Approach (e.g.

, Climate,
Citation Research Questions
Instructional)
Abrami, P. C., & Chambers, B. (1994). Positive social relationship between student cooperative learning,
interdependence and classroom climate. Genetic, Social perceptions of social interdependence classroom climate.
& General Psychology Monographs, 120(3), 329-336. and social support.

Allodi, M. W. (2002). A two-level analysis of classroom 1. what are the variations within and systems
climate in relation to social context, group composition, between classes with respect to the
and organization of special support. Learning children's perceptions of clasroom
Environments Research, 5(3), 253-274. climate (PCC)?; 2. How are PCC related
to the presence of children who need
special support? 3. How are PCC related
to differentiated or inclusive
organizations? 4. How are PCC related
to the social context of the school?

Babad, E. (2001). On the conception and measurement assess relative degrees of overlap and
of popularity: More facts and some straight conclusions. distinctiveness between popularity and
Social psychology of education, 5(1), 3-. attractiveness. Expected that attractive
and popular children in their perceptions
of social phenomena in the classroom
and in their reactions to the teachers.

Bales, R. F. & Flanders, N. A. (1954). American ** literally a Home Depot guide to

Sociological Review, 19(6), 771-781. building an observation lab. Not exactly
what I had in mind…
Bales, R. F. (1999). Social interaction systems: Theory
and measurement. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction
Publishers.
Byrne, B. M. (1994). Burnout: Testing for the validity, Goodness-of-Fit for Model of Teacher
replication, and invariance of causal structure across Burnout - the part that relates to
elementary, intermediate, and secondary teachers. classroom climate is their theorized
American Educational Research Journal, 31(3), 645-673. negative path from classroom climate to
emotional exhaustion.

Cheng, S. (1999). Perception of classroom environment hypothesized that the competitive senior
in Hong Kong: Differences between students in junior forms and non-competitive junior forms
and senior forms. Adolescence, 34(136), 793-798. would differentially reflect classroom
climates.

Cheng, Y. C. (1994). Classroom environment and investigated the relationship between

student affective performance: An effective profile. student affective performance and
Journal of Experimental Education, 62(3), 221-239. classroom physical environment, social
climate, and management style.

Comish, R., Rader, C., Kritsonis, W., Daboval, J., & not a study - presents a trust inventory "the type of trust present in
Northam, C. (1996). National impact: A classroom trust survey (which is included in the 3-page the classroom is a critical
inventory. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, article!) for 'anyone to use' determinant of behavior" p.
33(1), R.
Dunn, 37-40.
J., & Harris, L. G. (1998). Organizational Is there a relationship between 38
classroom climate
dimensions of climate and the impact on school reading/math/language achievement in
achievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 25(2), fourth grade and classroom climate as
100-114. perceived by students
Ferguson, P. D., & Fraser, B. J. (1998-99). Changes in investigated changes in students'
learning environment during the transition from primary learning environment perceptions across
to secondary school. Learning Environments Research, transition and the role of student sex
1(3), 369-383. and change in school size as influencing
factors in changes in perceptions as
students transfer from primary to
secondary school.

Finlinson, A. R., Austin, A. M. B., & Pfister, R. (2000). tested four hypotheses: Children will
Cooperative games and children’s positive behaviors. not differ in the display of: 1. negative
Early Child Development & Care, 164, 29-40. behaviors between competitive and
cooperative games treatments; 2.
positive behaviors bewteen competitive
and cooperative games treatments; 3.
negative behaviors in the classorom
following competitive and cooperative
games treatments; 4. positive behaviors
in the classroom following competitive
and cooperative games treatments.

Fletcher, T. V., Bos, C. S., & Johnson, L. M. (1999). The purpose of the exploratory study case study
Accommodating English language learners with language was to provide an initial look at how the
and learning disabilities in bilingual education classrooms. bilingual teachers' classroom climates,
Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14(2), 80-91. grouping practices, teaching styles, and
student accomodations compared to
those reported in the literature for
general education teachers (particularly
those teachesr nominated as effective)
when integrating students with language
and learning disabilities into bilingual
education classrooms.

