits their
(Costanza et al., 1997; Armstrong et al., 2012; Thurber et al., escape capabilities. Secondary effects can include toxicity of partic-
2014). The oceans and seas are linked to the rest of the planet ulate metal phases as well as dissolved metals and process chem-
through the exchange of matter and energy, and thus the function- icals released from the tailings. Changes in turbidity, particulate
ing of the marine system, from shallow to abyssal waters, is key to organic matter concentration, as well as in grain size and angular-
the functioning of the Planet, including human civilization ity, may also affect benthic and pelagic fauna. Unfortunately, there
(Dell’Anno and Danovaro, 2005; Danovaro et al., 2008). is a scarcity of published scientific documentation about
environmental effects of STDs. Much of the documentation from hydrodynamic conditions can influence the nature of these effects
existing STDs is presented in the gray literature and in consultant (Thrush et al., 2003). Thus, the effects of hyper-sedimentation will
reports. Below, we provide a detailed review on the above men- vary according to the types of sediments deposited and the partic-
tioned impacts based on both scientific papers and reports. ular faunal composition, which again depends on environmental
factors such as depth, sediment composition, hydrodynamic
3.2. Hyper-sedimentation regime and nutrient content.
Previous studies on the benthic faunal response to the addition
One of the major impacts of discharge of mine tailings is of thin cap layers have shown that immediately after a burial
hyper-sedimentation, i.e. the burial component. The sedimentation event, the surviving organisms will try to regain the original posi-
rate may be huge, as several million tonnes of tailings may be dis- tion in the sediment, rebuild tubes and burrows and increase
charged every year in one area (Table 1). For example, approxi- bio-irrigation, resulting in an increase of sediment fluxes
mately 42 000 tonnes of tailings per day were deposited from the (Schaanning et al., 2008; Trannum et al., 2010). However, in the
Island Copper Mine in British Columbia (Burd, 2002). The deposits context of mine tailings, the burial is likely to far exceed thin cap
can be several meters high over the natural seafloor and cover all layers. Thus, severe effects on the benthic fauna can be expected,
benthic life (Allan, 1995). Some tailings are inert and non-toxic, including the creation of a barren area close to the discharge, the
and in such cases the hyper-sedimentation is the only, but still pro- disappearance of species, changes in community composition and
found, impact. In other cases, the tailings include metals and pro- structure and changes in population abundances and biomass in
cess chemicals with a potential toxic effect for the resident a gradient from the source of the tailing discharge to the back-
fauna. In most cases, the organic content is low (Blackwood and ground environment. Furthermore, the frequency of the discharges
Edinger, 2007), making the tailings of poor value as a food source has been suggested an important factor for faunal impacts (Bolam
for benthic organisms. et al., 2006) and chronic burial may be more severe than single
instances.
3.2.1. Soft sediment biota In the longer term, the community composition and structure
In the most extreme cases of hyper-sedimentation, all benthic will reflect the degree of disturbance, with sensitive species dis-
fauna can disappear and large areas may be barren. In less appearing and more tolerant species dominating the new ecosys-
impacted areas, such as in transitional zones outside the main tem. For example, in a study of the impact of waste from a
deposit area, only some species will survive. A study based on lit- titanium mine in the Jøssingfjord (Norway), (Olsgard and Hasle,
erature from experiments conducted in a dredging context esti- 1993a) observed a reduction in species richness, an increase in
mated that 50% of benthic species would die when exposed to abundance of some species and thereby a change in dominance
5.4 cm of instantaneous burying by particles, while 5% of the spe- patterns in the benthic soft sediment fauna from the background
cies would die when covered by 6.3 mm of sediment (Smit et al., system to a mine tailings outfall. Opportunistic species, typically
2008). Infaunal species may often escape more than 10 cm of burial small polychaetes and bivalves, usually dominate the most heav-
(Jackson and James, 1979; Maurer et al., 1982; Bellchambers and ily impacted sites. Some examples of dominant species recorded
Richardson, 1995), whereas epibenthic species are often unable under heavy tailings sedimentation are the polychaetes Exogone
to escape more than 1 cm of burial (Kranz, 1974). Furthermore, spp., Cossura spp., Heteromastus spp., Capitella capitata and C.
polychaetes may tolerate sedimentation stress better than e.g. setosa, as well as the bivalves Nucula spp. and Thyasira spp.
amphipods, ophiuroids and mollusks (Chou et al., 2004; Burd, (e.g. Brinkhurst et al., 1987; Ellis and Hoover, 1990; Olsgard
2002). At the community level, for instance, Olsgard and Hasle and Hasle, 1993a; Ellis, 2003). Indeed, physical disturbance will
(1993a) found that a sedimentation rate of 4–5 cm tailings per year typically lead to a gradient in faunal composition resembling
outside a titanium mine in Jøssingfjorden resulted in changes in the classical succession caused by eutrophication (Pearson and
faunal composition, while at a rate of 1 mm per year, no impact Rosenberg, 1978).
was observed. The most tolerant species were small opportunistic
annelids, e.g. Heteromastus filiformis, Cossura longocirrata and
Chaetozone setosa. In contrast, Smith and Rule (2001) found that 3.2.2. Hard-substratum fauna
sedimentation up to 15 cm did not affect macrofaunal community To date, no dedicated studies on the effects of mine tailings on
structure. This finding accords with Nichols et al. (1978) who con- hard-substratum fauna such as cold-water corals or sponges has
cluded that most species common in soft sediment habitats can been conducted. These taxa have been qualified as essential
survive burial of 5–10 cm of sediment. In addition, in a mesocosm ecosystem components (Mortensen et al., 1995; Maldonado et al.,
experiment on benthic infauna, Trannum et al. (2010) observed 2012; Kutti et al., 2013). Cold-water corals and sponge fields can
that instantaneous burial with a sediment layer of up to 24 mm be found on continental margins and seamounts, typically between
did not alter macrofaunal species richness or abundance. 200 and 1000 m depth (Mortensen et al., 2006) and can build
The source and nature of sediments will likely affect the sensi- long-lasting (2.5 Ma) stable ecosystems (Kano et al., 2007) with a
tivity of infauna to sediment burial. Field experiments mimicking rich associated fauna (Mortensen et al., 2006; Maldonado et al.,
terrestrial sediment loading in a New Zealand embayment demon- 2012). Cold-water corals are abundant on the walls of Norwegian
strated macrofaunal sensitivity to as little as 3–5 mm of deposition, fjords and continental shelf (Mortensen et al., 1995; Le Goff-vitry
with declines in numbers of individuals, numbers of taxa, and indi- et al., 2004), which are areas potentially considered for STDs.
vidual taxon densities (Rodil et al., 2001; Lohrer et al., 2004, Investigations of the impact of hyper-sedimentation and metal/-
2006b). Small species are more sensitive than large ones and chemical contamination of sessile fauna is particularly important
shallow-dwelling species are more sensitive than deeper dwelling as these are filter feeders with high filtering capacity (Kutti et al.,
species (Thrush et al., 2003; Lohrer et al., 2004). Repeated deposi- 2013) that would therefore be directly exposed to high particle
tion (3 mm applied monthly over 6 months) led to changes in sed- concentrations in the water column. Laboratory experiments have
iment texture and increasingly divergent communities (Lohrer documented decreased metabolic rate and reduced growth in
et al., 2004). High susceptibility of structure-forming suspension sponges and corals exposed to increased concentrations of sus-
feeders (Lohrer et al., 2006a), loss of habitat heterogeneity and pended sediments (Larsson et al., 2013). Thus, these species groups
altered ecosystem functions can all accompany terrigenous deposi- may be affected by an increased turbidity caused by the disposal of
tion in coastal settings (Thrush et al., 2004), although local tailings.
3.3. Toxic effects sediment. This, however, was observed only for the first half of
the observation period, after which growth rates equalized.
Mine tailings contain different metals that can be released into Several studies, especially in conjunction with deposits contain-
the environment from the disposal sites. Some tailings, such as ing increased levels of copper, have investigated biotic decline.
those originating from carbonate extraction, are relatively inert, Rygg (1985) and Long et al. (1993) report two threshold levels of
while others, for example from some sulfide-rich ores, may leak copper in sediments of 200 mg/kg and 270 mg/kg respectively,
significant amounts of potentially toxic metals. In addition, most above which decline in biota was observed. Borgmann and
ore processing plants use several chemicals to aid in the mineral Norwood (1997) conducted a laboratory study on toxicity of estu-
extraction process. Therefore, some tailings contain process chem- arine amphipods from copper-spiked sediments, showing that sur-
icals that are emitted into the aquatic environment via the process vival declined markedly at sediment concentrations greater than
water or tailings. In the following section, a short overview of dif- 300 mg/kg. The same copper threshold level of 300 mg/kg Cu has
ferent aspects related to metal toxicity is presented. been reported for a number of species, including several poly-
chaetes, a bivalve and an ophiuroid, the population of which
3.3.1. Metals declined significantly during a field settlement tray study
In order for the metals to be toxic to fauna, they must occur in a (Olsgard, 1999). Another field settlement study found that copper
bioavailable form. Free metal ions are considered the most in experimental doses of 400–1500 mg/kg clearly impacted the
bioavailable. The bioavailability is dependent on the chemical fauna, and that the response was more pronounced in coarse com-
properties of each metal (Lydersen et al., 2002) as well as the prop- pared to fine sediments (Trannum et al., 2004). The reason for this
erties of the water, such as pH, alkalinity, amount of organic mate- finding was assumed to be that the coarse sediment contained less
rial and complexing agents (Niyogi and Wood, 2004). Therefore, organic carbon than the fine sediment. The proportion of the free
toxicity tests have to be performed for each locality and case and cupric ion, which is the most bioavailable and toxic form of copper
no general limit values can be used. In addition, mine tailings are (Engel et al., 1981), is generally inversely proportional with the
composed of a mixture of metals and chemicals which may give amount of organic matter as organic ligands form complexes with
rise to effects that differ from each element individually. The toxic Cu-ions (Bryan and Langston, 1992). Similarly, in other studies it
effects are also dependent on the species present, the developmen- has been documented that both polychaetes (Pesch, 1979) and
tal stage of the organism as, for example, fish in the early stages of meiofauna (Tietjen, 1980; Austen et al., 1994) have been less
development have higher sensitivity than adult fish (Jezierska affected in cupper in mud than in sand. Also at Island Copper
et al., 2009), and on the hydrodynamic conditions in the receiving Mine (Canada), concentrations above 300 mg/kg sediment of cop-
water body (high or low dilution). In fish, the toxic effect of metal per caused a distinct and consistent downward shift in taxa num-
ions occurs when the ions bind to surfaces and inhibit the binding bers during tailings deposition (Burd, 2002). Community-level
of other essential ions. (Pandey et al., 2008) studied the effect of consequences of copper toxicity include macrobenthos changes
multiple trace elements on the gills of the snakehead fish Channa in phylum, class and species representation, reduced diversity,
punctata Black, finding indications of adaptive as well as toxic altered lifestyles, biomass, density and body size (Neira et al.,
responses in the fish’s gills when exposed to a mixture of trace 2011).
metals. These authors also suggest that lesions in the gill morphol-
ogy could lead to functional alterations and interference with fun- 3.3.2. Process chemicals
damental processes such as maintenance of osmoregulation, gas Varying chemicals are often used in different steps during ore
exchange and xenobiotic metabolism. Those metals that bind the processing to aid in concentrating the ore. The chemicals are added
strongest are generally the most toxic (Niyogi et al., 2004). to the milled ore, which at this stage exist as ore minerals split into
In Greenland, the bottom water above the mine tailing deposits separate grains.
of the Black Angel Pb–Zn mine (30 m depth) showed 30–50 times Flocculants are chemicals that aid in the process of separating
higher concentrations of Pb and Zn compared with the surface solids from liquids, or causing suspended particles to aggregate.
waters during the mining period (Asmund, 1992). Elevated concen- This is done by removing the surface charge from the suspended
trations of lead and zinc were detected in seaweed (Fucus vesiculo- particles, therefore neutralizing the particle, and it may be used
sus and Fucus distichus), blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and wolffish within the process of ore mineral recovery, but also in the later
(Anarhichas mino) liver and kidneys soon after mine operations stages of dewatering the tailings (Attia, 1992). Many different floc-
began (Asmund et al., 1975; Bollingberg and Johansen, 1979; culant brands are used. In Norway different types of Magnafloc
Ellis and Ellis, 1994). After the mine closure, the lead concentra- flocculants are commonly used. Magnafloc, containing polyacry-
tions in the water reduced dramatically, while the zinc concentra- lamide, which is one of the flocculants commonly used by the min-
tions did not decrease as much (Søndergaard et al., 2011). ing industry, exists in several tens of polymers, both anionic and
Measurements made 18 years after the mine closure still provided cationic. The different polymers have been shown to exhibit vary-
evidence of zinc levels in the bottom water 50–100 times higher ing toxicity (Liber et al., 2005). There are data available that pre-
than normal seawater, while the dissolution of lead seemed negli- sents the toxicity for the active agents acrylamide and poly
gible (Søndergaard et al., 2011). Benthic fauna, including deposit DADMAC, but documentation is not easily obtained on whether
feeders, herbivores and detritivores (Larsen et al., 2001), also the products are bio-accumulative or persistent (Rostock and
showed elevated concentrations of lead. Importantly, the blue Lambert, 2010). Flotation uses differences in hydrophobicity to
mussel M. edulis and the deep-sea shrimp Pandalus borealis, both separate ore minerals from gangue minerals. The ore mineral is
commercial species, showed high lead concentrations in tissues turned hydrophobic by using collector chemicals that are charac-
during and after mining (Johansen et al., 2006). A pilot laboratory teristic for the different ore minerals, usually in connection with
study conducted by Johnson et al. (1998) using fresh mine tailings pH adjustment by adding chemicals. The slurry of hydrophobic
produced by the Alaska-Juneau mines showed that juvenile sole and hydrophilic particles and water is then aerated. The resulting
consistently avoided the fresh, un-weathered tailings. Fish held bubbles attract hydrophobic particles, which rise to the surface,
over fresh tailings substrates showed 2–6-fold increases in lead forming a froth that is collected. It is worth noting that, in ordinary
and chromium concentrations in their tissues, but no increase in flotation, most of the added flotation chemicals will follow the ore
concentration of other metals. Fish held over fresh tailings were concentrate and not the tailings. However, in some cases, reversed
also observed to grow at a slower rate than fish kept over natural flotation is used, i.e. the tailing minerals are skimmed off at the top
of the flotation cell, and hence most of the chemicals will be depos- size (8.8 lm and 65 lm) were observed (Trannum et al., 2011).
ited with the tailings. A frothing chemical might further be added Indeed, the early stages of succession are predictable and the same
to promote a stable froth. Flotation agents that are used in Norway species dominate almost universally, while later in the succession
are Xanthate salts and Lilaflot. the pattern is more varied (Gray and Elliott, 2009).
