ABSTRACT

Six Sigma is a disciplined, statistical-

based, data-driven approach and
continuous improvement methodology
for eliminating defects in a product,
process or service. ... Six Sigma can
also be thought of as a measure of
process performance, with Six Sigma
being the goal, based on the defects per
million.

AVINASH SINGH
REGISTRATION NO:
11806943
ROLL NO: A56 / RMMO13
FACULTY: DR. VIJAY KR.
SINGH
COURSE CODE: MEC 419

MEASURING TOOLS AND

DATA ANALYSIS
Question 1.
A duck lays eight eggs. Each egg was weighed and recorded as follows, Find the Standard
deviation:
60 g, 56 g, 61 g, 68 g, 51 g, 53 g, 69 g, 54 g,

ANS:
Question 2.
Thirty shopkeepers were asked how many workers they hire during a typical festive season.
Their responses were:
4, 5, 6, 5, 3, 2, 8, 0, 4, 6, 7, 8, 4, 5, 7, 9, 8, 6, 7, 5, 5, 4, 2, 1, 9, 3, 3, 4, 6, 4
Find the Standard deviation:
Workers (x) Frequency (f)
0 1
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 6
5 5
6 4
7 3
8 3
9 2
30
Question 3.

What is the difference between sample variance and population variance?

ANS: In statistics it is very important to distinguish between population and sample. A

population is defined as all members (e.g. occurrences, prices, annual returns) of a specified
group. Population is the whole group.
A sample is a part of a population that is used to describe the characteristics (e.g. mean or
standard deviation) of the whole population. The size of a sample can be less than 1%, or
10%, or 60% of the population, but it is never the whole population.

Population Variance

Population Standard Deviation

Sample Variance

Sample Standard Deviation

the calculation works in practice (as well as the calculation of skewness,

kurtosis, and other measures).

 Question 4.
What can you conclude after seeing the Standard deviation /Variance?

ANS: Standard deviation is a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread
out from the average (mean), or expected value. A low standard deviation means that most
of the numbers are close to the average. A high standard deviation means that the numbers
are more spread out. As a rule of thumb, a CV >= 1 indicates a relatively high variation, while
a CV < 1 can be considered low. This means that distributions with a coefficient of variation
higher than 1 are considered to be high variance whereas those with a CV lower than 1 are
considered to be low-variance.
Remember, standard deviations aren't "good" or "bad". They are indicators of how spread
out your data is. A "good" SD depends if you expect your distribution to be centred or
spread out around the mean. This really depends on your data.

Question 5.
What is the Difference Between Cp and Cpk?

ANS: Cp, and Cpk are used for Process Capability. Generally, you use this when a process is
under statistical control. This often happens with a mature process that has been around for
a while. Process capability uses the process sigma value determined from either the Moving
Range, Range or Sigma control charts. Cp and Cpk measure how consistent you are to
around your average performance.

The ‘k’ stands for ‘centralizing factor.’ The index takes into consideration the fact that your
data is maybe not centred.

Cpk tells us what a process is capable of doing in future, assuming it remains in a state of
statistical control.

Cp is an abbreviation. There are really two parts; the upper and the lower denoted Cpu and
Cpl respectively. Their equations are:

Cpl = (Process Mean – LSL)/ (3*Standard Deviation)

Cpu = (USL – Process Mean)/ (3*Standard Deviation)

Cpk is merely the smallest value of the Cpl or Cpu denoted: Cpk= Min (Cpl, Cpu)
Cp = (USL – LSL) / 6*  

If Cp == Cpk, then the process is perfectly centred. If perfectly centred, Cp == Cpk.

Because Cpk accounts for centring (where Cp does not), Cpk can never be larger than Cp.

Question 6.
How to Calculate Cpk?

ANS: The formula for the calculation of Cpk is Cpk = min (USL - μ, μ - LSL) / (3σ) where USL
and LSL are the upper and lower specification limits, respectively. A process with a Cpk of
2.0 is considered excellent, while one with a Cpk of 1.33 is considered adequate.