Fry, P. G., & Fleeners, M. J. (1997). An analysis of pre-

service teacher-class interaction metaphors. Journal of
Classroom Interaction, 32(1), 23-28.
Furman, A. (1998). Teacher and pupil characteristics in 1. determine whether teachers'
the perception of the creativity of classroom climate. classroom behaviors are a means to
Journal of Creative Behavior, 32(4), 258-277. identifiy relatively stable behavior
patterns in individuals or groups of
teachers categorized by subject taught
and pupil's perceptions of the classroom
environment. 2. identify those teacher
behaviors correlating with high or low
level of creative classroom environment
perceptions respectively.

Gravemeijer, K. (1998). Solving word problem: A case of hypothesized that there are two causes a plea is made for modelling
modelling? Learning and Instruction, 7(4), 389-397. for the tendency of primary - and as an activity of organizing,
secondary-students to ignore relevant not translation. NOTE - NOT
and plausibly familiar aspects of reality APPLICABLE FOR THIS
in answering word problems. First = REVIEW (but interesting!)
stereotypical character of most word
roblems; second = classroom climate.
Greve, W., Anderson, A., & Krampen, G. (2001). Self- results from a cross-cultural study on with respect to the external
efficacy and externality in adolescence: Theoretical self-efficacy and externality of environment and adolescent
conceptions and measurement in new zealand and adolescents from Germany and New self-efficacy, they seem to
German secondary school students. Identity, 1(4), 321- Zealand are presented to validae a emphasize the control
344. standardized research instrument dimension.

Griffith, J. (1995). An empirical examination of a model purpose of the study was to a) model's component parts are
of social climate in elementary schools. Basic and determine the adequacy of survey items social order-social action; and
Applied Social Psychology, 17(1), 97-117. in assessing school climate according to instrumental-expressive (i.e.,
a new model. And b) examine the utility axes).
of the model-based climate measures by
testing several hypotheses regarding
relations among school climate, school
structural characteristics, and student
performance.

Hadley, P. A., Wilcox, K. A., & Rice, M. L. (1994). Talking

at school: Teacher expectations in preschool and
kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9(1),
111-129.

Hamm, J. V. & Perry, M. (2002). Learning mathematics in

first-grade classrooms: On whose authority? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 94(1), 126-137.
Hearn, J. C., & Moos, R. H. (1978). Subject matter and relating clasroom subject matter to
classroom climate: A test of Holland's experimental clasroom climate. They tested
propositions. American Educational Research Journal, Holland's system as a concptualization
15(1), 111-124. of personalities and environments.
Henderson, J., Winitzky, N., & Kauchak, D. (1996).
Effective teaching in advanced placement classrooms.
Journal of Classroom Interaction, 31(1), 29-35.

Howes, C. (2000). Social-emotional classroom climate in

child care, child-teacher relationships and children’s
second grade peer relations. Social Development, 9(2),
291-304.
Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for
future research. Educational Review, 53(1), 27-35.
Levine, T., Donitsa-Schmidt, S, & Zellermayer, M. The study examined whether, how, and perceived classroom
(1996). Student perceptions of classroom climate in a to what extent an innovative environment
communicative and computer-supported approach to communicative approach to writing
writing instruction. Journal of Research and instruction will differentially affect
Development in Education, 29(2), 94-103. students' perceptions of their classroom
environment.