There are few studies that investigate the toxic effects of Additionally to grain size and its associated processes, the shape
reagents and flotation chemicals. In usage, the chemical changes of the particles plays a key role on the impact of the fauna.
properties, so that the toxicity of the chemical in its pure form is Depending on the minerals and the crushing and milling process,
different from the chemical released into the environment. These the grains will have different sphericity with particles often highly
chemicals enter the aquatic environment through the emission angular (Skei, 1985; Kvassnes and Iversen, 2013). Particle shape is
process water and sludge that both carry traces of the process highly variable in tailings from different mines. For example, the
chemicals. The process chemicals that have been in use in tailings from Engebøfjellet (which are planned to be discharged
Norway are presented in more detail in subsequent sections pre- to Førdefjorden, Western Norway) are mainly oval, with only a
senting the Norwegian tailing sites. very minor part being needle-shaped, which is due to the large
content of garnet in the masses (Dale et al., 2008). In fish, needle
3.4. Grain size and angularity effects shaped particles, such as particles of chlorite or amphibolite, have
proven to be more harmful to gills than other tissues in fish
In addition to hyper-sedimentation impact, the size and shape (Jacobsen et al., 1987). Further, Lake and Hinch (1999) found that
of the tailing particles may also play an important role in the highly angular particles caused a larger stress-response in juvenile
impact to benthic fauna, as mine tailings may have a different coho salmon than ‘‘round’’ particles. However, effects on inverte-
grain-size composition from the original sediment (Sheaves, brates regarding particle sharpness are less studied, at least in a
2001). Typical tailing grain sizes, when produced from hard rock, mine-tailings setting. It is worth mentioning that particles of drill
vary between 0 and 4.75 mm, with a median of approximately cuttings have been reported to cause damage of ciliary processes
0.05 mm (James, 2004). The grain size of the tailings is dependent in feeding structures, gill membranes and digestive gland cells of
on the liberation characteristics of the ore as crushing and milling scallops and bivalves (Cranford et al., 1999; Barlow and Kingston,
processes have been applied according to the type of ore. Mineral 2001; Bechmann et al., 2006), where such effects have been spec-
processing is designed to change the characteristics of the ore, ulated to arise from an assumed angular configuration of the par-
therefore chemical and physical parameters change and promotes ticles (Neff, 2005).
the dissolution and mobilization of the present elements
(Lettermoser, 2010). Tailings are low in organic content 3.5. Plume dispersal
(Blackwood and Edinger, 2007), often composed of ground rock
in a fine sand-silt fraction. A reduction in organic matter content To ensure minimum impact, tailings should be effectively con-
also results in sediments with reduced nutritional value for benthic tained within a designated area and prevented to migrate (Franks
organisms (Shimmield et al., 2010) as tailings contain low values of et al., 2011). The containment principle includes the extent and
macronutrients. time scale of dispersal of a tailing plume from the discharge point.
Also the porosity and permeability of the seafloor environment The extent and time are dependent upon several factors such as
may be altered by the tailings. This change in seafloor characteris- particle size, horizontal dispersion and settling velocity.
tics may in turn alter oxygen penetration and sediment redox Horizontal dispersion is dependent on the degree of
potential, affecting sediment chemistry. Further, homogenous sed- water-column stratification, so that the dispersion of the sediment
iments may restrict the availability of niches, which will lead to plume will be greater during periods of stronger stratification. This
lower infaunal diversity (Gray, 1974). is dependent on whether the discharge depth is situated below or
Grain size is considered one of the most important factors shap- above the mixing layer. Vertical mixing as well as vertical shearing
ing species composition, although it is not necessarily grain size of the horizontal propagation are critical processes for dilution and
per se, but rather abiotic and biological factors correlated to it, such dispersion. The horizontal dispersion or mixing due to vertical
as organic content and interactions between hydrodynamics, sed- mixing and vertical differences in horizontal transport is known
iment and infauna (Gray and Elliott, 2009). The effect on the as Taylor Shear dispersion (Taylor, 1953). The stronger the vertical
ecosystem will depend on how these factors affect sediment distri- mixing is, the less the horizontal dispersion is, and vice versa
bution, larval supply, particle flux and pore water chemistry (Lescinski et al., 2014). The dispersion depth of tailing plumes
(Snelgrove and Butman, 1994). Generally, less effects of sedimen- may vary seasonally as Prisetiahadi and Yanagi (2008) observed
tation are found when organisms are buried by sediment with sim- in Buyat Bay (Indonesia) where over 2000 tonnes of tailings are
ilar characteristics to the original environment (Turk and Risk, disposed every day at 82 m depth. Tailing plumes were detected
1981; Maurer et al., 1981a,b, 1982; Chandrasekara and Frid, at various depths over the course of a year. The varying depth of
1998). Smit et al. (2008) derived a species sensitivity distribution tailing waste within that study correlated well with the seasonal
(SSD) curve for faunal changes caused by an altered grain size variability of water density, which is mainly dependent on water
and calculated a threshold value (i.e. the value where 5% of the temperature.
organisms will die) of 115 lm for an increased grain size and Several measures are used to minimize the tailing dispersion
47.8 lm for a decreased grain size. Some experimental studies effects: thickening and de-aeration of tailings and particle floccula-
have also been conducted regarding colonization of sediments tion. Prior to de-aeration, the tailings are usually thickened to recy-
with differing grain sizes. In short-term experiments (<3 months), cle water and process chemicals. DSTP methodologies also involve
colonization of macrofauna has been observed to differ very mar- the removal of air bubbles from the tailings to reduce their buoy-
ginally between different sediment types (Flemer et al., 2002; ancy and prevent them from becoming entrained in the surface
Guerra-García and García-Gómez, 2009). Furthermore, (Zajac and waters (Skei, 2014). The tailings can either be de-aerated at a con-
Whitlatch, 1982a,b) showed that there were few differences in ini- centration plant, or at a de-aeration tank on the coast. The floccu-
tial colonization on sand and mud, but that differences became lation step includes the use of chemicals and seawater to improve
more apparent with time. In accordance with this, in a 6 month particle flocculation and the dewatering process. The mixing with
colonization experiment, differences in macrofaunal composition seawater is also used to increase density and increase the rate of
and number of species between two sediments of varying grain settlement at the deposition location. The settlement is increased
if the seawater is pumped from an appropriate depth, so that the In Norway, investigations limiting the influence area of tailings
density and temperature mimics the environmental conditions at have been conducted in a few places. In Jøssingfjorden (Southern
the discharge point (Shimmield et al., 2010). Norway), tailing discharge from an ilmenite mine was emitted
The discharge point should be at a location where the tailings from 1960 to 1984 and later into the deep part outside the fjord sill
slurry from the pipeline will form a turbidity current flowing (Skei, 1985). The tailing discharge into the sea was stopped and
coherently with minimum dispersion until it reaches the bottom moved onto land as the plume spread further than anticipated.
(Shimmield et al., 2010). The tailings are released from the pipe The plume dispersal was measured through the concentration of
terminus as a high-velocity jet, which becomes diluted with sea- iron and titanium in the surface sediments (Skei, 1985), as well
water and dissipates with increasing distance from the pipeline as through the siltation of gills in prawns (Jaques et al., 1993).
due to entrainment of seawater and frictional losses (IIED, 2002). Several factors contributed to the long spreading distance: the dis-
According to Apte and Kwong (2004), the tailings pipeline should charge pipe was not de-aerated, the tailings were not mixed with
be located on a slope greater than 12° to maintain a density current seawater and the percentage of solids was lower than usual
flow down the slope. As tailings travel down the slope, plume (Skei, 2010). In Frænfjorden (Norway), where slurries from a fac-
shearing may happen as fine tailing particles break off from the tory (Hustadmarmor) producing liquid marble are emitted, the
main stream and float along between layers of water with con- tailings formed piles around the outflow point. Therefore, it was
trasting temperature or density, traveling for tens to hundreds of necessary to extend the pipeline (Norwegian Environment
kilometers, depending on the hydrodynamic conditions (MPI, Agency, 2010), which is now situated at 20 m depth.
1999; Lucik, 2001). The mixture continues to descend along the Hustadmarmor has improved its tailings treatment processes,
seafloor as long as it remains denser than the surrounding water decreasing the amount of freshwater used and decreasing the
and the gradient is greater than 12° (Shimmield et al., 2010). amount of slurry by almost half over the past six years (DNV,
Some dispersion is desirable in order to avoid the build-up of steep 2014).
cones beside the discharge pipe, as these might become unstable The tailings plume can have important impacts on the pelagic
and lead to large tailings slides. Cones that have an angle below ecosystem. Few studies are available on the effects of tailings
10° become more stable as smaller slides compact the tailings plumes on the pelagic fauna (Sheaves, 2001; Brewer et al., 2007),
(Norwegian-Environment-Agency, 2010). most of them focusing on fish. Most of these studies report concen-
Modeling is used to predict the probable deposition of the tail- trations of metals in fish tissues (Mol et al., 2001; Powell and Powell,
ings on the seafloor, however, factors such as flocculation effects 2001; Scroggins et al., 2001), although a few have analyzed the
are often not included and therefore the settling velocity is not impact on the fish populations or on a pelagic communities
always representative. Other factors that often are not included (Brewer et al., 2007). It has been shown that large migrators such
in hydrodynamic models are resuspension or background organic as tuna avoid areas of high turbidity (Barry, 1978). Thus, tailing
material (Lescinski et al., 2014) and the existence of naturally plumes may disrupt migration routes potentially affecting local
occurring nepheloid layers. Therefore, the actual outcome might fishing activities, such as could be the case in the Ramu Nickel
not be easily foreseen. For example at the Kisault molybdenum DSTP in Papua New Guinea (Sheaves, 2001). Brewer et al. (2007)
mine in Canada, the tailing slurry spread out over a larger area than found a decreased abundance of deep-sea fish in the region close
predicted. The discharge pipeline was at 50 m depth and the tailing to the Lihir gold mine DSTP in Papua New Guinea and, although
plume was observed between 65 and 125 m depth and could be no higher concentrations of metals were found in fish tissues, these
followed 5 km from the discharge point. In order to decrease the authors stressed the fact that there is still a lack of understanding of
extent of spreading, the amount of solids and cold sea water in the broader impacts of tailings on the pelagic (fish and inverte-
the slurry was increased. In addition, a reduction in the tailing dis- brates) and benthic communities and that further investigations
charge velocity reduced the whirl up of bottom sediments are necessary. Chemical pollutants can be ingested with sediments
(Pedersen et al., 1995). A similar problem occurred in Rupert or through the food chain, or taken up from the water column
Inlet, Vancouver Island, Canada, where the strong water currents through the gills (Koski, 2012). Depending on the concentration
lead to a considerably wider tailing distribution than predicted levels, the toxic effects can be lethal or sub-lethal, affecting repro-
(Burd, 2002). At the ongoing Lihir DSTP in Papua New Guinea, duction and cell damage (Scroggins et al., 2001). Metals that
the maximum concentration of suspended particulate material bio-accumulate can also reach the human population through shell-
was found closest to the discharge pipe with the concentration of fish or fish consumption (Lasut et al., 2010; Reichelt-Brushett,
suspended material decreasing with increasing distance from the 2012).
mine. Similarly, the metal concentrations of the suspended mate-
rial were highest at the stations closest to the mine with concen- 3.6. Upwelling and slope failure risks
trations decreasing with increasing distance from the mine
(Shimmield et al., 2010). Dispersal models and in situ sediment The different processes that may result in the dispersal of tail-
samples show that the tailings footprint extends up to 20 km from ings discharged in submarine environments are a critical issue that
the outfall and down to 2000 m depth (Hughes et al., 2015). The should be considered, both before new permits are awarded and
tailings of the closed Missima DSTP in Papua New Guinea are con- during operations (Ellis and Ellis, 1994; Burd et al., 2000; Ellis,
fined by topography covering an area of 20 km2 (Hughes et al., 2008; Shimmield et al., 2010; Reichelt-Brushett, 2012). The princi-
2015). In the Senunu canyon (Indonesia), which receives the tail- ple behind STDs and DSTPs is that the tailings will create a turbid-
ings from the Batu Hijau copper–gold mine, copper concentration ity current that will transport the waste to a stable area on the
was significantly higher only close to the discharge point, suggest- (deep) seafloor, or at least below the mixing surface layer above
ing a localized impact and limited tailing dispersal (Angel et al., which the thermocline acts as a natural barrier so no vertical mix-
2013). In Greenland, the influence area of the tailings from the for- ing (i.e. diffusion) can take place. However, upwelling, internal
mer Black Angel Pb–Zn mine in Maarmoilik was estimated through waves, slope failure and benthic storms as well as pipe breakage
measurements of lead and zinc values in mussels and seaweed. The may occur unpredictably, resulting in re-suspension and dispersal
results indicated that the mine tailing could be measured in the of tailings and its chemicals (when present) to areas outside than
water column as far as 12 km away from the disposal area the expected deposition site (Burd et al., 2000). Turbidity currents
(Søndergaard et al., 2011). and other highly hydrodynamic processes are characteristic of
submarine canyon systems (e.g. Company et al., 2012; Puig et al., Arm fjord in British Columbia (Canada) has shown that such slope
2012b) and fjords (e.g. Syvitski and Murray, 1981; Bornhold failure events, after mine closure and discharge cessation, can
et al., 1994; Ellis et al., 1995), which are geomorphological settings re-suspend large amounts of tailings and associated chemicals,
often used for STD/DSTP. The instability of these habitats can be re-impacting the ecosystem during the recovery phase, as well as
increased by high sedimentation rates from tailing discharges, impacting new areas on the seafloor (Burd et al., 2000). Many
resulting in unexpected events where turbidity currents fjords with slopes greater than 4–7° are prone to turbidity flows
re-suspend the tailings and transport them down-slope affecting and slope failures (Bornhold et al., 1994), in particular in areas of
both the recovery of previously affected areas as well as new com- high sedimentation rate (e.g. canyon/fjord head) or under
munities (Burd et al., 2000; Skei and Syvitski, 2013). anthropogenically-induced hyper-sedimentation (e.g. STD/DSTP).
