MECH 290

Design Graphics

Lectures 8-10: Planar projections and pictorial views

Prof. Fiona Zhao January 30, 2019

 OBJECTIVES
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define the terms vertex, edge, plane, surface, and solid.
2. Identify four types of surfaces, identify five regular solids.
3. Identify and specify basic geometric elements and primitive shapes.
4. Select a 2D profile that best describes the shape of an object.
5. Understand various projection methods be able to name all main 
projections that are critical to engineering drawing.
6. Identify shapes that can be formed by extrusion and sketch their cross 
sections.
7. Identify shapes that can be formed by revolution techniques and sketch 
their profiles. 
8. Define Boolean operations. 
9. Specify the Boolean operations to combine primitive shapes into a complex 
shape.
10. Identify the transformations common to CAD systems. 
UNDERSTANDING SOLID OBJECTS
Three-dimensional figures are referred to as solids. Solids are
bounded by the surfaces that contain them. These surfaces can be
one of the following four types:

• Planar
• Single curved
• Double curved
• Warped

Regardless of how complex a solid may be, it is composed of

combinations of these basic types of surfaces.
 Types of Solids
If the faces of a solid are equal regular polygons, it is called a regular polyhedron.
 Prisms

A prism has two bases, which

are parallel equal polygons, and
three or more additional faces,
which are parallelograms
 Pyramids

A pyramid has a polygon for a base and triangular lateral faces that
intersect at a common point called the vertex.
 Cylinders & Cones

A cylinder has a single-

curved exterior surface

A cone has a single-

curved exterior surface
 Spheres, Tori & Ellipsoids

A sphere has a double-curved

exterior surface

A torus is shaped like a

doughnut

An oblate or prolate ellipsoid

is shaped like an egg
 Edges and Vertices

Edges
An edge of the solid is formed where two
surfaces intersect. Edges are represented in
drawings by visible or hidden lines.

Vertices
A vertex (plural, vertices) of a solid is
formed where three or more surfaces
intersect..

Points and Lines
A point is used to represent a location in space but has no width, height, or depth.
 Points and Lines
Not represented by a dot !
A point is used to represent a location in space
but has no width, height, or depth.

A line is used in drawings to represent the edge of a solid object.

 Angles
An angle is formed by two intersecting lines. A common symbol for angle
is .

Showing Angles
 ONE-VIEW DRAWINGS
Frequently, a single view supplemented by notes and dimensions is enough
information to describe the shape of a relatively simple object.

Accuracy

Speed

Legibility

Neatness

Note how thickness of the material is given as “0.25 BRASS” So, an additional
view is not needed to dimensionally give the material thickness.
 PICTORIAL SKETCHING
Protocol for reproducing a spatial object on a plane, curved surface, or
line by projecting its points  Projection
A pictorial sketch represents a 3D object on a 2D sheet of paper by
orienting the object so you can see its width, height, and depth in a
single view.
One-to-one point mapping of a 3D space onto a 2D planar subspace
 Projection Methods

Perspective
Orthographic

Oblique
 Projection Methods

One-point perspective
Two-point perspective

Oblique
Isometric
Multiviews
 Projection Methods
Orthographic Projection Categories
 Axonometric

Multiview
 Projection Methods
Axonometric Projection Classes
 Projection Methods
Isometric Projections
 Projection Methods
Isometric Views
 COORDINATES FOR 3D CAD MODELING

Most CAD systems use the right-hand rule

for coordinate systems; if you point the
thumb of your right hand in the positive
direction for the X-axis and your index
finger in the positive direction for the Y-
axis, your remaining fingers will curl in the Y
positive direction for the Z-axis

Z
X

Z
The Z-Axis. In systems that use the right-hand
rule, the positive Z-axis points toward you when
the face of the monitor is parallel to the X-Y plane.
COORDINATES FOR 3D CAD MODELING

Axis of Rotation. The curl of the fingers

indicates the positive direction along the
axis of rotation.

2D CAD Drawing. This drawing was

created on the X-Y plane in the CAD
system. It appears true shape because the
viewing direction is perpendicular to the X-
Y plane—straight down the Z-axis.
 Specifying Location
Even though the model is ultimately stored in a single Cartesian coordinate
system, you may usually specify the location of features using other location
methods as well. The most typical of these are relative, polar, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinates. These coordinate formats are useful for specifying
locations to define your CAD drawing geometry.