Levy, S. & Vaughn, S. (2002). An observational study of purpose of study was to document [[marginally relevant - they
teachers’ reading instruction of students with emotional reading instructional practices for used a very small version of
or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27(3), students with Emotional/Behavioral an HQT-like obs. Protocol]]
215-235. disorders. Alignment of instruction of
students with E/BD and documented
effective reading instructional practice
was examined, as well as strategies
used to redirect behavior and provide
positive reinforcement. (see research
questions p. 217)
Lloyd, C. V. (1996). Scientific literacy in two high school *** THIS study is a 2-teacher case
biology classrooms: Considering literacy as a social study. Observation data were examined
process. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 31(1), 21-27. and coded for themes but no measure
per se was used. N/A
Lundquist, P., Kjellberg, A., & Holmberg, K. (2002).
Evaluating effects of the classroom environment:
Development of an instrument for the measurement of
self-reported mood among school children. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 22(3), 289-293.
McIntosh, R., Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Haager, D., & how do teachers' behaviors toward behaviors and interactions.
Lee, O. (1994). Observations of students with learning mainstreamed students with disabilities
disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional compare to their behavior toward
Children, 60(3), 249-261. students without disabilities, as well as
interactions between students, and
between students and teacher.

Mitchem, K. J. & Young, K. R. (2001). Adapting self-

management programs for classwide use: Acceptability,
feasibility, and effectiveness. Remedial and Special
Education, 2, 75-88.
Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between
children and teachers. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Pierce, C. (1994). Importance of classroom climate for
at-risk learners. Journal of Educational Research, 88(1),
37-42.
Selleri, P. & Santarcangelo, B. (2001). L’analisi delle
routine conversazionali ed organizzative come strumento
di osservazione del clima di classe. Rassegna di
Psicologia, 18(3), 77-94.
Sinclair, B. B., & Fraser, B. J. (2002). Changing
classroom environments in urban middle schools.
Learning Environments Research, 5,301-328.
Somersalo H., Solantaus T., & Almqvist F. (2002).
Classroom climate and the mental health of primary
school children. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 56(4), 285–
290.
Vaughn, S. & Schumm, J. S. Classroom ecologies:
classroom interactions and implications for inclusion of
students with learning disabilities pp 107-124. IN Speece,
D. L. & Keogh, B. K. (Eds) (1996). Research on
classroom ecologies: implications for inclusion of children
with learning disabilities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Wheldell, K., Bearman, R., & Mok, M. (1999). Does the is the ICEQ a valid measure of
individualized classroom environment questionnaire classroom climate as opposed to the
(ICEQ) measure classroom climate? Educational & idiosyncratic attitudes of individual
Psychological Measurement, 59(5), 847-854. students?
 Measures Independent Vars Dependent Vars Sample

Classroom Life instrument (Johnson & Johnson, 1983); 7-part classroom climate and attributions two measures of 123 students in 4 8th grade
teacher-made geometry ach test; student term grades; Observers student learning classrooms in Canada
completed an Observer Assessment of Implementation (OAI) and
kept a running record of verbal and nonverbal behaviors of group
members and description of the task and any explicit instructions
given by the teacher re: group work and grading. PRETEST;
INTERVENTION DESIGN IN THE SENSE THAT teachers were trained
in cooperative learning prior to data collection.
My Class (MC) was used to study the psychosocial environment in 39 classrooms, 16 schools in 9
the classroom. Based on the MCI (Fraser, Anderson, & Walberg, municipalities in Sweden. 679
1982) and the ICEQ (Fraser, 1985). Contains items related to grade 3-6 students, of which 80
perceptions of satisfaction, friction, competition, cohesiveness, and are receiving special support in
personalization. school.

Used a ton - re: classroom climate, they used the My Classroom self-esteem (academic, social,
Inventory (Fraser, 1986). 25 items. For subjects in Israel, the My physical); classroom climate and
Classroom Questionnaire was adapted (Tal & Babad, 1990; Babad, students' emotional reactions to
1995) and yields scores on students' positive affect about the their teacher; students' perceptions
classroom; social climate, and learning climate, as well as overall of teachers' differential behavior
classroom climate rating. Some subjects also completed My Teacher toward high achievers and low-
Questionnaire, which measures students' emotional reactions to achievers in the clrm; judgmental
their teacher (positive reactions and negative reactions). sociometric measurement of various
dimensions (shy, quick, quiet,
leaders, etc); teachers' attempts to
guess their students' sociometric
choices; academic and physical
education grades.

Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 1986); Received usable responses from
Teacher Stress Scale (TSS; Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982); Classroom 3,044 of the 7,000 full-time
Environment Scale (CES; Bacharach et al., 1986); Internal-External elementary, intermediate, and
Locus of Control Scale (LCS; Rotter, 1966); Self-Esteem Scale (SES; secondary teachers selected
Rosenberg, 1965) from two large metropolitan
areas in central Canada -
RANDOM STRATIFIED
PROPORTIONAL sampling
procedures (!) - sample = about
12% of total teacher population

Classroom Environment Scale (Moos & Trickett, 1974) translated 602 students in 4 secondary
into Chinese (Cheung & Lau, 1985). schools; convenience selection
of schools. Schools with
different academic reputations
were represented (2 known for
students' superior and 2 for
students' inferior performance).
Classroom Environment Measure (Moos & Trickett, 1974) -STUDENT; Hong Kong elementary school
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (Ohio State University) - children; 678 CLASSES in 190
STUDENT; Use of power - STUDENT; individual student affective sampled schools. Number of
performance - STUDENT students ~ 21,622. Average
class size = 32.

this measure has three sections: classroom policies; teacher-student

relationships; communication.

My Class Inventory - short form; state achievement test battery classroom climate (*5 predictor 1. Math 230 4th graders from suburban
climate variables: satisfaction, achievement; 2. school district; 54.3% male;
friction, competitiveness, difficulty, Reading ach; 3. 97% either 9 or 10 years old
cohesiveness). language ach.
My Class Inventory (Fraser) and Questionnaire on Teacher 1040 students from 47 feeder
Interaction (QTI); also used open-ended questions asked in person primary schools and 16 linked
by researchers to which students responded in writing. Students secondary schools in Tasmania,
were free to ask questions of the researcher. Australia. Approx = boys/girls.

Caregiver Interaction Scale (CIS; Arnett, 1989); a measure of

teacher nurturance; and the Observational Checklist of Children's
Behavior (OCCB; Grineski, 1989b), which measures children's
positive and negative social behaviors.

Classroom Climate Scale (CSS; McIntosh, Vaughn, Schumm, Haager, classroom climate, teaching style,
& Lee, 1993); semi-structured interview format with teachers that grouping practices, student
encouraged conversational style (Patton, 1990). Observational data accomodations
came from 4 observation sessions.

600 8th-grade stuydents from 25

classrooms and 6 schools - 18
teachers (9 Slovak language; 9
math).

Classroom Environment Scales (Trickett & Moos, 1974): competition, 215 New Zealand and 221
order and organization; rule clarity; teacher control; affiliation. German secondary school
students aged 16-17 years.
Distribution of age and sex were
comparable in the 2 samples
(121 girls in NZ; 125 girls in
Germany)
8609 students in grades 3-6.
Schools represented about 1/3 of
the 122 elementary schools in
the district.

TAS (Talking at School) measure to describe range of classroom 140 preschool and Kindergarten
climates created, in part, by teachers' attitudes toward talking. teachers
Some items drawn from classroom observational system and a
survey of teacher expectations for school readiness (Fowler, 1982;
Hains et al., 1989)

Classroom Environment Scale - Trickett & Moos (1974)

 effectiveness behaviors, teacher FOUR AP American History
cognition, student cognition. classes.

classroom-climate developed for this study (Donitsa-Schmidt, 1994) experimental or traditional 951 10th and 11th graders, of
21 items for six dimensions: teacher-student relations (3 items); classroom environment whom 659 students (in 24
peer relations (4 items); computer role (3 items); classroom classes) experimental and 292
management (3 items); student responsibility (4 items); and writing (in 10 classes) control group
processes (4 items). (traditional). Schools had similar
student population, student
background variables and sex
distribution.