However, slope failures are generally not taken into account in risk
3.6.1. Tailings upwelling assessments for STD/DSTPs and are often poorly documented (Burd
Upwelling of tailings to the surface waters can be caused by et al., 2000). In the Norwegian fjord Stjernsund, which receives tail-
advective processes in the local hydrodynamic regime ings from a nepheline syenite plant on the island of Stjernøy, sub-
(Shimmield et al., 2010), where fine-particle plumes forming from sea slides have been documented in the area where the tailings are
the main turbidity flow can be brought up to the surface layers. The deposited (Larsen et al., 2004; Dahl-Hansen et al., 2012).
environmental impacts from upwelling events are diverse and, in
some cases, similar to the impacts of plume-shearing, affecting
both the pelagic and benthic communities (Sheaves, 2001; Apte 4. Recovery potential
and Kwong, 2004; Shimmield et al., 2010; Reichelt-Brushett,
2012). An increased turbidity in the euphotic zone can reduce pro- At the final deposition site, the volume of mine tailings will be
ductivity. When re-deposited, the sediments can smother struc- very large, smothering the target habitat and associated biota. In
tural fauna, such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, and can affect these areas, the faunal community will be completely destroyed
also their associated rich fauna, decreasing biodiversity and chang- and establishment of a new benthic community will not begin
ing species composition and community structure. The until after the discharge has been relocated or ceased. The early life
re-suspension or upwelling of tailings can affect also the pelagic stages of invertebrates are the most sensitive stages in their life
fauna and local fisheries (Shimmield et al., 2010) by hindering res- history, strongly affected by environmental characteristics, such
piratory and feeding activities in fish (e.g. clogging of gills) and fil- as hydrodynamics, temperature, turbidity, oxygen, dissolved
ter feeders and affecting bioluminescence (Apte and Kwong, 2004). organic matter, food availability and predation (Ramirez-Llodra,
If the tailings have high concentrations of metals and other process 2002; Young, 2003). In areas of anthropogenic impact (e.g. hydro-
chemicals, sub-lethal to lethal effects on the fauna, including carbon or mineral exploitation, trawling fisheries, STD/DSTP, mar-
bioaccumulation of metals in organisms and vertical transport by ine litter), both physical and chemical impacts can affect the early
daily migrating zooplankton, can occur (Sheaves, 2001; Koski, life stages of fauna and thus modulate the recolonization potential
2012). Previous studies have shown that tailings can be of the affected habitat (Tyler and Ramirez-Llodra, 2002). This is
re-suspended and brought back to the surface affecting the eupho- particularly true for many deep-sea and Arctic species, which often
tic zone. An example of this is found on the Newmont Minahasa have slow growth rates, are long lived, and have delayed maturity
Raya gold mine in Indonesia, where tailings disposed at 82 m depth and low reproductive output with a variable larval and juvenile
were found to disperse upwards and affect the local coral reefs and survival (Young, 2003).
fish up to 10 m depth, impacting a total area approximately 10 The recolonization process of areas affected by STDs or DSTPs
times greater than predicted by the models (Edinger, 2012). will depend both on characteristics of receiving sediments and tail-
Additionally, 2 years after the start of the STD (1998), a pipe burst ings (grain size, angularity, organic matter content, metal and
released more tailings at shallow depths. Chemical contamination chemical concentrations) as well as on the natural sedimentation
reached the local human population through fish consumption, rate (Vogt, 2013), the season and availability of larvae and also
where high levels of methyl mercury were found (Edinger, 2012). on the spatial area affected (Thrush et al., 1996; Lu and Wu,
This upwelling and dispersal incident was caused by inaccuracy 2007). The colonization of tailing-impacted sediments as such
in the use of data to determine the seasonal variation of the ther- has been observed to be quite rapid and often within 1–2 years
mocline depth in the distribution model used by the mining com- (e.g. Olsgard and Hasle, 1993a; Burd, 2002). Often, polychaetes
pany (Shimmield et al., 2010; Edinger, 2012), highlighting the are the first organisms to recolonize sediments covered by tailings,
importance of sound environmental impact assessments con- while the early stages of amphipods and ophiuroids are the last
ducted by independent research groups. ones to occur (Burd, 2002). Despite an initial rapid colonization,
To minimize the risk of tailings upwelling to surface layers, the differences in faunal composition and structure may persist for a
terminus of the discharge pipe should always be placed at a depth much longer time and the ecosystem may take decades to recover
below the mixed layer (Shimmield et al., 2010). Nevertheless, in to its original state (Burd, 2002; Josefsson et al., 2012). For
Papua New Guinea, the Ramu Nickel mine has had a DSTP permit instance, studies of disposal of fine-grained china clay wastes on
approved even though a significant high risk of upwelling has been original, coarser sediment showed that a less diverse fauna was
predicted (Lucik, 2001; Shearman, 2011). established (Probert, 1975).
In a study on the west coast of Canada, Ellis and Hoover (1990)
3.6.2. Slope failure demonstrated that differences in faunal composition still remained
High sedimentation rates prevent normal consolidation of the 12 years after cessation of tailings discharge. The study by Burd
sediment resulting in increased slope instability (Sultan et al., (2002) on the tailings effect of a metal mine in Alice Arm fjord
2004). These processes will re-suspend large amounts of sediments (British Columbia, Canada) indicates that larger, slow-growing
that may affect a large geographic area (Mienert and Weaver, invertebrate taxa tend to be more adversely affected by tailings
2002; Canals et al., 2004). The rapidly accumulating tailings on than the small forms, mostly opportunistic polychaetes and
the seafloor produce thick layers of unconsolidated fine sediments bivalves. In western Greenland, a BACI (Before After Control
that are susceptible to natural disturbances, which may cause Impact) study was conducted over 33 years on the STP of the
large-scale episodic events such as turbidity flows or slope failure Black Angel lead and zinc mine in the Maarmorilik fjord system.
(Burd et al., 2000). A study of the recovery of an STD site in Alice The results showed that recolonization was slow even 15 years
after the cessation of discharges and that, although the abundance 5.1. Bøkfjorden (Arctic Region)
of the most opportunistic species was declining, the community
was still dominated by opportunistic fauna (Josefsson et al., The Sydavanger irons mine (Sydvaranger Gruve A, owned by the
2012). The authors related the slow recolonization and recovery Australian Northern Iron Ltd) in Finnmark started production of
of the habitat to the significant levels of metals, mostly lead, in iron ore concentrate in 2009, following an equivalent production
the sediments. A study within the tailing location of the Misima that was terminated in 1997. Sydvaranger Gruve has a permit to
mine in Papua New Guinea, conducted 3 years after the tailings deposit 4 M tonnes of tailings and 35 tonnes of flocculants per year
discharge finished, showed that the benthic community differed in Bøkfjorden via a pipeline situated 450 m offshore at 28 m depth,
from the local reference locations in that abundance and species with a final deposition depth of 220 m (Kvassnes and Iversen,
richness were significantly lower (Hughes et al., 2015). The struc- 2013; Vogt, 2013). The tailings contain gang minerals such as
ture of the macrofaunal assemblage also differed substantially at quartz (about 75%), amphiboles and feldspars. Measurements of
impacted locations. Dominant species patterns and biomass values metals in the tailing in 2012 showed no elevated levels compared
indicated that the larger fauna took considerably longer than the to reference areas. The environmental concerns in this fjord have
smaller taxa to recover (Shimmield et al., 2010; Hughes et al., mainly been the chemicals which are associated with the tailings.
2015). In Indonesia, Gwyther et al. (2009) investigated the recolo- The flotation agent Lilaflot D817 was used during the first produc-
nization potential of meiofauna on tailings from the Batu Hijau tion phase (until 1997), and was originally planned to be used in
copper and gold mine, deposited at 3000 m depth in a submarine current and future production. Tests with this chemical were per-
canyon. While the results suggested potential for full recovery of formed with the planktonic algae Skeletonema costatum, the plank-
the meiofaunal community after less than 29 weeks, the experi- tonic copepod Acartia tonsa, the bottom living turbot Scopthalmus
ments were conducted in a shallow (diving depth) area under maximus and the sediment living polychaete Arenicola marina
the assumption that the recolonization potential by meiofauna (Berge et al., 2010). No toxic effects were found for tailings without
would be similar in terms of community recovery but faster than Lilaflot. However, the results with Lilaflot showed that acute toxic
that occurring at 3000 m (Gwyther et al., 2009). Gwyther (2004) effects could be expected in the recipient, although only in the
also reported high recolonization rates of meiofauna to sediments immediate vicinity of the discharge point. It should also be men-
affected by discharges of jarosite residue from zinc smelting at tioned that Lilaflot was still present in the sediments closest to
over 2000 m depth. Studies in Repparfjorden, Northern Norway, the discharge 12 years after cessation of the first production period
indicated that benthic soft-bottom communities were fully recov- (Berge, 2009). Thus, it was decided that Lilaflot is no longer dis-
ered only 30 years after a deposit for copper-tailings was termi- charged into the fjord. In addition to flotation chemicals, floccula-
nated (Dahl-Hansen and Velvin, 2008; Christensen et al., 2011). tion chemicals are used: Magnafloc 1707 (formerly known as LT38)
Colonization was experimentally studied in Frænfjorden, Norway, and Magnafloc 10. Toxicity testing with these chemicals did not
in an area un-impacted by discharges (DNV, 2009) with test indicate that the addition of polyDADMAC (present in Magnafloc)
materials including de-faunated control sediment from the fjord, is likely to have a toxic effect, even close to the discharge point
100% tailings corresponding to the actual discharge (including (Skeletonema and Arenicola test) (Berge et al., 2012).
flotation chemicals), crushed limestone and a mixture of tail- Environmental monitoring has taken place in Bøkfjorden regu-
ings and limestone. The results indicated that the flotation larly, starting in 1988 (Skei and Rygg, 1989). In this first monitor-
chemicals influenced the colonization process, and that coarse ing, sediments were affected out to 13 km from Kirkenes (the town
sediments treated with tailings containing chemicals had a more where the mine is situated) and the soft bottom fauna out to 7 km
severe effect than the similar treatment with fine sediment. away. Then, in 1994, the status was relatively unchanged (Skei
However, all treatments had ‘‘good’’ or ‘‘very good’’ status accord- et al., 1995) and the authors concluded that the recovery phase
ing to the Water Framework Directive in the 3 years of the of the first deposition activity would be as long as 50 years.
experiment, indicating a very limited degree of impact (DNV, Before the re-opening of the mine in 2007, a ‘‘baseline’’ survey
2009). was conducted (Skaare et al., 2007), where large changes in the
Thus to conclude, initial re-colonization of STP/DSTP sites by sediment and fauna since 1994 were observed. The sediments con-
macro and meiofauna appears to be rapid and typically takes place tained increased contents of organic carbon as well as altered grain
within 1–2 years, but the recovery to a community similar to the size, probably due to decreased impacts of the mining waste.
pre-deposition stage may be slow, up to 15 years or more. However, there was a reduction in polychaetes and epifauna at
Recovery rates seem to depend on the chemical composition of all stations, which was not attributed to the mining activity, but
the tailings (e.g. levels of metals and chemicals). probably was caused by the king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus)
that has become common in the region. The king crab plays a
major role in shaping the benthic faunal composition as well as
5. Results from environmental research in Norwegian STP sites in biological reworking of the sediment (Oug et al., 2011).
In 2010, an environmental survey was conducted to investigate
Specific details on environmental studies conducted on impacts after the reestablishment of the discharge (Berge, 2011).
STD/DSTP sites globally have been discussed in the sections above. The tailings were then supposed to be discharged at 28 m depth
Here, we provide an overview of studies and monitoring specifi- in the fjord, 450 m from land at Kirkenes. However, because of a
cally conducted in Norway (see Table 1 for details) from published pipe failure, the tailings were discharged at 50 m for a period of
papers and internal reports. Taking into account the number of some months prior to the monitoring, which made the monitoring
STDs in Norway, past and present, there is a wealth of scientific results un-representative for the long-term situation. There was a
data on environmental impacts. The research conducted in massive influence of particles in the water column, with the excep-
Norwegian STD sites has mainly focused on the benthos and the tion of the upper 15 m, close to the discharge. Based on Sediment
upper sediment layer. No reports are available regarding Profile Imaging (SPI) data, the soft sediment communities showed
pore-water chemistry and changes in chemistry with time and in a decline in environmental status from 2007 (before production) to
depth in the tailing deposits by analyzing core samples. Below, 2010. Although the king crab is recognized as an additional distur-
we briefly describe the main results of the environmental studies bance factor, the poor conditions in the inner parts of the fjord
conducted in the most important Norwegian STDs sites, which were assumed to be caused by the tailings (Berge et al., 2011).
have been provided in monitoring reports. On the other hand, the organisms living on hard substratum above
20 m depth seemed unaffected. Below 30 m, the hard substratum 2008; Christensen et al., 2011). Currently, Nussir ASA is planning
was heavily influenced by particles, but the effect of this smother- to initiate copper-mining from Nussir and Ulveryggen in
ing on the biota was unclear (Berge et al., 2011). Lastly, acrylamide 2016/2017, pending receiving the necessary permits from the
(which constitutes a small part of Magnafloc) was not detected in Norwegian authorities. Tailings will be deposited in
any water or sediment samples. Repparfjorden, a fjord that has protection status as a ‘‘national sal-
A follow-up of the monitoring in 2010 was conducted in 2011 mon fjord’’. Nussir ASA has commissioned a toxicity study on the
(Berge et al., 2012). The 2011-monitoring also included caging effects of process chemicals that will be discharged with the tail-
experiments with blue mussels. Blue mussels were caged at ings. The study analyzed 3 marine organisms representing 3
0.6 km, 3 km and 10 km from the discharge at 30 m depth, and trophic levels: the alga S. costatum (primary producer), the benthic
analyzed for various biomarkers. The accumulation of Fe and Al copepod Tisbe battagliai (primary consumer) and the polychaete A.
was significantly higher in mussels closer to the outlet. The bio- marina (deposit feeder) (Lillicrap et al., 2011). The results indicated
marker responses were not severe, but indicated some response that there were no toxic effects on the algae at any concentration
closest to the discharge point. However, the overall biological (up to 100% v/v). At 100% v/v concentration, 35% of the copepods
effects were considered low. The results from the died, while the mortality of the polychaetes reached 50%. The No
2011-monitoring showed that the main area of influence of the Observed Effect Concentration for this study was 32% v/v
discharges was from the discharge point at Kirkenes and out to (Lillicrap et al., 2011).
the island Reinøya approximately 6 km away. At more distant loca-
tions in the Bøkfjord, a slight increase in turbidity could be 5.4. Ranfjorden (Northern Norway)
observed in the deeper part of the water column, but this did not
result in sedimentation to such degree that the bottom fauna out- Rana Gruber has mined iron ore in the Dunderland Valley,
side Reinøya was affected. The soft bottom fauna was more or less Nordland, in open pit mines until 2000, and in an underground
similar to that found in 2010. mine since then (Vogt, 2013). The mine currently has a permit to
deposit 1.25 M tonnes of tailing per year in the Ranfjorden, but
5.2. Stjernsundet (Arctic Region) has applied for a new permit to increase the deposition to 2.5 M
tonnes per year (Kvassnes and Iversen, 2013). The tailings contain
There have been mining activities in Stjernsundet in Finnmark the flotation agent Lilaflot D817M, which is discharged in amounts
since 1961. Today Sibelco Nordic AS runs a plant that produces of 40 kg/year. There are two outfalls: one for fine grained material
nepheline syenite on the island of Stjernøy. The tailings are dis- at 45 m depth, and another for the coarser fraction at 30 m depth.
charged in the surface water of the bay Lillebukta, which is about The tailings are mixed with fresh water from the Rana River before
1 km wide and 50 m deep. Outside the bay (Stjernøysundet) the discharge; the water flux is about 2200 m3/h for the fine fraction
water depth exceeds 400 m. This is the only STD in Norway where and 1100 m3/h for the coarse fraction (Golmen and Norli, 2013).