Question 7.
What are Good Values for Cpk? Give the explanation for the entire range from negative value
to positive value (up to 3) with an example.
ANS: The Car parking in the garage analogy

Cpk = Negative number: Your process will regularly crash the car into the wall.

Cpk =0.5: You have a good chance hitting the wall on entry.

Cpk =1: Your car may be just touching the nearest edge of the entry.

Cpk =2: Great! You have great clearance. You could double the width of your car before you hit the
side of the garage.

Cpk =3: Excellent! You have excellent clearance. You could triple the width of your car before you
hit the side of the garage.

Question 8.
Define Process Capability Cp? How to Calculate Cp?

ANS: Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6 x σ

A Cp of one means that your process matches the width of the specification limits. If the Cp is less
than one, your process spread exceeds that of the specifications, which means some of the products
will be rejected.

Cp stands for Process capability. It is used to find the measurable property of a process to the
width of the specification. The final solution of the process capability is generally specified either
in the form of calculations or histograms

Cp=USL–LSL/6×σ
Where,
USL is the upper specification limit
LSL is the lower specification limit and
σ is the standard deviation.

Question 9.
What is RUN Chart?

ANS: Run chart statistics

A run chart is a line graph of a measure plotted over time with the median as a
horizontal line. The main purpose of the run chart is to identify process improvement
or degradation, which may be detected by statistical tests for non-random patterns in
the data sequence.
Question 10.

What is HISTOGRAM Chart?

ANS: Histogram: a graphical display of data using bars of different heights. It is

similar to a Bar Chart, but a histogram groups numbers into ranges. The height of
each bar shows how many falls into each range.

Question 11.
DEFINE BOX PLOT WITH figure.?

ANS: Box plots (also called box-and-whisker plots or box-whisker plots) give a good
graphical image of the concentration of the data. They also show how far the extreme values
are from most of the data. A box plot is constructed from five values: the minimum value, the
first quartile, the median, the third quartile, and the maximum value. We use these values to
compare how close other data values are to them.
Question 12.

What is a Fishbone Diagram (Cause & Effect Diagram)?

ANS: A cause and effect diagram, often called a “fishbone” diagram, can help in
brainstorming to identify possible causes of a problem and in sorting ideas into useful
categories. A fishbone diagram is a visual way to look at cause and effect. ... The problem or
effect is displayed at the head or mouth of the fish. The fishbone diagram is especially useful
during the problem definition segment of brainstorming sessions, where it helps individuals
and teams to deconstruct problems and challenges. By dissecting the problem and recording
its possible causes in writing, this process can often illuminate potential solutions.
Question 13.
What are the 5 Whys?

ANS: Sakichi Toyoda, the Japanese industrialist, inventor, and founder of Toyota Industries,
developed the 5 Whys technique in the 1930s. It became popular in the 1970s, and Toyota
still uses it to solve problems today. Five whys (or 5 whys) is an iterative interrogative
technique used to explore the cause-and-effect relationships underlying a particular problem.
The primary goal of the technique is to determine the root cause of a defect or problem by
repeating the question "Why?". Each answer forms the basis of the next question.

Question 14.
What is a Non value added activity?
ANS: A non-value-added activity is an action taken that does not increase the worth of what
is delivered to the customer. ... For example, a process might include a review or approval
step that does not add value to the end product; if this step can be redesigned or eliminated,
the efficiency of the organization is enhanced. A process improvement study looks for and
tries to eliminate these activities. By doing so, a business can reduce its costs while at the
same time increasing the speed of its processes. For example, a process might include a
review or approval step that does not add value to the end product; if this step can be
redesigned or eliminated, the efficiency of the organization is enhanced. Non value added
activities can comprise a significant proportion of the work processes of an organization.