Classroom-Climate scale (McIntosh et al., 1993) designed to provide

information on teacher and student interactions. Has quantitative
and descriptive sections

Classroom Climate Scale - they developed it to observe MSLD student type: general or MSLD. teacher-MSLD; sixty general education, social
students in general ed clrms. Four components: Teacher-initiated students to MSLD; studies, and science teachers
behaviors (9 items); student-initiated behaviors (9 items); Student MSLD to (grades 3-12) - 20 teachers per
participation and interaction (3 items); overall classroom climate (4 students/activities elem, middle, high)
items).

Individualized Classroom Environment Questionnaire (ICEQ; Fraser, 1467 high school studnets in
1990) - instrument for measuring perception of classroom New South Wales
environments among secondary school students and/or their
teachers. Notable because it assesses dimensions that distinguish
individualized classrooms from more conventional ones.
 Demographics Analysis Key Findings

Race, gender , age hierarchical multiple regressions; then did a meta-analysis of social support from teacher and peers was moderately
their study plus three prior studies, weighting results by sample related to perceptions of positive interdependence, but
size. social interdependence factors were less important
predictors of student learning than was student self-
esteem.

swedish children First ran CFA on the MC and only three factors were retained: three significant classroom factors found - level of friction,
friction, satisfaction, and cohesiveness. Then, they analyzed satisfaction, and cohesiveness. Social context related to
relationship between classroom climate, class composition, and these three factors; inclusion of pupils WITH disabilities
social context. NOTE that their loadings are not high and they related to less friction and more cohesiveness among
don't have many items per factor (2-4) so it is a questionable children.
measure based on these data.

For all three final models (one for each school level)
Classroom climate had sig neg paths to depersonalization
and emotional exhaustion; but the trend was for
increasing strength of these paths as went from elem-
inter-secondary.

MANOVA for broad domains of Relationship, Personal Growth, Significant differences were found, varying by type of
System maintenance, and change. school (superior/inferior student ach), on the dimensions
of Involvement, Task orientation, techer support,
competition, order & organization, affiliation, innovation,
rule clarity, and teacher control. Also found interaction
effects - school by form interactions.

correlations; canonical correlation; multiple regression affective perf most strongly predicted class master's
expert power, personal power, and coercive power.
Finding support the importance of class master's
management style in the classroom environment.
Students' attitudes toward school and teachers MOST
sensitive to variation in clrm environment; self-concept
LEAST sensitive; Self-efficacy MODERATELY sensitive to
clrm environment. Mapped PROFILES OF EFFECTIVE AND
INEFFECTIVE classrooms, too. Effective: class masters
care for stuednts, pay attention to teaching, do not use
force or punishment but do create a good classroom
climate with professional knowledge, personal morality,
and personality.

step-wise multiple regression negative correlation ebtween difficulty and satisfaction to

overal RDG ach. R2=.078 (so sig, but small); the math
achievement areas (computation, concepts & application,
total math) were negatively corr to difficulty, sometimes to
competitiveness, and a few to friction; for language
mechanics, expression, and total language achievement,
only difficulty was a significant correlate (R2 = .043, .
073, .066) OVERALL, SOME SIGNIFICANCE, BUT NOT
BIG VALUES IN TERMS OF ACCOUNTING FOR
VARIANCE IN ACHIEVEMENT.
3-way MANOVA with follow-up ANOVAs and multiple although classroom climate was perceived as more
comparisons (found interactions) favorable in secondary than primary school, the quality of
teacher-student interaction was perceived to deteriorate in
secondary scohol in most assessed dimensions. Changes
in environment perceptions across transition varied with
student sex and school size pathway. (class satisfaction
percptions deteriorated for girls but improved for boys
across the transition).
chi-square to test relationship between treatmen and positive children did exhibit more positive behaviors during
and negative behaviors. cooperative games and more negative beahviors during
competitive games, BUT the increased negative behaviors
were only observed during the first week of the treatment.
Thereafter, the children displayed more positive than
negative beahviors regardless of the kinds of games
played.