discharge takes place within the tidal zone and analyses of parti- Particles from the discharge have been detected in the water col-
cles in the water column have indicated that as much as 90% of umn 1–2 km from the outlet (Johnsen et al., 2004). The fine fraction
the tailings are deposited in shallow water (<50 m depth) (Berge has been detected up to 8–10 m depth and down to 28 m depth,
et al., 1993). The nepheline syenite is separated from the rock in while the coarse fraction has a more constant and deeper trapping
a process involving crushing, drying, milling, sieving and magnetic depth, mainly between 25 and 30 m (Golmen and Norli, 2013).
separation. No chemicals are added during the process and tailings Some sporadic events of tailings reaching the surface were also
have low levels of metals (Berge et al., 1993; Trannum and Vögele, observed (Golmen and Norli, 2013). Ranfjorden also receives dis-
2001; Larsen et al., 2004; Dahl-Hansen et al., 2012). The minerals charges from a municipal outlet and other industries (e.g. smel-
are dominated by amphibole, feldspar, nepheline, pyroxene and ters), while it hosts also a large port. Further, it has been subject
biotite. About 45% of the tailings particles are <63 lm and 15% to effects due to water regulation of the Rana River with regard
<20 lm (Industry, 2014). Sibelco has a discharge permit for to hydropower. Various environmental surveys and assessments
300 000 tonnes/year, but the average yearly discharges in the per- of the fjord have been conducted since the 1960s, some directed
iod 1997–2008 were 212 000 tonnes/year. Since 1993, environ- towards the mine and some directed towards other pollution
mental monitoring has been performed in Lillebukta and sources or the fjord’s general ecological status. Environmental sur-
Stjernsundet (Berge et al., 1993; Trannum and Vögele, 2001; veys conducted in 1994 (Johnsen et al., 2004) and 2003 (Walday
Larsen et al., 2004; Dahl-Hansen et al., 2012). Close to the dis- et al., 2004) documented that the soft bottom fauna in the inner
charge point, the soft sediment community is heavily affected Ranfjorden was influenced by the tailing discharge, probably
(few species present and low diversity indices) by mainly by high sedimentation of particles with low content of
hyper-sedimentation of sediment with low organic content. The organic matter. However, also inorganic particles from the Rana
lowest species number and diversity indices for sediment species River probably contributed to the high sedimentation rate and
were measured in the 2012-monitoring. However, the impacts on effects on the benthos. Also hard bottom communities have been
sediment communities seem to be limited to Lillebukta (an area affected by the mine tailing, but as for the soft bottom fauna river
of ca. 0.19 km2) (Dahl-Hansen et al., 2012). Rocky shore organisms discharges also needs to be considered (Walday et al., 2004). In the
are affected by hyper-sedimentation (photo-documentation) up to inner part of Ranfjorden, there are high levels of PAH and metals in
2 km from the discharge point, but only at depths exceeding ca. the sediments. However, this contamination was recorded outside
13–20 m (Dahl-Hansen et al., 2012). the shipment installation of Rana Gruber, and was thus not caused
by the tailings discharge.
5.3. Repparfjord (Arctic Region)
5.5. Førdefjorden (Western Norway)
Folldal Verk extracted copper from the Ulveryggen in Finnmark
during 1972–1978, depositing tailings in the inner part of Nordic Mining ASA plans to discharge rutile tailings with pro-
Repparfjorden. Recent studies have shown that the sediment in cess chemicals into Førdefjord, which will deposit at about 300 m
the inner part of the fjord has slightly elevated Cu-levels (up to depth. To assess the possible effects on marine organisms at this
64 mg/kg dry weight), but that the soft sediment communities location, a study was conducted to determine the acute toxicity
have recovered to their original status (Dahl-Hansen and Velvin, of processed mine tailings (mine tailings containing appropriate
concentrations of process chemicals) in 3 marine organisms repre- Further, they contain some iron, cobalt, chromium, copper and
senting 3 trophic levels: the alga S. costatum (primary producer), nickel. The size range is mainly 10–200 lm, but with approxi-
the copepod T. battagliai (primary consumer) and the polychaete mately 10% <10 lm (Olsgard and Hasle, 1993b). The tailings are
A. marina (sediment ingestor) (Lillicrap, 2009). The study con- considered almost inert and non-toxic to marine life. Monitoring
cluded that there was no effect in any of the 3 organisms at the has been conducted regularly in the recipient, and Olsgard and
Environmentally Relevant Concentration (ERC, the theoretical con- Hasle (1993a,b) published a scientific study based on monitoring
centration of process chemicals (kg) used per kg of mine tailings results in 1993. They concluded that re-colonization on the old
associated with the surrounding natural sediment after discharge) tailings deposits within the Jøssingfjord commenced within one
of the processed mine tailings. At 3.2 times the ERC, the algae year after cessation of discharge and, within 4 years, all the major
stopped growing, but no effect was observed on the copepods or benthic macrofauna phyla were present. In the new disposal site in
polychaetes. At 10 times the ERC, there was 100% mortality of Dyngadypet, the deposition rate was several meters per year in the
the copepods and polychaetes. These results indicate that no acute outfall basin, 4.5 cm per year 1 km away and 1 mm per year >2–
toxicity is to be expected from the processed mine tailings being 3 km from the outfall (Olsgard and Hasle (1993a,b)). In the years
discharged from Nordic Mining ASA (Lillicrap, 2009). The chronic following deposition, a marked decline in diversity and a fauna
effects were not studied but are important and should be included dominated by opportunistic species, was reported at the most
in future studies (Lillicrap, pers. com.). heavily affected sites, while at distances >2–3 km away the fauna
were unaffected. Later, environmental monitoring was carried
5.6. Frænfjorden (Western Norway) out in 2003 and 2008 (Bakke and Jensen, 2004; Nøland et al.,
2008). The concentration of titanoxide in Dyngadypet was highest
Omya Hustadmarmor AS receives marble from mines in Eide in 1988, and has thereafter declined, while within Jøssingfjorden it
and Fræna in Møre og Romsdal and Brønnøysund, Nordland. The has been constant at approximately 3 tonnes/day of tailings trough
marble is ground, washed and sieved at the production plant in an extension of the existing concession. Regarding the fauna, the
Elnesvågen. Liquid marble is the final product, which is used in station within the fjord was still slightly disturbed in 2007, but
the production of paper, either as filler or as coating. The waste community structure has improved since 1995. Also in
products (calcium carbonate tailings) from the production have Dyngadypet the faunal community has improved since 1995
been discharged in Frænfjorden since 1982. The discharge takes (Nøland et al., 2008). The quality of shrimps has been included in
place at 20 m depth and the tailings are deposited in a basin at the monitoring, as this area was previously subject to shrimp
40–70 m depth (Industry, 2014). Since 2007, the discharges have trawling. The black ilmenite causes discoloration of the shrimps,
been approximately 400–500 k tonnes per year (DNV, 2014), which clearly reduced the commercial quality. A considerable por-
reducing to approximately 300 k tonnes in the last few years. As tion of the investigated shrimps showed signs of discoloring in the
much as 40% of the particles are clay (>2 lm = 85%; late 1980s, but this problem has been reduced, and in 2007 no
>20 lm = 45%; >63 lm = 25%; >125 lm = 15%; >250 lm = 5%) (A. shrimps with these characteristics were observed (Nøland et al.,
Amundsen, pers. comm.). The discharge consists of 40–50% cal- 2008).
cium carbonate, and other minerals are quartz, feldspar and mica Common for all sites is that monitoring results document rela-
and some iron sulfide (<0.5%). According to the operator, the tail- tively local environmental impacts (Industry, 2014). The main
ings do not contain elevated levels of metals, and process chemi- impact is considered to be the smothering of the seabed, although
cals are expected to be associated with the solids. Regular in some cases there is a concern regarding potential toxicity of
monitoring has been carried out since 1989, mainly focusing on metals and/or chemicals.
water quality (turbidity, oxygen, temperature and salinity), sedi-
ment quality and soft bottom communities. The water quality,
including turbidity, has generally been good (DNV, 2014). Within 6. Parallels with other forms of disturbance
the deposit, the fine fraction is almost 100%, but is considerably
reduced in the transitional zone and outside the deposit. At The resilience of a community to tailings disturbance may be
approximately 1000 m from the deposit, the sediment has a linked to the frequency and intensity of natural disturbance.
fine-fraction of 30%, of which 65–75% is calcium carbonate. There are natural analogs to the different forms of tailings distur-
Within the deposit, but also partly in the transitional zone outside bance described above. For example natural massive sedimenta-
the deposit, there were elevated concentrations of calcium carbon- tion can result from volcanic eruptions (Ariza et al., 2014),
ate and flotation chemicals, but with decreasing amounts with slumps, slides, debris flows and turbidity flows on margins
increasing distance. One kilometer outside the deposit, these con- (Masson, 1996), iceberg scouring, tectonically induced mass wast-
centrations were only slightly elevated, and at the reference station ing or storm induced flows of slope or canyon sediments, flood
4 km away, the concentrations were negligible. Generally, the sta- deposits from land and benthic storms that suspend and redeposit
tus of the soft sediment macrofauna, measured by diversity indices seafloor sediments (Aller, 1989; Wheatcroft, 2000). Volcanic erup-
has been good at all stations and all years outside the deposit and tions can deposit massive ash layers on the seafloor (Cita and
the spreading of particles outside of the deposit area has been Podenzani, 1980; Hess and Kuhnt, 1996). Nepheloid layers may
reduced in the last few years (DNV, 2014). provide natural analogs to suspended particles associated with
mining plumes, while algal blooms may reduce light penetration
5.7. Jøssingfjorden (Western Norway) in a similar way to a tailing resuspension or upwelling event.
Submarine groundwater discharge, hydrothermal venting fluids,
Titania AS deposited tailings from the ilmenite mines to CO2 vents and mud volcanoes can introduce toxic metals or acidic
Jøssingfjorden (1960–1984) and later in Dyngadypet and partly conditions to deeper waters. In addition, human disturbance other
in Knubedalsdypet (1984–1994). Currently, the deposit takes place than mining may produce impacts that parallel those of STD and
in a land-based dam, which is estimated to be full in 2022. Two DSTP. These include deforestation in steep topography yielding
likely scenarios may follow: either to instigate a submarine tailing massive sediment inputs (Thrush et al., 2004), dredging of chan-
deposit or to open a new land-based dam (Ann-Heidi Nilsen, pers. nels and harbors (Vogt, 2013), bottom trawling, which resuspends
com.). The tailings mainly consist of feldspar (69%), pyroxene sediments and reduces habitat heterogeneity (Thrush and Dayton,
(14%), ilmenite (8%), biotite (8%) and small amounts of sulfides. 2002; Puig et al., 2012a), potentially submarine mining of sand,
phosphorites and iron sands and metal contamination from boat options, chemical, physical and biological characterization of the
paint (Neira et al., 2009). From the natural analog of sediment waste, analysis of environmental impact, disposal site selection
removal, resuspension and sedimentation disturbances we can and monitoring and permitting procedures (IMO, 2012). In 2008,
learn about which invertebrate taxa and lifestyles are most toler- the LC/LP started considering the issues related to the disposal of
ant of sediment burial and about community recovery times, col- mine tailings to rivers and the sea, which led to an information
onization and successional patterns. From contaminant analogs gathering exercise (2009–2010) led by the LC/LP Secretariat and
we can learn about toxicities, sensitive and tolerant taxa, body the publication of a report on the disposal of mine tailing in river-
burdens, and modes of response. All of these natural disturbances ine and marine waters (Vogt, 2013). In 2013, the Office for the
may offer clues about tolerant and sensitive indicator taxa for use LC/LP and Ocean Affairs at IMO established a Correspondence
in mining impact assessment. Group on Mine Tailings, led by Chile, that would aim primarily to
(1) increase the scientific understanding of impacts on the marine
environment of DSTP; (2) continue gathering information on best
7. The legal framework
practices and existing guidance and legislation and other relevant
issues of marine and riverine disposal of mine tailings around the
Managing the vast amounts of waste produced from mineral
world; and (3) identify any gaps in best practices and existing
exploitation is a major issue, both in terms of environmental issues
guidance. Additionally, GESAMP (Group of Experts on the
and economics. The correct management of mine tailings is thus a
Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection, sponsored
major concern, not only to industry but also to policy makers, envi-
by IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, UNIDO, WMO, IAEA, UN, UNEP and
ronmental groups and society. In relation to STDs and DSTPs, the
UNDP) has been informed on the STD/DSTP issues and a GESAMP
major issue of public concern is often related to our limited scien-
correspondence group on DSTP has been created to scope out the
tific knowledge of the composition, structure and functioning of
main issues that would need to be assessed in the future as part
the ecosystem to be affected, which is particularly true for the
of a formal GESAMP working Group, should one find sufficient
deep-sea areas (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). Another important
funding to carry out such wok. An international workshop, spon-
factor to consider is the interconnectivity of the oceans: adverse
sored, inter alia, by GESAMP, the Norwegian Research Council
factors (e.g. dissolved metals, chemical pollutants, sediment parti-
and INDEEP/DOSI (International Network for Scientific
cles) can be transported far from the source and the intended
Investigations of the Deep Sea/Deep-Ocean Stewardship) and the
deposition site. Also, similarly to what happens on land with com-
Chilean DSTP initiative, will be held in Lima (Peru) in June 2015.
petition for space between tailing deposits and local agriculture,
The advice and information produced by the LC/LP is comple-
submarine discharges of mine tailings can affect local fisheries
mentary to other agreements and initiatives, such as UNEP’s
(Olsgard and Hasle, 1993b; Franks et al., 2011). Fisheries can be
Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine
affected directly by physical and toxic effects of the tailings on fish
Environment from Land-based Activities (UNEP-GPA). The
and shellfish, but also indirectly through the bio-accumulation of
UNEP-GPA Program was adopted by the international community
metals in the food web, ultimately reaching humans (Olsgard
in 1995 with the aim of ‘‘preventing the degradation of the marine
and Hasle, 1993b; Brewer et al., 2007; Shimmield et al., 2010;
environment from land-based activities by facilitating the realiza-
Edinger, 2012; Koski, 2012; Reichelt-Brushett, 2012). Policy mak-
tion of the duty of States to preserve and protect the marine envi-
ers and international organizations have recognized that there is
ronment’’ (www.gpa.unep.org). This is a unique initiative as it
an urgent need to address issues of marine pollution and various
addresses, globally, the connectivity between terrestrial, freshwa-
initiatives and legislations are in place and under development.
ter, coastal and marine ecosystems.