Defects – Products or services that are not acceptable to customers

Overproduction – Making products faster, sooner or in greater number than needed

Waiting – Employees waiting for products to be worked on or for information to be
processed

Non-utilized talent – Not using everyone’s talent to solve challenges – or even worse, not
consulting them at all

Transportation – Transportation as a waste means that products are moved from Point A to
Point B without adding any value

Inventory – This term covers materials, information, work in process and finished goods that
are not stocked and supplied in the most efficient way possible

Motion – Wasted motion, or requiring too much motion to add value

Extra processing – Doing more steps than required within a process, or more than what
customers will pay for. Having to redo part of a process is a typical example of this.

Question 15.
What do you understand by Six Sigma Control Impact Matrix?

ANS: Control-Impact Matrix. The final deliverable of the Analyze phase is to summarize all
the findings from Statistical validation or Process Value Analysis (& VSM) in a 2×2 matrix
called as Control-Impact Matrix. It is important to ensure that the project doesn't end up as an
academic exercise or research study. Hence, the Lean Six Sigma team needs to identify root
causes which have high impact, and well within the control of the team. This is done through
a team discussion with the involvement of the project sponsor. Once the root causes have
been identified, & a formal Analyze Tollgate review is completed; the Lean Six Sigma
Project is ready to move to the Improve Phase.

Question 16.

What is “As Is Process Map under the analyze phase of Six Sigma?”

ANS: As Is Process Map/Process Mapping is a graphical representation of all the activities

carried out to deliver output for a process. It tells us all the activities being carried out to
obtain the output. It also discusses on what all are the inputs going to deliver the output. It
suggests which inputs are controllable and which are not in our control. It gives a list of
critical inputs. It shares which of these activities are value added and which are non-value
added, the various handoffs and the opportunities to eliminate steps. It helps to determine the
bottlenecks. It provides data collection points existing against those required. It also helps in
identifying the efficiency of the process, as we capture the processing time for each activity.

Question 17.

Define Pareto Chart with example

ANS: A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or cost (time
or money), and are arranged with longest bars on the left and the shortest to the right. In this
way the chart visually depicts which situations are more significant. The purpose of the
Pareto chart is to highlight the most important among a (typically large) set of factors. In
quality control, it often represents the most common sources of defects, the highest occurring
type of defect, or the most frequent reasons for customer complaints, and so on.
Unit VI
Hypothesis Testing:

1. Explain Hypothesis Testing Errors:

2. What is Hypothesis Testing?

3. Can We Accept the Null Hypothesis?

ANS: In statistical hypothesis testing, a type I error is the rejection of a true null hypothesis
(also known as a "false positive" finding or conclusion), while a type II error is the non-
rejection of a false null hypothesis (also known as a "false negative" finding or conclusion).

Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an assumption regarding a

population parameter. The methodology employed by the analyst depends on the nature of
the data used and the reason for the analysis. Hypothesis testing is used to assess the
plausibility of a hypothesis by using sample data.

Null hypothesis are never accepted. We either reject them or fail to reject them. ... Failing to
reject a hypothesis means a confidence interval contains a value of “no difference”.
However, the data may also be consistent with differences of practical importance.

18.Other things being equal, which of the following actions will reduce the power of a
hypothesis test?

I. Increasing sample size. 

II. Changing the significance level from 0.01 to 0.05. 
III. Increasing beta, the probability of a Type II error.
Explain the reason with clarification.

ANS: The probability of not committing a Type II error is called the power of a hypothesis test.

Effect Size

To compute the power of the test, one offers an alternative view about the "true" value of the
population parameter, assuming that the null hypothesis is false. The effect size is the difference
between the true value and the value specified in the null hypothesis.

Effect size = True value - Hypothesized value

For example, suppose the null hypothesis states that a population mean is equal to 100. A researcher
might ask: What is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis if the true population mean is equal
to 90? In this example, the effect size would be 90 - 100, which equals -10.

The correct answer is III. Increasing sample size makes the hypothesis test more sensitive - more likely
to reject the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, false. Changing the significance level from 0.01 to 0.05
makes the region of acceptance smaller, which makes the hypothesis test more likely to reject the null
hypothesis, thus increasing the power of the test. Since, by definition, power is equal to one minus
beta, the power of a test will get smaller as beta gets bigger.