accomodations in these bilingual education settings are

similar to general education settings, in that teachers most
frequently used whole group, undifferentiated instruction,
and that typical accomodations were in seating, the use of
pairing and cooperative learning, and adjustments in
expectations as well as in amount and time to complete
work. THey studied 2 teachers and found substantial
variation.

chi-square to see if distributions of category freqs for behavior identified behavioral categories (e.g., higher rate of
categories was different for the low- and high- creative climate instructions to students; less frequent discipline; and
teachers. assistance behavior; high number of questions; and to
tasks of a convergent as well as divergent type; positive
evaluation) that correlated significantly with high level of
creativity in classroom climate perception.

correlations and some rather weak, but significant, positive correlations of

self-efficacy to academic performance and perceived
classroom climate. (involvement/engagement .21 to S-E
in NZ; -.18 to externality in NZ; .20 to S-E in Germany;
-.15 to externality in Germany) (rule clarity .18 and .21 to
SE in NZ and Germany, respectively).
as expected, found greater agreement on scales for
students a) when assigned to their schools, compared to
being pooled with all studnets, and b) who had been in the
school longer, compared to those who have been in school
a shorter time. Only the Social Order scales reliably
identified student membership in ethnically simila schools.
Schools having larger student class sizes and student-
teacher ratios tended to have lower levels of classroom
climate and higher levels of school climate. Schools
having higher levels of Order-instrumental and social
order-expressive and lower on the AI and AE had higher
CRT scores. OI was most predictive of school CRT scores.
... (a bit more, too)
comapred preschool and kindergarten teachers'
expectations for verbal interaction. Preschool teachers
reported encouraging more talking than K teachers during
teacher-directed activities. Teachers who reported
encouraging children's verbal participation were more
tolerant of verbal infractions.

univariate and multivariate tests for differences in means For the most part results supported the descriptive
across the subject areas for each category of the CES. Then propositions of Holland's classification. (e.g., Investigative
discriminant function analysis - two functions emerged: task classes such as mathematics and science tended to
orientation and rule orientation (though the relative weights for emphasize task orientation and teacher control but to de-
some variables are not exactly staggering!) emphasize involvement, affiliation, and innovation. Found
only weak support for Holland's hexagonal model of the
similarity between types.
 case studies more effective AP teachers distributed and asked more
questions; had higher engagement rates and greater
feedback on assignemnts, and had greater participatoin
and success rates. More effective AP teachers also
organize their subject knowledge differently, and create a
learning environment for their studnets that encourages
greater degrees of participation.

canonical correlation (discriminant function analysis) writing processes, peer relations, and student-teacher
relations are the dimensions that discriminate most
between the 2 instructional environments. (can corr. = .
74); the second (can corr =.21) discibrates between the
sexes, - girls have more positive perceptions regarding the
climate dimensions of peer relations, class management,
and teacher-student relations and boys have more positive
perceptions regarding the dimension of the role of
computer in writing. Make a case for need to "use a
classroom environment questionnaire when assessing
learning processes in general and educational innovations
in particular"
only 2 of the 6 teachers observed provided instruction
aligned with effective teaching practices. (see article for
quotes and examples of teacher classroom behavior
toward students and interview responses)

21 females; 39 males. Few teacher behaviors and classroom practices were

Representative of district race different for the two groups of students, but differences
(21% Black, AA; 50% were found in student behaviors. Overall, students with
Caucasian, 23% Hispanic; 6% disabilities interacted with the teacher, other students, and
other) classroom activities at much lower rates than did other
students.

multilevel modeling the class variable accounted for large proportions of

overall variance in all five ICEQ scales. Only small and ns
proportions of variance were attributable to the school
variable. They conclude that the ICEQ may be considered
a relatively good measure of classroom climate.