At the European level, the EU Directive on the management of
7.1. International initiatives and legislation waste from extractive industries (2006/21/EC) regulates the man-
agement of waste from the extraction, treatment and storage of
At the international level, several conventions, protocols and mineral resources. Member States shall apply Best Available
initiatives provide a regulatory framework for waste disposal in Techniques to ensure that risk to the public health and environ-
the oceans, which include STDs and DSTPs. One of the first and ment is minimized. Mining operations need to have a permit
most important global instruments available to protect the oceans issued in compliancy with the Directive, including a waste man-
from pollution by controlling sources of waste and developing pre- agement plan to be reviewed every 5 years (Directive
ventive measures is the Convention on the Prevention of Marine 2006/21/EC). The first ‘‘Reference Document on Best Available
Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter, 1972 (London Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in
Convention, LC). The London Convention has operated since 1975 Mining Activities’’ was released in 2009 (EU, 2009). However, the
and, currently, has 87 State Parties (IMO, 2012). In 1996, the EC has since expanded to 28 members and new technologies and
London Convention was updated by the London Protocol (LP), or techniques have been developed and implemented. Thus, in
Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution 2014, the European Commission started the process to review
by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter, 1972, which entered into and adapt the first MTWR BREF to address and include all new
force in 2006. Currently, 45 States are Parties to the London issues and available techniques. This reviewed BREF will be enti-
Protocol (IMO, 2012), including Norway. Under the London tled ‘‘Best Available Techniques Reference Document for the
Protocol, Article 4 – Dumping of Wastes or Other Matter, Management of Waste from Extractive Industries (MWEI BREF).
‘‘Contracting Parties shall prohibit the dumping of any wastes or It will be subject to Directive 2006/21/EC and the revised docu-
other matter with the exception of those listed in Annex 1’’ ment is expected to be released at the end of 2016.
(Article 4.1.1). Annex 1 describes eight types of waste that may In the NE Atlantic, the OSPAR Convention for the Protection of
be considered for dumping at sea, including ‘‘inert, inorganic geo- the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic entered into
logical material (e.g. mining wastes)’’ (IMO, 2012). Nevertheless, force in 1998, signed and ratified by the 15 Contracting Parties,
the dumping of these substances, if found acceptable, shall require including Norway. Annex II of the OSPAR Convention deals with
a permit (Article 4.1.2). The London Protocol has developed a series ‘‘Prevention and elimination of pollution by dumping or incinera-
of guidelines that contain step-by-step procedures to evaluate tion’’ (OSPAR, 2007). As with the London Protocol, Article 3.1 of
wastes being considered for sea disposal, including a waste pre- the OSPAR Convention states that ‘‘the dumping of all wastes or
vention audit, consideration for other potential waste management other matter is prohibited’’, with some exceptions, including ‘‘inert
materials of natural origin, that is solid, chemically unprocessed Local and regional hydrodynamic processes, including seasonal
geological material the chemical constituents of which are unlikely variations in currents, pycnoclines and thermoclines, and
to be released into the marine environment’’, thus including cer- underwater waves. This is essential when modeling sediment
tain types of mine tailings. transport processes and to assess dispersal and upwelling risks.
The EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) is central for Development of models for tailing transport.
the evaluation and categorization of the receiving water bodies, Local geochemistry of sediments and chemical processes from
since it encompasses surface water, groundwater and coastal tailings. This would allow estimating chemical concentrations
water. The aim of the directive is to maintain or improve water and dispersal in the water column and on the sediment.
quality (i.e. obtain ‘‘good ecological status’’). Coastal areas with Research on flocculation processes.
STDs will probably be defined as heavily modified water bodies Studies on re-suspension events. Current analyses in Norway
according to the directive. These are water bodies that are substan- are still based on a model established in the 1930s (Wheels
tially changed in character by human activities, and therefore can- Power) designed for particle transport in rivers.
not meet ‘‘good ecological status’’. Research on the benthic nepheloid layer: processes, composi-
tion, dynamics.
7.2. Norwegian legislation Effects of hyper-sedimentation on habitat heterogeneity.
Hyper-sedimentation smoothers the seafloor habitat decreasing
In Norway, several laws, protocols and guidelines provide a reg- habitat heterogeneity with potentially important consequences
ulatory framework for waste disposal in the sea. STDs are not pro- on biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions.
hibited, but the process from planning to obtain an approval is
quite comprehensive. Before any mining activities can be initiated, 8.2. Biotic processes
an Environmental Impact Assessment has to be prepared in accor-
dance with the ‘‘Plan og Bygningsloven’’ (Planning and Building Pelagic community: understanding the composition and func-
Act). The ‘‘Forurensningsloven’’ (Pollution Control Act) regulates tioning of the pelagic community (daily migrations, trophic
emissions of suspended matter to the sea and specifies require- structure, reproductive patterns) is essential to assess the
ments that must apply to the recipients for emissions. Mining effects of plume dispersal, increased concentration of dissolved
waste is today specifically featured in the ‘‘Avfallsforskriften’’ §17 metals and chemicals in the water column and its potential
(National Regulations for Waste Recyling). However, the impact on the pelagic trophic chain. It would also form the base
European Mining Waste Directive (2006/21/EC) (‘‘Mineralavfallsd of a risk assessment to an upwelling incident and of importance
irektivet’’) is under implementation in the Norwegian legislation to assess potential conflicts with the fishing industry.
and will probably become a chapter in ‘‘Avfallsforskriften’’. The Research on the accumulation of particles, metals and toxic
quality of the recipient water body for mining waste has to be chemicals in zooplankton.
assessed in accordance with criteria given in ‘‘Vannforskriften’’ Research on the effects of high turbidity on visual processes of
(Water Regulation), which is the Norwegian transposition of the pelagic fauna.
Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC). Also ‘‘Naturmangfoldsl Benthic sediment community composition: understanding the
oven’’ (Nature Biodiversity Act), which is designed to protect rare composition and functioning of the benthic community is
nature types and species, is important in assessments of receiving essential to assess impact and recovery potential from STDs
water bodies. and DSTPs. This is particularly important in Arctic, deep-sea
and other poorly explored and remote ecosystems where infor-
mation is scarce at the regional and local scales. Describing bio-
8. Knowledge gaps diversity patterns and community composition will provide
information on hot spot ecosystems that may provide rare spe-
One of the main issues when addressing potential impacts of cies, high biodiversity or important functions (e.g. nutrient
STDs and DSTPs is the limited knowledge of the abiotic processes, recycling, structural organisms that provide refuge or nursery
biological composition and ecosystem functioning of the targeted habitats) that may, in turn, provide or facilitate important
systems. In most cases, STD and DSTP activities are taking place ecosystem services such as fisheries.
before sound scientific baseline information is available, thus lim- Assessing population connectivity and colonization potential is
iting the accuracy of environmental impact assessments and our also critical when estimating recovery potential of the affected
ability to develop best available techniques (BAT) and to predict area after cessation of discharge operations.
impact and recovery. From the review conducted here, we empha- Benthic hard substrate/sessile fauna. No studies have been con-
size (1) the need for further research addressing physical, chemical ducted to date on the effects of tailings on hard-substratum
and biological aspects; (2) the use of the precautionary approach fauna such as cold-water corals or sponges. These taxa are filter
when knowledge is too scarce to assess impact; and (3) the need feeders and thus directly affected by increased water-particle
for a strengthened communication and sharing of data between concentrations and metals/chemicals.
all stakeholders, including scientists, the mining industry, econo- Ecotoxicology. A better understanding of the lethal and
mists and policy makers and managers. In relation to scientific sub-lethal effects of tailings metals and chemicals on the differ-
knowledge, a series of pre-disposal baseline characteristics requir- ent life stages of organisms (larvae, juveniles, adults) is essential
ing urgent attention have been identified here and in other studies to estimate the short and long-term impact on the fauna, as well
(Apte and Kwong, 2004; Shimmield et al., 2010), and are summa- as the potential for recolonization and recovery.
rized below. Synergies with climate change. Understanding potential syn-
ergies of STD impact with processes related to ocean acidifica-
8.1. Abiotic processes tion and climate change (e.g. warming sea surface
temperature, decreasing pH, higher surface productivity, hydro-
Local bathymetry and geological setting, including detailed graphic regime shifts, changes in faunal distribution ranges,
bathymetric maps of the areas to be affected. This will increasing hypoxia) are important to predict cumulative effects
facilitate our ability to predict the final deposition area of the and to better assess resilience and recovery potential. In this
tailings. regard, it is highly important to provide reliable baseline-data.
Interaction with introduced species. For example, in northern involved in terrestrial versus marine disposal. The nature of the
Norwegian fjords, changes in the population of the king crab debate will differ regionally depending on environmental charac-
(P. camtschaticus) have been documented, with important teristics, mining types and tailing disposal processes proposed.
effects on the benthic community. Some of these fjords (e.g. The Deep-Ocean Stewardship Initiative (www.indeep-project.org/
Bøkfjorden) are also affected by STDs, and it is difficult at pre- deep-ocean-stewardship-initiative) is one vehicle for such multi-
sent to differentiate between the impacts of the STD and that disciplinary and multi-sectorial activities. Involvement of intergov-
of the king crab and to know if the synergy between the natural ernmental organizations affiliated with the UN, such as the IOC
and anthropogenic stressors has a greater impact than the two (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission), IMO
stressors individually. (International Maritime Organization) and CBD (Convention on
Biological Diversity), can also be helpful. The application of Best
8.3. Engineering Available Practices and Techniques (BAP/BAT) and the precaution-
ary approach when knowledge is scarce are necessary if we are to
There is scope for engineering development of tailing process- balance economic growth and societal development in a healthy
ing and treatment prior to their discharge in the marine envi- planet. New initiatives should address cumulative impacts from
ronment, to minimize tailing toxicity, minimize particle different industrial activities and conflict of interests (Blanchard
dispersion and re-suspension. et al., 2014), for example between mining and fishing. This is par-
Development of Best Available Techniques and Best Available ticularly relevant for STD and DSTP activities, where local popula-
Practices (BAT/BAP), which play a key role in the development tions have described impact on their fisheries. The development of
of sound management options and policy decisions. a precautionary, multi-sectorial management approach that bal-
Because the vast volumes of waste created by the mining indus- ances the use of marine resources (biological and mineral) with
try are one of the main concerns, the development of new the conservation of the marine environment has been proposed
methods for waste minimization is an important research topic by (Mengerink et al., 2014) in relation to the exploitation of
in environmental technology. deep-sea minerals and can be further developed for other activities
affecting the marine ecosystems, such as STD/DSTPs.
8.4. Socioeconomics
The population’s acceptance or opposition to political decisions Acknowledgements

regarding STD/DSTP will likely depend on peoples’ understand-
ing of the ecosystem services, the effects from the STD and their This review was conducted under the FIMITA project ‘‘Fate and
risk perception. STDs are heavily debated in Norway, and Impact of Mine Tailings on Marine Arctic Ecosystems’’ funded by
research that addresses environmental and socioecological the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and the Environment through
aspects of these practices are highly relevant for environmental the Fram Centre (Tromsø, Norway) flagship ‘‘MIKON –
managers, as well as for mining companies that will have to Environmental Impacts of Industrial Development in the North’’,
design their operations to minimize negative impacts. which is gratefully acknowledged. Eva Ramirez-Llodra and Hilde
C. Trannum were also partly supported by the NYKOS project
‘‘New Knowledge on Sea Deposits’’ (Project no. 236658) funded
9. Final recommendations by the Norwegian Research Council and relevant Norwegian
Mining industry, which are gratefully acknowledged. We would
The scientific, social and economic issues associated with mine like to thank Dr. Maria Baker (Uni. Southampton, UK) for reviewing
tailing disposal in the ocean are complex and rarely considered the manuscript before submission and Edward Kleverlaan
together. These issues will play out in increasing numbers of coun- (International Maritime Organisation) for comments on the LC/LP
tries as demand for raw materials grows. Several efforts can help to section, as well as the comments from an anonymous reviewer
surmount the challenges identified in this paper, including (1) and the Editor that significantly improved the manuscript.
focused research programs that address impacts with oversight
independent of industry; (2) learning from previous experiences
where disposal of tailings has had a low long-term impact on the References
receiving system or from analog natural systems; (3) improved
communication among the mining industry and other affected Abbott, M.B., Wolfe, A.P., 2003. Intensive pre-Incan metallurgy recorded by lake
sediments from the Bolivian Andes. Science 301, 1893–1895.
stakeholders (fishing, energy, civil society, scientific sectors); (4) Allan, R.J., 1995. Impact of Mining Activities on the Terrestrial and Aquatic
development of shared databases and experiences across pro- Environment with Emphasis on Mitigation and Remedial Measures. Springer,
grams; (5) incorporation of market and non-market services of pp. 119–140.
Aller, J.Y., 1989. Quantifying sediment disturbance by bottom currents and its effect
the ocean into decision making; (6) improved governance and on benthic communities in a deep-sea western boundary zone. Deep Sea Res.
application of principles that acknowledge the multiple environ- Part A 36, 901–934.
mental impacts and benefits; and (7) capacity building for develop- Angel, B.M., Simpson, S.L., Jarolimek, C.V., Jung, R., Waworuntu, J., Batterham, G.J.,
2013. Trace metals associated with deep-sea tailings placement at the Batu
ing nations where STD/DSTPs are considered/ongoing, but that do Hijau copper–gold mine, Sumbawa, Indonesia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 73, 306–313.
not have the technology, scientific or legal expertise to manage Apte, S.C., Kwong, Y.T.J., 2004. Deep sea tailings placement: critical review of
their tailings in a sound way. Implementing this will require environmental issues, Australia and Canada. Review Undertaken by CSIRO
Australia and CANMET Canada. ACMER/CSIRO/CANMET report, 94 pp.
engagement of social scientists, policy experts, industry and regu- Ariza, A., Kaartvedt, S., Røstad, A., Garijo, J.C., Arístegui, J., Fraile-Nuez, E.,
lators in a focused discussion. The selection of biological and ana- Hernández-León, S., 2014. The submarine volcano eruption off El Hierro
lytical methods should be performed with a certain level of Island: effects on the scattering migrant biota and the evolution of the
pelagic communities. PLOS ONE 9, e102354.
standardization. Further, such standardization should develop
Armstrong, C.W., Foley, N.S., Tinch, R., van den Hove, S., 2012. Services from the
guidelines for mine tailings effect studies, thus enabling compar- deep: steps towards valuation of deep sea goods and services. Ecosyst. Services
ison of datasets from various institutions and countries. 2, 2–13.
Two key issues not discussed in this paper must be considered Arnesen, R.T., Bjerkeng, B., Iversen, E.R., 1997. Comparison of model predicted and
measured copper and zinc concentrations at three Norwegian underwater
in the debate and implementation of marine tailings disposal. They tailings disposal sites. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
are questions of social justice (societal impact) and the tradeoffs Acid Rock Drainage, Vancouver, B.C. Canada.
Asmund, G., Bollingberg, H.J., Bondam, J., 1975. Continued environmental studies in Canals, M., Lastras, G., Urgeles, R., Casamor, J.L., Mienert, J., Cattaneo, A., De Batist,
the Qaumarujuk and Agfardlikavsa fjords, Marmorilik, Umamak district, Central M., Haflidason, H., Imbo, Y., Laberg, J.S., Locat, J., Long, D., Longva, O., Masson,
West Greenland, Geological Survey of Greenland Report, vol. 80, p. 53–61. D.G., Sultan, N., Trincardi, F., Bryn, P., 2004. Slope failure dynamics and impacts
Asmund, G., 1992. Pollution from the marine tailings disposal at the lead-zinc mine from seafloor and shallow sub-seafloor geophysical data: case studies from the
at Maarmorilik ineenland, West. In: Singhal, R.K., Mehrotra, A.K., Fytas, K., COSTA project. Mar. Geol. 213, 9–72.