19.What are Statistical Hypotheses? Write the types of Statistical Hypotheses and explain with
examples.

ANS: A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter . This assumption may
or may not be true. For instance, the statement that a population mean is equal to 10 is an example of
a statistical hypothesis. A researcher might conduct a statistical experiment to test the validity of this
hypothesis.

The purpose and importance of the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are that they provide
an approximate description of the phenomena. The purpose is to provide the researcher or an
investigator with a relational statement that is directly tested in a research study. The purpose is to
provide the framework for reporting the inferences of the study. The purpose is to behave as a
working instrument of the theory. The purpose is to prove whether or not the test is supported, which
is separated from the investigator’s own values and decisions. They also provide direction to the
research.

The null hypothesis is generally denoted as H0. It states the exact opposite of what an investigator or
an experimenter predicts or expects. It basically defines the statement which states that there is no
exact or actual relationship between the variables.
The alternative hypothesis is generally denoted as H1. It makes a statement that suggests or advises a
potential result or an outcome that an investigator or the researcher may expect. It has been
categorized into two categories: directional alternative hypothesis and non-directional alternative
hypothesis.

20 Explain Type I and Type II error in hypothesis

ANS: A type I error (false-positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is actually
true in the population; a type II error (false-negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a null
hypothesis that is actually false in the population. Although type I and type II errors can never be
avoided entirely, the investigator can reduce their likelihood by increasing the sample size (the larger
the sample, the lesser is the likelihood that it will differ substantially from the population).

False-positive and false-negative results can also occur because of bias (observer, instrument, recall,
etc.). (Errors due to bias, however, are not referred to as type I and type II errors.) Such errors are
troublesome, since they may be difficult to detect and cannot usually be quantified.

21.Explain One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests.

ANS: A one-tailed (or one-sided) hypothesis specifies the direction of the association between the
predictor and outcome variables. The prediction that patients of attempted suicides will have a higher
rate of use of tranquilizers than control patients is a one-tailed hypothesis. A two-tailed hypothesis
states only that an association exists; it does not specify the direction. The prediction that patients
with attempted suicides will have a different rate of tranquilizer use — either higher or lower than
control patients — is a two-tailed hypothesis. (The word tails refers to the tail ends of the statistical
distribution such as the familiar bell-shaped normal curve that is used to test a hypothesis. One tail
represents a positive effect or association; the other, a negative effect.) A one-tailed hypothesis has
the statistical advantage of permitting a smaller sample size as compared to that permissible by a
two-tailed hypothesis. Unfortunately, one-tailed hypotheses are not always appropriate; in fact, some
investigators believe that they should never be used. However, they are appropriate when only one
direction for the association is important or biologically meaningful. An example is the one-sided
hypothesis that a drug has a greater frequency of side effects than a placebo; the possibility that the
drug has fewer side effects than the placebo is not worth testing. Whatever strategy is used, it should
be stated in advance; otherwise, it would lack statistical rigor. Data dredging after it has been
collected and post hoc deciding to change over to one-tailed hypothesis testing to reduce the sample
size and P value are indicative of lack of scientific integrity.

22.What do you understand by significance of a Hypothesis Test? Also explain critical

value.
ANS: The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the probability of rejecting the
null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk
of concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual difference.

In hypothesis testing, a critical value is a point on the test distribution that is compared to the
test statistic to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis. If the absolute value of your
test statistic is greater than the critical value, you can declare statistical significance and reject
the null hypothesis.

23.What is a Hypothesis Statement? Also write which is essential for a good hypothesis
statement.

ANS: A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more

variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.

Essential for a good hypothesis statement:

Does the hypothesis relate an independent and dependent variable? Can you identify the
variables?
Can you test the hypothesis? ...
Would your experiment be safe and ethical?
Is there a simpler or more precise way to state the hypothesis?

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