3DCoordinates for Vertices

 COORDINATES FOR 3D CAD MODELING

Absolute Coordinates
To store the locations of points in a CAD
database. Distance from the origin in each
of the cartesian coordinate system axis
Relative Coordinates
Specify location by giving the number of
units from a previous location
Polar Coordinates

Locate an object by
giving an angle and a
distance
 GEOMETRIC ENTITIES
Specifying Points. Point 1 was added to the drawing by typing the absolute 
Points coordinates 3,4,7. Point 2 was added relative to Point 1 with the relative 
coordinates @2,2,2. 
Specifying Lines. (a) This 2D line was drawn from endpoint (3,2) to 
Lines (6,6). (b) This 3D line was drawn from endpoint (3,2,0) to (5,4,6). 

Defining a Plane in CAD. A point and a line (the edge 
Planes between two surfaces in this case) were used to define a 
plane in this Pro/ENGINEER model. 
 GEOMETRIC ENTITIES
A circle is a set of points that are equidistant from 
Circles a center point. The distance from the center to 
one of the points is the radius 

AutoCAD Circle Construction Options (Autodesk screen shots reprinted courtesy of Autodesk, Inc.)

AutoCADArc Construction Options (Autodesk screen shots reprinted courtesy of Autodesk, Inc.)

An arc is a portion of a circle. An arc can be 
Arcs defined by specifying any one of the 
following 
 POLYGONS
A polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight lines.  If the polygon has equal angles and equal 
sides, it can be inscribed in or circumscribed around a circle and is called a regular polygon. 

Polygons can be defined by the number of 
sides and whether they are inscribed or 
circumscribed in a circle. (Autodesk screen shots 
reprinted courtesy of Autodesk, Inc.) 
 ELLIPSES

An ellipse can be defined by its major and minor axis distances. The major axis is 
the longer axis of the ellipse; the minor axis is the shorter axis. 

Major and Minor Axes of Some Ellipses 
* Most CAD systems provide an Ellipse command that lets you enter the 
major and minor axis lengths, center, or the angle of rotation for a circle that 
is to appear elliptical. 
ONE-VIEW DRAWINGS
 GEOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS

Tangency. Lines that are tangent to an entity have one point 
in common but never intersect. 3D objects may be tangent 
at a single point or along a line.
 SOLID PRIMITIVES
Many 3D objects can be visualized, sketched, and modeled in a CAD system by combining
simple 3D shapes or primitives. They are the building blocks for many solid objects. You should
become familiar with these common shapes and their geometry. The same primitives that are
useful when sketching objects are also used to create 3D models of those objects.
 Making Complex Shapes with Boolean
Operations

Boolean operations, common to most 3D modelers, allow you to join, subtract,

and intersect solids.

Complex Shapes. The 3D solid primitives 
in this illustration show basic shapes 
that make up a telephone handset. 
(Shutterstock.) 
 Boolean Operations

The Order Matters in 
Subtraction 
Boolean Operations
Boolean Operations
Identify solid primitives and Boolean operation you could use to create these objects
 RECOGNIZING SYMMETRY
3D Mirrored Shapes. Each of these symmetrical shapes has two mirror lines, indicated by 
the thin axis lines. To create one of these parts, you could model one quarter of it, mirror 
it across one of the mirror lines, then mirror the resulting half across the perpendicular 
mirror line. 

Right‐ and Left‐hand Brake Levers  (Using 
symmetry when you model can be important when 
the design requires it)
 EXTRUDED FORMS

Extrusion is the
manufacturing process of
forcing material through a
shaped opening

A swept form is a special case of an

extruded form. Sweeping describes
extruding a shape along a curved path.
 REVOLVED FORMS
Revolution creates 3D forms from basic shapes by revolving a 2D profile around an axis to
create a closed solid object. To create a revolved solid, create the 2D shape to be revolved,
specify an axis about which to revolve it, then indicate the number of degrees of revolution

What operation would you choose to

transform the profiles?
 USER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Drawing on an Inclined Plane. A new coordinate system is defined relative to the slanted surface 
to make it easy to create the hole. 
 TRANSFORMATIONS

The model stored in the computer is changed using three basic transformations (or changes):
moving (sometimes called translation), rotating, and scaling. When you select a CAD command
that uses one of these transformations, the CAD data stored in your model are converted
mathematically to produce the result. Commands such as Move (or Translate), Rotate, or Scale
transform the object on the coordinate system and change the coordinates stored in the 3D model
database.
 Changing the View.
Changing the View. Note that the location of the model relative to the coordinate axes 
does not change in any of the different views. Changing the view does not transform the 
model itself. 
 Geometric or Viewing Transformation?

Geometric or Viewing 
Transformation? Three of 
these models are the 
same, but the viewing 
location, zoom, or rotation 
has changed. Three have 
been transformed to 
different locations on the 
coordinate system.