Collins, J.L. (Eds.), Environmental Issues and Management of Waste in Energy Chandrasekara, W.U., Frid, C.L.J., 1998. A laboratory assessment of the survival and
and Mineral Production. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 587–594. vertical movement of two epibenthic gastropod species, Hydrobia ulvae
Attia, Y.A., 1992. Flocculation. In: Laskowski, J.S., Ralston, J. (Eds.), Colloid Chemistry (Pennant) and Littorina littorea (Linnaeus), after burial in sediment. J. Exp.
in Mineral Processing. Elsevier, New York, pp. 277–308. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 221, 191–207.
Austen, M.C., McEvoy, A.J., Warwick, R.M., 1994. The specificity of meiobenthic Chou, L.M., Yu, J.Y., Loh, T.L., 2004. Impacts of sedimentation on soft-bottom benthic
community responses to different contamingsa. Results from microcosm communities in the southern islands of Singapore. Hydrobiologia 515,
experiments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 28, 557–563. 91–106.
Australian Government, 2007. Tailings management. Report from the Australian Christensen, G.N., Dahl-Hansen, G.A.P., Gaarsted, F., Leikvin, Ø., Palerud, R., Velvin,
Government, Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources, Canberra, R., Vögele, B., 2011. Marin grunnlagsundersøkelse i repparfjorden, Finnmark
Australia. 88 pp. 2010–2011. Akvaplan-niva report 4973-1 Akvaplan-niva, Tromsø, Norway. 56
Bakke, S., Jensen, T., 2004. Miliøundersøkeler Jøssingfjord. DNV report 2004-0083. pp.
DNV, Høvik, Norway, 33 pp. Cita, M.-B., Podenzani, M., 1980. Destructive effects of oxygen starvation and ash
Barlow, M.J., Kingston, P.F., 2001. Observation on the effects of barite on the gill falls on benthic life: a pilot study. Quaternary Res. 13, 230–241.
tissues of the suspension feeder Cerastoderma edule (Linné) and the deposit Company, J.B., Ramirez-Llodra, E., Sardà, F., Aguzzi, J., Puig, P., Canals, M., Calafat, A.,
feeder Macoma balthica (Linné). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42, 71–76. Palanques, A., Solé, M., Sanchez-Vidal, A., Martín, J., Lastras, G., Tecchio, S.,
Barry, M., 1978. Behavioral responses of yellowfish tuna, Thunnus albacares, and Koenig, S., Fernandez-Arcaya, U., Mechó, A., Fernández, P., 2012. Submarine
kava kava, Euthynnus affinis to turbidity. PhD thesis, Uni. Hawaii, Hawaii, USA. canyons in the Catalan Sea (NW Mediterranean): megafaunal biodiversity
Bechmann, R.K., Baussant, T., Tandberg, A.H., Lowe, D., 2006. Clearance rate, growth, patterns and anthropogenic threats. In: Würtz, M. (Ed.), Mediterranean
histopathology and biomarker responses in mussels and scallops exposed to Submarine Canyons: Ecology and Governance. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
suspended particles of water based drilling mud. In: Bechmann, R.K., Málaga, Spain, pp. 133–144.
Westerlund, S., Baussant, T., Taban, I.C., Pampanin, D.M., Smith, M., Lowe, D. Cornwall, N., 2013. Submarine tailings disposal in Norway’s fjords. Is it the best
(Eds.), Impacts of drilling mud discharges on water column organisms and filter option? MSc Thesis. IIIEE, Lund, Sweden.
feeding bivalves. Report IRIS, pp. 39–64. Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K.,
Bellchambers, L.M., Richardson, A.M.M., 1995. The effect of substrate disturbance Naeem, S., O’Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., 1997.
and burial depth on the venerid clam, Katelysis scalarina (Lamark, 1818). J. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387,
Shellfish Res. 14, 41–44. 253.
Berge, J.A., 2009. Gruvekjemikalier i sedimentene i sjøområdene utenfor Kirknes i Cranford, P.J., Gordon Jr., D.C., Lee, K., Armsworthy, S.L., Tremblay, G.H., 1999.
2009, Oslo. Chronic toxicity and physical disturbance effects of water- and oil-based
Berge, J.A., 2011. Overvåking av Bøkfjorden – forundersøkelse i 2010. drilling fluids and some major constituents on adult sea scallops (Placopecten
Turbiditetsmålinger, bløtbunnsfauna, hardbunnsorganismer og forekomst av magellanicus). Mar. Environ. Res. 48, 225–256.
akrylamid, Oslo. Dahl-Hansen, G.A., Velvin, R., 2008. Resipientundersøkelse/grunnlagsundersøkelse i
Berge, J.A., Helland, A., Larsen, L.-H., Moy, F., Sørensen, K., Walday, M., 1993. Repparfjorden 2008. Akvaplan-niva AS Rapport 4157-01, Akvaplan-niva,
Miljøundersøkelse i Stjernsundet, Finnmark i forbindelse med utslipp av Tromsø, Norway, 53 pp.
gruveavgang fra North Cape Nefelin AS. Akvaplan-niva report 411.93.372. Dahl-Hansen, I.E., Mannvik, H.P., Larsen, L.H., 2012. Undersøkelse av miljøtilstanden
01.01, Akvaplan-niva, Tromsø, Norway. 59 pp. i Lillebukta og Stjernsund, Finnmark 2012. Akvaplan-niva report 5463-1,
Berge, J.A., Tobiesen, A., Øxnevad, S., 2010. Giftighetstester med Akvaplan-niva, Tromsø, Norway, 77 pp.
flotasjonskjemikaliet Lilaflot D817M. Effekter på alge, børstemark, krepsdyr Dale, T., Kvassnes, A.J., Iversen, E.R., 2008. Risikoen for skader på fisk og båsjell ved
og fisk. NIVA rapport L.N.R. 6044-2010, Oslo. 36 pp. gruveaktivitet på Engebøneset. En litteraturstudie om effekter av metaller og
Berge, J.A., Beylich, B., Gitmark, J.K., Ledang, A.B., 2011. Overvåking av Bøkfjorden - suspenderte partikler. NIVA rapport L.N.R. 5689-2008, NIVA, Oslo, Norway, 39
forundersøkelse i 2010. Turbiditetsmålinger, bløtbunnsfauna, hardbunnsorganismer pp.
og forekomst av akrylamid. NIVA Rapport L.N.R. 6116-2011, Oslo. 70 pp. Danovaro, R., Gambi, C., Dell’Anno, A., Corinaldesi, C., Fraschetti, S., Vanreusel, A.,
Berge, J.A., Bjørnar, B., Brooks, S., Jaccard, P.-F., Tobiesen, A., Øxnevad, S., 2012. Vincx, M., Gooday, A.J., 2008. Exponential decline of deep-sea ecosystem
Overvåking av Bøkfjorden 2011 og giftighetstesting ava gruvekmeikaliene functioning linked to benthic biodiversity loss. Curr. Biol. 18, 1–8.
Magnafloc LT 38 og Magnafloc 10. NIVA report L.N.R. 6310-2012, Oslo. 123 pp. Dauvin, J.-C., 2010. Towards an impact assessment of bauxite red mud waste on the
Berkun, M., 2005. Submarine tailings placement by a copper mine in the deep knowledge of the structure and functions of bathyal ecosystems: the example of
anoxic zone of the Black Sea. Water Res. 39, 5005–5016. the Cassidaigne canyon (north-western Mediterranean Sea). Mar. Pollut. Bull.
Blackwood, G.M., Edinger, E.N., 2007. Mineralogy and heavy metal speciation 60, 197–206.
patterns of shallow marine sediments affected by submarine tailings disposal Davis, R.A., Welty, A.T., Borrego, J., Morales, J.A., Pendon, J.G., Ryan, J.G., 2000. Rio
and artisanal gold mining, Buyat-Ratototok district, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Tinto Estuary (Spain): 5000 years of pollution. Environ. Geol. 39, 1107–1116.
Environ. Geol. 52, 803–818. de Lacerda, L.D., 2003. Updating global Hg emissions from small-scale gold mining
Blanchard, A., Hiis Hauge, K., Andersen, G., Fosså, J.H., Einar Grøsvik, B., Olav and assessing its environmental impacts. Environ. Geol. 43, 308–314.
Handegard, N., Kaiser, M., Meier, S., Olsen, E., Vikebø, F., 2014. Harmful Dell’Anno, A., Danovaro, R., 2005. Extracellular DNA plays a key role in deep-sea
routines? uncertainty in science and conflicting views on routine petroleum ecosystem functioning. Science 309, 2179.
operations in Norway. Mar. Policy 43, 313–320. DNV, 2009. Miljøovervåking Frænfjorden 2008. Kasseforsøk. DNV report 2009-
Bolam, S.G., Rees, H.L., Somerfield, P., Smith, R., Clarke, K.R., Warwick, R.M., Atkins, 0130, DNV, Norway, 15 pp.
M., Garnacho, E., 2006. Ecological consequences of dredged material disposal in DNV, 2014. Miljøovervåkning Frænfjorden 2013. Den Norske Veritas report 2014-
the marine environment: a holistic assessment of activities around the England 0576, DNV, Norway.
and Wales coastline. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 52, 415–426. Dold, B., 2014. Submarine tailings disposal (STD) – a review. Minerals 4, 642–666.
Bollingberg, H.J, Johansen, P., 1979. Lead in spotted wolfish, Anarhichas minor, near Edinger, E., 2012. Gold mining and submarine tailings disposal: review and case
a zinclead mine in Greenland. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 36, 1023–1028. study. Oceanography 25, 184–199.
Borgmann, U., Norwood, W.P., 1997. Toxicity and accumulation of zinc and copper Elbaz-Poulichet, F., Dezileau, L., Freydier, R., Cossa, D., Sabatier, P., 2011. 3500-year
in Hyalella azteca exposed to metal-spiked sediments. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. record of Hg and Pb contamination in a Mediterranean sedimentary archive
Sci. 54, 1046–1054. (The Pierre Blanche Lagoon, France). Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 8642–8647.
Bornhold, B.D., Ren, P., Prior, D.B., 1994. High-frequency turbidity currents in British Ellis, D.V., 2003. The concept of ‘‘sustainable ecological succession’’; and its value in
Columbia fjords. Geo-Mar. Lett. 14, 238–243. assessing the recovery of sediment seabed biodiversity from environmental
Brewer, D.T., Milton, D.A., Fry, G.C., Dennis, D.M., Heales, D.S., Venables, W.N., 2007. impact. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 46, 39–41.
Impacts of gold mine waste disposal on deepwater fish in a pristine tropical Ellis DV (2008) The role of deep submarine tailings placement in the mitigation of
marine system. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 54, 309–321. marine pollution for Coastal and Island Mines. In: Hofer TN (ed) Marine
Brinkhurst, R.O., Burd, B.J., Kathman, R.D., 1987. Benthic studies in Alice Arm, B.C. Pollution: New Research Nova Science Publishers New York, pp 23–51.
during and following cessation of mine tailings disposal, 1982–1986. Ca Tech. Ellis, D., Ellis, K., 1994. Very deep STD. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 28, 472–476.
Rep. Hydr. Ocean Sci. 89, 1–46. Ellis, D.V., Hoover, P.M., 1990. Benthos in tailings beds from an abandoned coastal
Brunskill, G.J., 2012. Mine waste disposal in the ocean: an introduction. mine. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 21, 477–488.
Oceanography 25, 166–169. Ellis, D.V., Pedersen, T.F., Poling, G.W., Pelletier, C., Horne, I., 1995. Review of 23
Bryan, G.W., Langston, W.J., 1992. Bioavailability, accumulation and effects of heavy years of STD: Island Copper Mine, Canada. Mar. Georesour. Geotechnol. 13, 59–
metals in sediments with a special reference to United Kingdom estuaries: a 99.
review. Environ. Pollut. 76, 89–131. Engel, D.W., Sunda, W.G., Fowler, B.A., 1981. Factors affecting trace metal uptake
Burd, B.J., 2002. Evaluation of mine tailings effects on a benthic marine infaunal and toxicity to estuarine organisms: I. Environmental parameters. In: Vernberg,
community over 29 years. Mar. Environ. Res. 53, 481–519. J.F., Calabrese, A., Thurberg, F.P., Vernberg, W.B. (Eds.), Biological Monitoring of
Burd, B.J., Macdonald, R., Boyd, J., 2000. Recovery of sediments and benthic infauna Marine Contaminants. Academic Press, New York, pp. 127–144.
over 15 years following mine tailings deposition in a British Columbia fjord. EU, 2009. Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Management of
Mar. Environ. Res. 49, 145–175. Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities, Brussels, 557 pp.
Flemer, D.A., Ruth, B.F., Bundrick, C.M., 2002. Effects of sediment type on environmental impact of mining wastes on an Arctic fjord system. Environ.
macrobenthic infaunal colonization of laboratory microcosms. Hydrobiologia Pollut. 114, 275–283.
485, 83–96. Larsen, L.-H., Dahl-Hansen, G., Vögele, B., Trannum, H.C., 2004. Miljøundersøkelsen i
Franks, D.M., Boger, D.V., Côte, C.M., Mulligan, D.R., 2011. Sustainable development forbindelse med utslipp av gruveavgang fra North Cape Minerals, Stjernøya,
principles for the disposal of mining and mineral processing wastes. Resour. Finnmark, 2004. Akvaplan-niva rapport 411.3138, Akvaplan-niva, Tromsø,
Policy 36, 114–122. Norway. 47 pp.
Gage, J.D., Tyler, P.A., 1991. Deep-sea Biology. A Natural History of Organisms at the Larsson, A.I., van Oevelen, D., Purser, A., Thomsen, L., 2013. Tolerance to long-term
Deep-Sea Floor. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. exposure of suspended benthic sediments and drill cuttings in the cold-water
Golmen, L.G., Norli, M., 2013. Sporstoff-forsøk i Ranfjorden, NIVA report L.N.R. 6576- coral Lophelia pertusa. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 70, 176–188.
2013, NIVA, Oslo, Norway, 36 pp. Lasut, M.T., Yasuda, Y., Edinger, E.N., Pangemanan, J.M., 2010. Distribution and
Gray, J.S., 1974. Animal-sediment relationship. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol.: An Annu. Rev. accumulation of mercury derived from gold mining in marine environment and
12, 223–261. its impacts on residents of Buyat Bay, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Water Air Soil
Gray, J.S., Elliott, M., 2009. Ecology of Marine Sediments. From Science to Pollut. 208, 153–164.
Management. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Le Goff-vitry, M.C., Pybus, O.G., Rogers, A.D., 2004. Genetic structure of the deep-sea
Guerra-García, J.M., García-Gómez, J.C., 2009. Recolonization of macrofauna in coral Lophelia pertusa in the northeast Atlantic revealed by microsatellites and
unpolluted sands placed in a polluted yachting harbour: a field approach using internal transcribed spacer sequences. Mol. Ecol. 13, 537–549.
experimental trays. EstuarineCoastal Shelf Sci. 81, 49–58. Leblanc, M., Morales, J.A., Borrego, J., Elbaz-Poulichet, F., 2000. 4500-Year-old
Gwyther, D., 2004. Impact of the deposition of jarosite on deepwater meiobenthos mining pollution in southwestern Spain: long-term implications for modern
in southeastern Australia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 48, 997–1003. mining pollution. Economic Geol. 95, 655–662.
Gwyther, D., Batterham, G.J., Waworuntu, J., Gultom, T.H., Prayogo, W., Susetiono, Lee, C.S.L., Qi, S., Zhang, G., Luo, C., Zhao, L.Y.L., Li, X., 2008. Seven thousand years of
W., Karnan, W., 2009. Recolonisation of mine tailing by meiofauna in mesocosm records on the mining and utilization of metals from lake sediments in Central
and microcosm experiments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58, 841–850. China. Environ. Sci. Technol., 4732–4738
Hess, S., Kuhnt, W., 1996. Deep-sea benthic foraminiferal recolonization of the 1991 Lescinski, J., Jeuken, C., Cronin, K., Vroom, J., Elias, E., 2014. Modelling investigations
Pinatubo ash layer in the South China Sea. Mar. Micropaleontol. 28, 171–197. on mine tailing plume dispersion on the Chatham Rise. Deltares Report. <http://
Hudson-Edwards, K.A., Jamieson, H.E., Lottermoser, B.G., 2011. Mine wastes: past, www.epa.govt.nz/EEZ/EEZ000006/EEZ000006_Appendix25_Deltares_2014b_
present, future. Elements 7, 375–380. Modelling_investigations.pdf> (15.08.14).
Hughes, D.J., Shimmield, T.M., Black, K.D., Howe, J.A., 2015. Ecological impacts of Lettermoser, B., 2010. Mine Wastes: Characterization, Treatment and
large-scale disposal of mining waste in the deep sea. Nat. Sci. Reports 5, 09985. Environmental Impacts. Springer, 400 pp.
IIED, 2002. Mining for the Future: Appendix A: Large volume waste working paper. Levin, L.A., Dayton, P.K., 2009. Ecological theory and continental margins: where
Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Project Report. International shallow meets deep. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1142, 1–12.
Institute for Environment and Development. <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00883. Levin, L.A., Sibuet, M., 2012. Understanding continental margin biodiversity: a new
pdf> (28.8.2014). imperative. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 4, 79–112.
IMO, 2012. The London Convention and Protocol: their role and contribution to Levin, L.A., Sibuet, M., Gooday, A.J., Smith, C.R., Vanreusel, A., 2010. The roles of
protection of the marine environment. International Maritime Organization, habitat heterogeneity in generating and maintaining biodiversity on
Office for the London Convention and Protocol, London, UK, <www. continental margins: an introduction. Mar. Ecol. 31, 1–5.
londonprotocol.imo.org>. Liber, K., Weber, L., Lévesque, C., 2005. Sublethal toxicity of two wastewater treatment
Jackson, M.J., James, R., 1979. The influence of bait digging on cockle, Cerastoderma polymers to lake trout fry (Salvelinus namaycush). Chemosphere 61, 1123–1133.
edule, population in North Norfolk. J. Appl. Ecol. 16, 671–679. Lillicrap, A., 2009. Determination of the acute toxicity of process chemicals in mine
Jacobsen, P., Aanes, K.J., Grande, M., Kristiansen, H.S.A., 1987. Vurdering av årsaker tailings from Nordic Mining ASA to the amarine alga Skeletonema costatum, the
til fiskedød ved G.P. Jægtvik A.S., Langstein. NIVA-rapport no. 2038. NIVA, Oslo, marine copepod Tisbe battagliai and the polychaete Arenicola marina. NIVA
Norway. repport SNO 5898-2009, Oslo, Norway, 17 pp.
James, M., 2004. Evaluating the liquefaction resistance of tailings from hard rock Lillicrap, A., Sweetman, A., Macrae, K., Heiaas, H., 2011. Determination of the acute
mining. In: Hinshaw, L. (Ed.), Tailings and Mine Waste’04: Proceedings of the toxicity of mine tailings from Nussir. ASA to the marine alga Skeletonema
Eleventh Tailing and Mine Waste Conference Vail. Colorado, USA. costatum, the marine copepod Tisbe battagliai and the polychaete Arenicola
Jaques, R., Jensen, T., Saanum, I.D., Nøland, S.-A., 1993. Marine marina. NIVA-report OR-6163, NIVA, Oslo, Norway, 11 pp.
overvåkingsundersøkelser i Jøssingfjord - Dyngaområdet 1992. Den Norske Lohrer, A.M., Thrush, S.F., Hewitt, J.E., Berkenbusch, K., Ahrens, M., Cummings, V.J.,
Veritas report 93-3621. 2004. Terrestrially derived sediment: response of marine macrobenthic
Jezierska, B., Lugowska, K., Witeska, M., 2009. The effects of heavy metals on communities to thin terrigenous deposits. Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser. 273, 121–138.
embryonic development of fish (a review). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 35, 625–640. Lohrer, A.M., Hewitt, J.E., Thrush, S.F., 2006a. Assessing far-field effects of
Johansen, P., Riget, F.F., Asmund, G., Josefson, A.B., Hansen, J.L.S., 2006. terrigenous sediment loading in the coastal marine environment. Mar. Ecol.-
Miljøundersøgelser ved Maarmorilik. Danmarks Miljøundersøgelser, Faglig Prog. Ser. 315, 13–18.
rapport fra DMU 605 (in Danish). Lohrer, A.M., Thrush, S.F., Lundquist, C.J., Vopel, K., Hewitt, J.E., Nicholls, P., 2006b.
Johnsen, T.M., Gomen, L.G., Helland, A., Rygg, B., Sørensen, K., 2004. Deposition of terrigenous sediment on subtidal marine macrobenthos: response
Miljøundersøkelser i Ranfjorden 1994-96, NIVA report L.N.R. 4366-2001, of two contrasting community types. Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser. 307, 115–125.
NIVA, Oslo. 95 pp. Long, E.R., MacDonald, D.D., Smith, S.L., Calder, F.D., 1993. Incidence of adverse
Johnson, S.W., Rice, S.D., Moles, D.A., 1998. Effects of submarine mine tailings biological effects within ranges of chemical concentrations in marine and
disposal on juvenile yellowfin sole (Pleuronectes asper): a laboratory study. Mar. estuarine sediments. Environ. Manage. 19, 81–97.
Pollut. Bull. 36, 278–287. Lu, L., Wu, R.S.S., 2007. Seasonal effects on recolonization of macrobwnthos in
Josefsson, S., Schaanning, M., Samuelsson, G.S., Gunnarsson, J.S., Olofsson, I., Eek, defaunated sediment: a series of field experiments. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 351,
E., Wiberg, K., 2012. Capping efficiency of various carbonaceous and 199–210.
mineral materials for in situ remediation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p- Lucik, J.L., 2001. Chapter 3: a review of the physical oceanography of Astrolabe Bay
dioxin and dibenzofuran contaminated marine sediments: sediment-to- and Coastal Northeast PNG with reference to proposed submarine discharge of
water fluxes and bioaccumulation in boxcosm tests. Environ. Sci. Technol. mine wastes. In: Shearman, P. (Ed.), A Review of the Risks Presented by the
46, 3343–3351. Ramu Nickel Project to the Ecology of Astrolabe Bay in Papua New Guinea.
Kano, A., Ferdelman, T.G., Williams, T., Henriet, J.-P., Ishikawa, T., Kawagoe, N., Mineral Policy Institute, Australia, pp. 62–83.
Talkashima, C., Kakizaki, Y., Abe, K., Sakai, S., Browning, E.L., Li, X.H., 2007. Age Lydersen, E., Lofgren, S., Arnesen, R.T., 2002. Metals in scandinavian surface waters:
constraints on the origin and growth history of a deep-water coral mound in the effects of acidification, liming, and reacidification. Critical Rev. Environ. Sci.
northeast Atlantic drilled during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition Technol. 32, 73–295.
307. Geology, 1051–1054. Maldonado, M., Ribes, M., van Duyl, F.D., 2012. Nutrient fluxes through sponges:
Kempton, H., Bloomfield, T.A., Hanson, J.L., Limerick, P., 2010. Policy guidance for biology, budgets and ecological implications. Adv. Mar. Biol. 62, 113–182.
identifying and effectively managing perpetual environmental impacts from Martin, T.E., Davies, M.E., 2010. Trends in the Stewardship of Tailings Dams. <http://
new hardrock mines. Environ. Sci. Policy 13, 558–566. www.infomine.com/library/publications/docs/Martin2000.pdf>.
Koski, R.A., 2012. Metal dispersion resulting from mining activities in coastal Masson, D.G., 1996. Catastrophic collapse of the volcanic island of Hierro 15 ka ago
environments: a pathways approach. Oceanography 25, 170–183. and the history of landslides in the Canary Islands. Geology 24, 231–234.
Kranz, P.M., 1974. The catastrophic burial of bivalves and its paleontological Maurer, D., Keck, R.T., Tinsman, J.C., Leathem, W.A., 1981a. Vertical migration and
significance. J. Geol. 82, 237–265. mortality of benthos in dregded material – Part I: Mollusca. Mar. Environ. Res. 4,
Kutti, T., Bannister, R.J., Fosså, J.H., 2013. Community structure and ecological 299–319.
function of deep-water sponge grounds in the Traenadypet MPA—Northern Maurer, D., Keck, R.T., Tinsman, J.C., Leathem, W.A., 1981b. Vertical migration and
Norwegian continental shelf. Continental Shelf Res. 69, 21–30. mortality of benthos in dredged material: Part II – Crustacea. Mar. Environ. Res.
Kvassnes, A., Iversen, E., 2013. Waste sites from mines in Norwegian Fjords. 5, 301–317.
Mineralproduksjon 3, A27–A38. Maurer, D., Keck, R.T., Tinsman, J.C., Leathem, W.A., 1982. Vertical migration and
Lake, R.G., Hinch, S.G., 1999. Acute effects of suspended sediment angularity on mortality of benthos in dregded material: Part III – Polychaeta. Mar. Environ.
juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 56, Res. 6, 49–68.
862–867. Medina, M., Andrade, S., Faugeron, S., Lagos, N., Mella, D., Correa, J.A., 2005.
Larsen, T.S., Kristensen, J.A., Asmund, G., Bjerregaard, P., 2001. Lead and zinc in Biodiversity of rocky intertidal benthic communities associated with copper
sediments and biota from Maarmorilik, West Greenland: an assessment of the mine tailing discharges in northern Chile. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 396–409.
Mengerink, K.J., Van Dover, C.L., Ardron, J., Baker, M.C., Escobar-Briones, E., Gjerde, Pesch, C.E., 1979. Influence of three sediment types on copper toxicity to the
K., Koslow, A., Ramirez-Llodra, E., Lara-Lopez, A., Squires, D., Sutton, T., polychaete Neanthes areanaceodentata. Mar. Biol. 52, 237–245.
Sweetman, A.K., Levin, L.A., 2014. A call for deep-ocean stewardship. Science PNGLOOP, 2014. Ban on mine waste stirs debate. In: PNGLOOP (Ed), PNGLOOP,
344, 696–698. <http://www.pngloop.com/2014/08/04/ban-mine-waste-stirs-debate/>
Mienert, J., Weaver, P.P.E., 2002. European Margin Sediment Dynamics, Side-Scan (20.02.15).
Sonar and Seismic Images. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Berlin, pp. 309. Powell, J.H., Powell, R.E., 2001. Trace elements in fish overlying subaqueous tailings
Mining Watch Canada M, 2002. Sumbarine Mine Tailings tool kit. Mining Watch in the tropical west Pacific. Water Air Soil Pollut. 125, 81–104.
Canada report, 16 pp. <http://www.miningwatch.ca/submarine-tailings- Prisetiahadi, K., Yanagi, T., 2008. Seasonal variation in the behaviour of tailing
disposal-toolkit> (20.02.15). wastes in Buyat Bay, Indonesia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 57, 170–181.
MMSD, 2002. Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Probert, P.K., 1975. Changes in the benthic community of china clay waste deposits
Development. MMSD. in Mevagissey Bay following a reduction in discharges. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 61,
Mol, J.H., Ramlal, J.S., Lietar, C., Verloo, M., 2001. Mercury contamination in 789–804.
freshwater, estuarine, and marine fishes in relation to small-scale gold mining Puig, P., Canals, M., Company, J.B., Martin, J., Amblas, D., Lastras, G., Palanques, A.,
in Suriname, South America. Environ. Res. 86A, 183–197. Calafat, A., 2012a. Ploughing the deep sea floor. Nature 489, 286–290.
Mortensen, P.B., Hovland, M., Brattegard, T., Farestveit, R., 1995. Deep water Puig, P., Canals, M., Company, J.B., Martin, J., Amblas, D., Lastras, G., Palanques, A.,
bioherms of the scleractinian coral Lophelia pertusa (L.) at 64 N on the Calafat, A.M., 2012b. Ploughing the deep sea floor. Nature 489, 286–290.
Norwegian shelf: structure and associated megafauna. Sarsia 80, 145–158. Ramirez-Llodra, E., 2002. Fecundity and life-history strategies in marine
Mortensen, P.B., Buhl-Mortensen, L., Gordon Jr., D.C., 2006. Distribution of Deep- invertebrates. Adv. Mar. Biol. 43, 88–170.
Water Corals in Atlantic Canada 10th International Coral Reef Symposium, Ramirez-Llodra, E., Brandt, A., Danovaro, R., De Mol, B., Escobar, E., German, C.R.,
Okinawa, Japan, pp. 1832–1848. Levin, L.A., Martinez-Arbizu, P., Menot, L., Buhl-Mortensen, P., Narayanaswamy,
MPI, 1999. Environmental Risks associated with Submarine Tailings Discharge in B.E., Smith, C.R., Tittensor, D.P., Tyler, P.A., Vanreusel, A., Vecchione, M., 2010.
Astrolabe Bay, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, Mineral Policy Institute, Deep, diverse and definitely different: unique attributes of the world’s largest
11pp. ecosystem. Biogeosciences 7, 2851–2899.
Neeb, P.-R., 2012. Mineralressurser i Norge 2011. Mineralstatistikk og Ramirez-Llodra, E., Tyler, P.A., Baker, M.C., Bergstad, O.A., Clark, M., Escobar, E., Levin,
bergindustriberetning. Norges geologiske undersøkelse og Direktoratet for L.A., Menot, L., Rowden, A.A., Smith, C.R., Van Dover, C.L., 2011. Man and the last
mineralforvaltning. Publikasjon 1/2012 (In Norwegian), 51 pp. great wilderness: human impact on the deep sea. PLoS ONE 6 (8), e22588.
Neeb, P.-R., 2013. Mineralressurser i Norge 2012. Mineralstatistikk og Reichelt-Brushett, A., 2012. Risk assessment and ecotoxicology. Limitations and
bergindustriberetning. Norges geologiske undersøkelse og Direktoratet for recommendations for ocean disposal of mine waste in the Coral Triangle.
mineralforvaltning. Publikasjon 1/2013 (in Norwegian), 54 pp. Oceanography 25, 40–51.
Neeb, P.-R., 2014. Mineral resources in Norway 2013. Production data and annual Reichl, C., Schatz, M., Zsak, G., 2014. World Mining Data. Minerals Production
report. Norges geologiske undersøkelse og Direktoratet for mineralforvaltning. International Organizing Committee for the World Mining Congresses, Vienna,
Publikasjon 2/2014. pp. 261.
Neeb, P.-R., Brugmans, P.J., 2011. Mineralressurser i Norge 2010. Mineralstatistikk Rodil, I.F., Lohrer, A.M., Chiaroni, L.D., Je, Hewitt., Thrush, S.H., 2001. Disturbance of
og bergindustriberetning. Norges geologiske undersøkelse og Direktoratet for sandflats by thin terrigenous sediment deposits: consequences for primary
mineralforvaltning. Publikasjon 1/2011 (in Norwegian), 47 pp. production and nutrient cycling. Ecol. Appl. 21, 416–426.
Neff, J.M., 2005. Composition, Environmental Fates, and Biological Effect of Water Roe, A., Haglund, D., 2012. Mining’s Contribution to Sustainable Development.
Based Drilling Muds and Cuttings Discharged to the Marine Environment: A International Council on Mining and Metals, 20 pp.
Synthesis and Annotated Bibliography. Prepared for Petroleum Environmental Rostock, C., Lambert, N., 2010. Toxicity Related to the Use of Water Treatment
Research Forum (PERF) and American Petroleum Institute, Battelle, Duxbury, MA. Chemicals by Sydvaranger Gruve AS. Bergfald & co Report.
Neira, C., Delgadillo-Hinojosa, F., Zirino, A., Mendoza, G., Levin, L.A., Porrachia, M., Rygg, B., 1985. Effects of sediment copper on benthic fauna. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 25,
Deheyn, D., 2009. Spatial distribution of copper in relation to recreational 83–89.
boating in a California shallow-water basin. Chem. Ecol. 25, 417–433. Schaanning, M.T., Trannum, H.C., Oxnevad, S., Carroll, J., Bakke, T., 2008. Effects of
Neira, C., Mendoza, G., Levin, L.A., Zirino, A., Delgadillo-Hinojosa, F., Porrachia, M., drill cuttings on biogeochemical fluxes and macrobenthos of marine sediments.
Deheyn, D., 2011. Macrobenthic community response to copper in Shelter J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 361, 49–57.
Island Yacht Basin, San Diego Bay, California. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62, 701–717. Scroggins, R., Van Aggelen, G., Schroeder, J., 2001. Monitoring sublethal toxicity in
Newmont, 2014. PTNNT Tailings Fact Sheet. <http://www.newmont.com/sites/ effluent under the metal mining EEM program. Water Quality Res. J. Canada 37,
default/files/fact_sheet_tailing_eng_0.pdf> (20.02.15). 279–294.
Nichols, J.A., Rowe, G.T., Clifford, C.H., Young, R.A., 1978. In situ experiments on the Shearman, P., 2011. A review of the risks presented by the Ramu Nickel Project to
burial of marine invertebrates. J. Sed. Petrol. 48, 419–425. the ecology of Astrolabe Bay in Papua New Guinea. Mineral Policy Institute, 48.
Niyogi, S., Wood, C.M., 2004. The Biotic Ligand Model, a flexible tool for developing Sheaves, M., 2001. Chapter 5: an analysis of the ecology of Astrolabe Bay in relation
site-specific water quality guidelines for metals. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, to The Ramu Nickel Cobalt Mine. In: Shearman, P. (Ed.), A Review of the Risks
6177–6192. Presented by the Ramu Nickel Project to the Ecology of Astrolabe Bay in Papua
Niyogi, S., Couture, P., Pyle, G., McDonald, D.G., Wood, C.M., 2004. Acute cadmium New Guinea. Mineral Policy Institute, Australia, pp. 62–83.
biotic ligand model characteristics of laboratory-reared and wild yellow perch Shimmield, T.M., Black, K.D., Howe, J.A., Hughes, D.J., Sherwin, T., 2010. Final report:
(Perca flavescens) relative to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Canadian J. Independent Evaluation of Deep-Sea Mine Tailings Placement (DSTP) in PNG.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 61, 942–953. SAMS, Oban, UK, 295 pp.
Nøland, S.-A., Glette, T., Ulfsnes, A., 2008. Resipientundersøkelse Jøssingfjorden Sierralta, L., 2014. The DSTP initiative: 2014 Knowledge Workshop Report, 56 pp.
2008. DNV-report 2008-0089, DNV, Høvik, Norway, 34 pp. Skaare, B.B., Oug, E., Nilsson, H.C., 2007. Miljøundersøkelser i fjordsystemet utenfor
Norwegian Environment Agency, 2010. Bergverk og avgangsdeponering: Status, Kirkenes i Finnmark 2007. Sdimenter og bøtbunnsfauna. NIVA repport L.N.R
miljøutfordringer og kunnskapsbehov. Norwegian Environment Agency Report 5473-2007, Oslo, Norway, 69 pp (in Norwegian).
TA-2715 (in Norwegian). Skei, J.M., 1985. Sedimentundersøkelse utenfor Jøssingfjorden 16–17 oktober 1985.
Norwegian Mining Industry, 2014. Norwegian experiences with sea disposal of Kartlegging av influensområdet til Titania A/S’ utslipp av gruveavgang. NIVA
mine tailings. Report 1, 34 pp. report, 32 pp (in Norwegian).
Olsgard, F., 1999. Effects of copper contamination of recolonisation of subtidal Skei, J.M., 2010. Bergverk og avgangsdeponering. Satus, miljøutfordringer og
marine soft sediments – an experimental field study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 38, 448– kunnskapsbehov. KLIF – TA 2715, Norway, 109 pp (in Norwegian).
462. Skei, J.M., 2014 Methodologies for Environmental Impact Assessment of Deep Sea
Olsgard, F., Hasle, J.R., 1993a. Impact of waste from titanium mining on benthic Tailings Disposal (DSTP) projects. In: Proceedings IC (ed) Impact Assessment for
fauna. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 172, 184–213. Social and Economic Development 34th Annual Conference of the International
Olsgard, F., Hasle, J.R., 1993b. Impact of waste from titanium mining on benthic Association for Impact Assessment. IAIA14 Conference Proceedings, Vina del
fauna. J. Exp. Biol. Ecol. 172, 185–213. Mar, Chile, pp 5.
OSPAR, 2007. Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Skei JM, Rygg B (1989) Miljøundersøkelser i fjrodsystemet utenfor Kirkenes i
North-East Atlantic, London, 34 pp. <http://www.ospar.org/html_documents/ Finnmark. 1. Bløtbunnfauna og sedimenter. NIVA-report no. 2213, Oslo,
ospar/html/ospar_convention_e_updated_text_2007.pdf> (20.02.15). Norway. 80 pp. (in Norwegian).
Oug, E., Cochrane, S.K.J., Sundet, J.H., Norling, K., Nilsson, H.C., 2011. Effects of the Skei, J.M., Syvitski, J.P.M., 2013. Natural flocculation of mineral particles in seawater
invasive red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus) on soft-bottom fauna in – influence on mine tailings sea disposal and particle dispersal.
Varangerfjorden, northern Norway. Mar. Biodiversity 41, 467–479. Mineralproduksjon 3, A1–A10 (in Norwegian).
Pandey, S., Parvez, S., Ansari, R.A., Ali, M., Kaur, M., Hayat, F., Ahmad, F., Raisuddin, S., Skei JM, Rygg B, Sørensen K (1995) Miljøundersøkelse i fjordsystemet utenfor
2008. Effects of exposure to multiple trace metals on biochemical, histological Kirkenes i Finnmark. Bløtbunnsfauna, sedimenter og partikler i vann juni 1994.
and ultrastructural features of gills of a freshwater fish, Channa punctata Bloch. NIVA report no. 3281, pp. 66 (in Norwegian).
Chemico-Biol. Interact. 174, 183–192. Smit, M.G.D., Holthaus, K.I.E., Trannum, H.C., Neff, J.M., Kjeilen-Eilertsen, G., Jak,
Pearson, T.H., Rosenberg, R., 1978. Macrobenthic succession in relation to organic R.G., Singsaas, I., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Hendriks, A.J., 2008. Species sensitivity
enrichment and pollution of the marine environment. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. distributions for suspended clays, sediment burial, and grain size change in the
Rev. 16, 229–311. marine environment. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 27, 1006–1012.
Pedersen, T.F., Ellis, D.V., Poling, G.W., Pelletier, C., 1995. Effects of changing Smith, S.D.A., Rule, M.J., 2001. The effects of dredge-spoil dumping on a shallow
environmental rules: Kisault Molybdenum Mine, Canada. Mar. Georesour. water soft-sediment community in the Solitary Islands marine Park, NSW,
Geotechnol. 13, 119–134. Australia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42, 1040–1048.
Snelgrove, P.V.R., Butman, C.A., 1994. Animal-sediment relationshops revisited: Trannum, H.C., Olsgard, F., Skei, J.M., Indrehus, J., Øverås, S., Eriksen, J., 2004. Effects
cause versus effect. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol.: Annu. Rev. 32, 111–177. of copper, cadmium and contaminated harbour sediments on recolonisation of
Søndergaard, J., Asmund, G., Johansen, P., Rigét, F., 2011. Long-term response of an soft-bottom communities. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 310, 87–114.
arctic fiord system to lead–zinc mining and submarine disposal of mine waste Trannum, H.C., Nilsson, H.C., Schaanning, M.T., Øxnevad, S., 2010. Effects of
(Maarmorilik, West Greenland). Mar. Environ. Res. 71, 331–341. sedimentation from water-based drill cuttings and natural sediment on
Sultan, N., Cochonat, P., Canals, M., Cattaneo, A., Dennielou, B., Haflidason, H., Laberg, benthic macrofaunal community structure and ecosystem processes. J. Exp.
J.S., Long, D., Mienert, J., Trincardi, F., Urgeles, R., Vorren, T.O., Wilson, C., 2004. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 383, 111–121.
Triggering mechanisms of slope instability processes and sediment failures on Trannum, H.C., Setvik, Å., Norling, K., Nilsson, H.C., 2011. Rapid macrofaunal
continental margins: a geotechnical approach. Mar. Geol. 213, 291–321. colonization of water-based drill cuttings on different sediments. Mar. Pollut.
Syvitski, J.P.M., Murray, J.W., 1981. Particle interaction in fjord-suspended Bull. 62, 2145–2156.
sediment. Mar. Geol. 39, 215–242. Turk, T.R., Risk, M.J., 1981. Effects of sedimentation on infaunal invertebrate
Taylor, G., 1953. Dispersion of soluble matter in solvent flowing slowly through a populations of Cobequid Bay, Bay of Fundy. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38, 642–
tube. Proc. R. Soc. London A 219 (1137), 186–203. 648.
Thistle, D., 2003. The deep-sea floor: an overview. In: Tyler, P.A. (Ed.), Ecosystems of Tyler, P.A., Ramirez-Llodra, E., 2002. Larval and reproductive strategies on European
the World, V 28 Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 5–39. continental margins. In: Wefer, G., Billett, D.S.M., Hebbeln, D., Jorgensen, B.B.,
Thrush, S.E., Dayton, P.K., 2002. Disturbance to marine benthic habitats by trawling Schluter, M., Van Weering, T.C.E. (Eds.), Ocean Margin Systems Hanse
and dredging: implications for marine biodiversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 33, Conference Report. Springer, Berlin, pp. 339–350.
449–473. Varnavas, S., Ferentinos, G., Collins, M., 1986. Dispersion of bauxitic red mud in the
Thrush, S.F., Whitlatch, R.B., Pridmore, R.D., Hewitt, J.E., Cummings, V.J., Wilkinson, Gulf of Corinth, Greece. Mar. Geol. 70, 211–222.
M.R., 1996. Scale-dependent recolonization: the role of sediment stability in a Vogt, C., 2013. International Assessment of Marine and Riverine Disposal of Mine
dynamic sandflat habitat. Ecology 77, 2472–2487. Tailings. Final Report Adopted by the International Maritime Organization,
Thrush, S.F., Hewitt, H.E., Norkko, A., Cummings, V.J., Funnell, G.A., 2003. London Convention/Protocol, IMO, 138 pp.
Macrobenthic recovery processes following catastrophic sedimentation on Walday, M., Helland, A., Magnusson, J., Moy, F., Rygg, B., 2004. Environmental
estuarine sandflats. Ecol. Appl. 13, 1433–1455. Assessment of Ranfjorden, Northern Norway. NIVA report SNO 4839-2004, Oslo,
Thrush, S.F., Hewitt, J.E., Cummings, V.J., Ellis, J.I., Hatton, C., Lohrer, A., Norkko, A., Norway, 133 pp.
2004. Muddy waters: elevating sediment input to coastal and estuarine Wheatcroft, R.A., 2000. Oceanic flood sedimentation: a new perspective.
habitats. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2, 299–306. Continental Shelf Res. 20, 2059–2066.
Thurber, A.R., Sweetman, A.K., Narayanaswamy, B.E., Jones, D.O.B., Ingels, J., Young, C.M., 2003. Reproduction, development and life history traits. In:
Hansman, R.L., 2014. Ecosystem function and services provided by the deep Tyler, P.A. (Ed.), Ecosystems of the Deep Oceans. Elsevier, London, pp.
sea. Biogeosciences 11, 3941–3963. 381–426.
Tietjen, J.H., 1980. Population structure and species distribution of free-living Zajac, R.N., Whitlatch, R.B., 1982a. Responses of estuarine infauna to disturbance. I.
netmatodes inhabiting sands of the New York Bigth Apex. Estuarine Coastal Spatial and temporal variation of initial recolonization. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 10,
Mar. Sci. 10, 61–73. 1–14.
Trannum, H.C., Vögele, B., 2001. Miljøundersøkelse i Stjernsundet, Finnmark, 2000, i Zajac, R.N., Whitlatch, R.B., 1982b. Responses of estuarine infauna to disturbance.
forbindelse med utslipp til gruveavgang. Akvaplan-niva report 411.2031, II. Spatial and temporal variation of succession. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 10,
Akvaplan-niva, Tromsø, Norway, 38 pp (in Norwgian). 15–27.

Submarine and Deep-Sea Mine Tailing Placement

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Submarine and Deep-Sea Mine Tailing Placement

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Submarine and Deep-Sea Mine Tailing Placement

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Marine Pollution Bulletin 97 (2015) 13–35

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin