Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 8 - 4, October - December 2011, 76 - 89

Usefulness of Planning in Globalizing Cities:

Aspirations and Achievements

Bikramjit S. Sekhon

Abstract
Urban policy in India is focused on the promotion of global agenda leading to conflicts and
crises. Globalization has focused broadly on those cities which have large economic bases.
Global liberalization policies insist on downsizing the role of governments, deregulation, and
privatization. Planning is vital, as it is considered to assist the processes of globalization and
liberalization and have made Indian cities more receptive to foreign investments. Despite the
directives contained in the 74th constitutional amendment to strengthen planning through
urban local bodies and pursue planning decentralized wider community consultations,
planning decisions are kept with the states’ high power committees under the direct control
of governments. Town and country planning thus is being used as a tool to manage land and
resources in urban areas in the interests of the industry.

1. INTRODUCTION
Globalization and urbanisation has robust relationship, and it has been revealed
from the past experience of developed countries of Latin and North America,
Europe and developed Asian countries. It has been observed that very few
countries have reached the income levels of $10,000 per capita before reaching
about 60 percent of urbanisation (World Bank, 2006). Urbanization is considered
essential to bring structural changes in the economy. The share of agriculture
in the world GDP has been reduced from 6.5 percent in 1980 to 3.9 percent in
2000 while service sector contributes 66.3 percent to the world GDP. During high
urbanisation, the fast structural changes occur away from agriculture to industry
and service economy (Mohan, 2005). The 21st century is the urban century where
the less developed countries will urbanize fast in the first 50 years than the
developed countries. By 2030, Asia alone will have about 2.7 billion urban people
accounting for over 50 percent of its total population.

The world’s urban population added about 500 million people during 1900 to
1950, while it grew to 2.1 billion in the next 50 years. It is expected to grow by
the same number in the next 30 years (World Bank 2006). The UN projections
predict that urban population in developing countries will be growing by more
than 65 million people in a year between 2000 and 2030 (UN, 2002). In the present
scenario the highest growth rates are being experienced by the economies of
Asian countries. It is quite noticeable in China and India where large number
of population is urbanizing rapidly. It has been projected that US, China and
Bikramjit. S. Sekhon, is an Assistant Professor in Guru Ram Das School of Planning, Guru
Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. Email: [email protected]

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India will be the leading economies by the year 2025. Increased urbanisation
will bring enhanced per capita income and nodal role for Asian cities and city
planning. Rise of urban population and changed view of economy will also bring
new changes in activities in cities. The following are the common imperatives
that will pose new roles and challenges for urban planners:

• There is spread of manufacturing units in the peripheral areas of large

cities, especially around metropolitan cities;
• An expansion of existing base of information exchange and sharing;
• Advancements in the adoption of new modes of transportation and
acceptance of new technological innovations;
• Formation of new building codes and adoption of new building technologies,
especially for high rise development; and
• Huge investments in land and housing markets in and around metropolitan
cities. In fact, land is treated as a commodity and as an alternative asset
of investment.

Urban planning and especially planning within the domain of urban local bodies
has been considered as an essential component viewed to be strengthened.
Present urban development policies, reforms and funding pattern also bundled it
to bring essential changes in the planning of cities.

2. URBANISATION OF GLOBALISING PROCESSES

The process of urbanisation relates to the concentration of large number of
people engaged predominately in non-agricultural activities. It is considered
as a shift away from the traditional to modernity, agricultural to industrial or
service economy and a sign of material wellbeing in terms of physical comforts.
The phenomenon of urbanisation and thus formation of cities is a process of
change that brings new employment opportunities, cause migration, allows
new modes of production and hence formation of new and different activities
on the spatial sphere of its existence. The predominate land use is spread of
vast residential areas, planned-unplanned, formal-informal, and mushroomed
existence of shopping areas juxtaposed with a network of different hierarchies
of communication systems. In the broader sense, the processes of urbanisation
can be considered as suburbanization, commercialization and rural urbanisation
(Siddhartha and Mukherjee 2001). In fact there are different views and it has
been concluded that urbanisation is a complex socio-economic process intimately
connected with the scientific-technological revolution, and that it exercises a
growing influence on all aspects of society’s life affecting the nature of economic
development as well as demographic, ethnic and many other social processes
(Sandhu, 2003).

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In the post liberalized economies, urbanization is considered as a by product of

economic activities. This is further attributed to commercialization, improved
productivity and employment generation, and improved access to various
markets, services and infrastructural facilities. Urbanisation is considered to be
an increase in income, changes in lifestyles and availability of superior quality
of services. However, if it happens in an uncontrolled and unplanned manner, it
can also have serious negative effects on the inhabitant of urban areas. There
are visible rural-urban and core-periphery dichotomy, rising poverty levels and
spatially imbalanced urban systems (Tiwari, 1997).

The new economic policy adopted in India during the early 1990s focused on
liberalization, fiscal adjustments and allowed Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in
urban areas. These changes affected the pace of urban growth which has explicit
implications on the existing infrastructure of cities. In the post liberalized phase
of urbanization in India, the strategic city planning and management, improved
and sound financial performance and credit worthiness of city governance are
considered as essential pillars of the strength.

Indian urbanisation has direct links with the GDP growth over the different
periods of history. It is found that cities and states with faster industrialization
and economic growth are indeed growing faster. Over 25.71 percent people lived
in urban areas in 1991 which changed to 31.16 percent in 2011. It has a growth
rate of 31.4 percent during 1991-2001, in the first decade after liberalization
and new fiscal policies of the country. The urban growth is slightly modified in
the year 2001-2011 and attained 31.8 percent. But there are widespread urban
agglomerations and addition of more than 2,000 new towns. The contribution
and number of metropolitan cities has increased. The contribution of agriculture
sector was 51.12 percent in the year 1951-1952, reduced to 23.2 percent in
the 2001-2002. While the service sector’s share rose from 11.41 percent to
61.77 percent during the same period. Urban growth rate of Gujarat, Haryana,
Maharashtra and Karnataka have been recorded high due to liberalization polices
leading to private investments (Table 1 and 2).

Indian Government has advocated for balance development while allocating funds
for various five year plans. Urbanization pattern in the country is illustrating a
different scenario. Dominance of metropolitan cities and their increasing degree
of influence in respective regions expresses primacy in the country. These cities
are epitomes of economic growth, mega cities are the global hubs of the present
day economy. Cities have always been seen as agents of change, modernity and
development. The present day concentration of economy in the service sector
and robust relations of higher urbanization with the increased per capita GDP has
enhanced the role of cities. This shift of urban economy is the consequence of
the changed economic policies, approaches and strategies.

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Table 1: Total and Urban Population in India with Decadal Increase

Year Total Population Urban Population Percent Urban Percent Increase in
Population Urban Population
(Million) (Million)
1951 361.09 62.4 17.28 --
1961 439.23 78.94 17.97 26.506
1971 548.16 109.11 19.90 38.219
1981 683.33 159.46 23.34 46.146
1991 846.3 217.61 25.71 36.467
2001 1028.74 286.12 27.81 31.483
2011 1210.19 377.11 31.16 31.801
Source: Rural Urban Popualtion Distribution –India, Census of India 2011 at http://www.
censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results.

Table 2: Percent Share of the GDP in India and Share of Area Under Agricultural Use
Year Agriculture and Allied Manufacturing to Total Other sectors to total
sector to total GDP GDP GDP
1951-52 51.12 11.41 37.47
1961-62 42.14 14.81 43.05
1971-72 40.64 14.77 44.59
1981-82 34.37 16.80 48.83
1991-92 29.65 15.72 54.63
2001-02 23.20 15.03 61.77
2005-06 19.06 15.83 65.11
2008-09 (R) 17.47 15.82 66.71
Source : Central Statistical Organisation (R): Revised Estimates

3. REFORMS AND GLOBAL INITIATIVES

Reforms initiated to make Indian cities more competitive in the global circuit
triggered urban dynamism. The liberalized economy of the country has paved
the way for mega investments in massive construction of flyovers, roads, bridges
and beautification of public spaces under the banner of world class services and
then collection of revenue through user fees or toll taxes. The privatization of
public services, widely accepted PPP model, shift in the priorities, modification
of planning norms and approaches has acted as catalysts for urban dynamism.
Accordingly a major overhauling of the administrative, legal framework of the
cities was suggested. This has brought a new set of reforms in cities influencing
municipal finances, infrastructure, basic services, investments in land and
housing markets, establishment of real estate markets, land use conversion and
controls, urban form and design of public spaces, traffic and transport systems
of cities.

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Metropolitan cities are the leading centers of production that provide higher
order services to other urban and rural areas. The city has been marked to
develop as world class service areas with high infrastructure facilities, while on
the other hand there are majority of the areas suffering from poverty and are
devoid of basic amenities. In order to reduce this inequality, JNNURM has two
basic objectives of provision of infrastructure and Basic Services for the Urban
Poor (BSUP). In the cities covered under JNNURM, investments have been made
in the construction of flyovers, widening of roads, improvement of road side
furniture along with water supply, sanitation and other programmes. The BSUP
scheme is also overlapped with efforts and policy initiatives made by Ministry of
Housing and Poverty Alleviation (MoHPA). Provision and development of services
for poor and other programmes are not coordinated and do not match with the
proposals.

Reforms suggested in the JNNURM are nothing but an effort to keep the global
investments and returns in safe. Policies suggested are a part and parcel of the
globally tested models from the Latin American, European and other developed
Asian countries. Through these reforms, private capital has targeted Indian
cities. The key items that have affected the socio-economic and culture of cities
are mentioned below:

• Introduction of PPP model in the provision of basic services; privatization

of parking lots, creation of SPVs for public transport, and putting levy on
the use of services.
• Enhancing investments in land, increasing share of FDI in urban land,
and marketing of housing areas. Private companies have invested in the
housing areas, done marketing of these places, created profit earning
scenarios and branded the cities in the global market. This was backed by
repealing the Urban Land Ceiling Act and exploiting the land acquisition
provisions.
• Changing the land use conversion rules to allow use of certain exemptions,
increasing FAR and relaxing building control rules and bye laws.
• Making urban planning as a powerful tool and prioritizing the policies for
private investments.
• Financial and administrative restructuring of the ULBs and reducing their
role from authoritative to governance, suggesting to incorporate more
modern management policies, increasing the informal employment and
our sourcing the administrative services to private hands.
• Introduction of e-governance rules and creating centralized digital control
systems.
• Creating privately backed state agencies to rate the performance
of municipalities, credit rating and performance measures of state
government agencies. In fact, reducing the role of democratic agencies.

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• Registering all citizens for user fees or tax payments. Attempts to bring
transparency of the public agencies are made. Strengthening of the RTI
and service delivery systems by advocating the role of private participation
in the cities.

4. PLANNING PROCESSES AND APPROACHES IN INDIA

In India, town planning or more precisely town and country planning is a state
function and is not included in the concurrent list of central government.
Government of India provides national policy guidelines and suggestive planning
legislation in the country. There is the central Town and Country Planning
Organization (TCPO) which is working as advisory body to the Ministry of Urban
Development on various issues of urban and regional planning. The TCPO has
prepared a model town and country planning law and based on this many states
has enacted their own legislation. Various states have created their own state
town and country planning departments. Thus town planning guidelines and
approaches may vary from state to state. Generally the major functions of these
state departments is to prepare master plans (comprehensive development
plans), regional plans, zonal plans and town planning schemes (urban estate
and sector schemes). These plans are prepared from time to time as per the
state priorities in various governments. Generally these plans are broad land
use plans and suggest future guidelines for the cities and towns of the states.
The state level planning agencies actually function at the district level with the
control at the local level plans of the cities. In many states it is a common trend
to enact the state controlled development authorities for respective cities and
their regions.

The present planning process in India is consisting of normative planning approach

or precisely statutory planning process applied in different states and cities. The
urban development or establishments of new activities are seen in the light of
certain norms applicable to a piece of land. In this case the provisions are made
as per the proposed and suggestive zoning regulations. The central goal of any
planning exercise is to provide the healthy living environment for an area (a
locality, town, city or a region). Accordingly there exist zonal plans, city plans
and regional plans for cities. The planning for human settlements also adopts a
rational approach where a holistic approach is adopted while making decisions.
This approach involves various aspects broadly spatial, social, economic,
administrative etc. while making decisions about an area or city. Future goals are
set according to existing policies and anticipated growth policies and strategies
about an area. Such thinking processes are involved in the preparation of master
plans of the cities in India. Master plan which is a comprehensive document of
the city is a powerful tool if implemented with honesty and authority.

Foundations of present planning system lie in the British rule in India. The plan
preparation process was initiated with the sanitation programmes for industrial

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cities in the early years of 20th century. During the middle of the twentieth
century it was realized to control the haphazard growth of the large cities to
check urban sprawl and provide basic amenities. Many developing countries like
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have adopted comprehensive planning
or master planning approaches which emphasize on all geographical parts of
community for physical development of the city. Among many city planners
the preparation, adoption and use of comprehensive plans are considered to
be primary objective of the planning system. The common approaches that
are bound to apply as per the various town planning legislation adopted by the
various states is to prepare a 20 year proposed land use plan of a city and its
surrounding areas. The proposals are prepared after carrying out socio-economic
surveys, projecting the economic viability and population growth of the area.
Then inferences are drawn from the environment status and broad visualizations
of the impacts of these developments. These master plan documents bind the
city land use with zoning regulations, building bye laws and other provisions.
This approach has been considered very rigid and often ignores the transition
and urban dynamic behavior. It is rare to see the cities in future as has been
predicted in the master plans.

Urban planning is a multi-level approach that involves community aspirations,

strategic locations of certain city level activities and understanding the
importance of global and foreign investments. The principal of planning suggests
incorporating the following essential aspects while preparing plans:

• Provision of basic amenities to all the residents.

• City should consist of varying densities with high densities in the centre
and around traffic nodes and other central activities.
• There should be a variety of housing sizes to suit the different requirements
of the people. In fact, provision of shelter for all, affordable housing the
prime objective of a plan.
• Public transport should be given high priority and cities need to be
expanded in the light of the public transport facilities.
• Traffic management, traffic planning and policing with the involvement
of different organizations.
• Preservation and conservation of heritage areas, environment sensitive
areas.
• Creating and preserving green spaces, agricultural product supply areas,
create nearness to nature for all residents.
• Project planning and detailing in consultation with community
requirements, in fact identification of the projects by the community and
with wider participation.

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These are the common principles and can be priorities according a city’s
requirements.

5. PLANNING RELEVANCE IN GLOBALISING CITIES

Indian planning system is in transition as it has visualized the objectives and
benefits of decentralized planning in the early 1990s and suggested to strengthen
institutional mechanisms to decentralize the planning functions (Ghuman, 1990).
Later with the intervention of global agencies have suggested considering inclusive
planning approach. The approach is to address the Millennium Development Goal
(MDG) at the local level, including the urban poor in decision making. In order
to address urban development in a more inclusive and participatory manner,
there is need to strive for more effective linkage between social, economic and
spatial planning, which leads to improvement the efficiency of cities and their
infrastructure, strengthened local governance and better institutional and inter
sectoral cooperation (Meshram, 2010).

In metropolitan cities, usually a separate development authority is formed which

is responsible for the preparation and implementation of development plans,
master plans, and zonal plans in the cities. Jurisdiction of these authorities is the
specially earmarked areas around the metropolitan cities called local planning
area. These areas are similar to the standard urban area or incorporate the
urban agglomeration area of the cities. These areas are considered to be the
future expansion zones of cities. Local planning areas are generally larger than
city areas and cover a number of rural and urban areas around metropolitan
cities. Development authorities do not function much in the city areas which
are under the direct control of local government called municipal corporations
or committees. Besides these there are improvement trusts and housing boards
which also function for the development of cities. Local self-government is the
lower most elected government which is in direct contact with the people and
has been considered as an efficient tool to implement and monitor development.
Various deliberations have been made about the Master Plan a tool to control and
manage the cities. A comprehensive development plan, in the form of master
plan is expected to be considered by various states. Some of the states have
initiated guidelines to amend the respective state planning and development
acts. The preparation of the master plans is a routine exercise of the state town
and country planning departments.

Globalization has paved the way for information flow from the developed
countries related to planning and implementation of the projects. With the
interventions of the global consultants, adviser firms with the foreign investment
companies, the new strategic planning approaches have also been adopted.
In addition to master planning one approach is preparation of comprehensive
mobility plans, second is long term infrastructure plans. Both these plans have

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direct relationship with the proposed future model, but rarely consulted with
each other and with master plans.

Master planning approach is considered to be followed by a series of other

planning stages. A master plan needs to be followed with the strategic planning,
detailed zoning plans and then final local areas plans. There are many states
especially Gujarat and Maharashtra where the town planning schemes are part
of the comprehensive plans of cities. Strategic planning is a very important tool
for the implementation of plans. Unfortunately this part is mostly negligible in
the various master plans. Strategic planning provides future economic goals,
addresses basic issues of land use planning in relation to transport problems,
poverty alleviations programs, siting of solid waste dumping sites, assessment
and provision of energy requirements, creation and maintenance of spatial data
bases. It also emphasizes the changing requirements of the city and citizens in
the light of new technologies. In fact, all plans for urban development in the past
have remained just that: only plans, with no clear direction as to how they are
to be implemented (Patel, 2009).

5.1 Lapses in the Planning System

Urbanization in India is dominated by metropolitan cities. It has been projected
that by the year 2021 there will be 550 million people who will reside in cities
and towns. Comprehensive planning in the form of master plans is followed by
the preparation of projects and allocations of funds are made through various
government agencies. Spatial inequalities are not uncommon in Indian cities.
Urban poverty is clearly reflected in the form of slums, squatters, hutments and
pavement dwellers in all cities. Also there is an array of planned and large flux
of unplanned areas. Unplanned areas are developed due to poor competencies
of master plans, lack of implementation and poor coordination among different
agencies in urban areas. Spatial inequalities have increased with the socio-spatial
segregation and capturing of appropriate land and locations by influential urban
classes. Public housing policies and planning has failed to respond to the demand
of large sections of urban population in particular of the lower middle class and
poor who have had to resort to informal housing sector. Further it is pertinent
that the forces of globalisation are adding fuel to these problems. Demolition
of settlements by the government authorities due to provision of world class
infrastructure has aggravated the conditions of lower class and poor people.
Establishment of malls and large showrooms in metropolitan cities of Bangalore,
Mumbai, and New Delhi especially in mid peripheral areas are forcing poor to move
away to remote areas. The gentrification of central areas is widening inequalities
in the city cores. After liberalization and investments made through FDI, there
are self-contained complexes, service complex areas, gated residential enclaves
for the city elite have sprung up in peripheral areas and near city centers and
other high income residential areas. In the recent past the cities have witnessed

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growth of real estate development in the form of privately planned living areas
and acute under provision of public amenities and services in other areas.

In the process of globalization the planning process has brought certain changes
in its approach. Amendments have been made to accommodate large investments
in land, reorient the priorities to develop specialized infrastructure to the
globalized complexes. The state has benefited the groups which support the
state decision-making and capital accumulation ignoring the interests of urban
majority who are vulnerable. The planning system was carved to segregate the
society and keep most of the people out by colonial rulers. The present planning
system in line with the globalization also favors capitalism and excluded the
urban masses by spatial segregation. The major cause of this in the planning
system is to give much professional focus to the plan as a product. Its effects
and forces that bring changes in land uses and urban activities are ignored.
More emphasis is laid on land use zoning, spatial factors and adoption of norms
without the basic and grass roots data ignoring socio-cultural and environment
values resulting in rigid land use plans. In most of the metropolitan cities, the
percentage of areas under planned schemes is less than 50 percent. Present
planning strategies, the informal residential areas are considered as illegal and
dirty spots in the cities. Instead of encouraging planning policies and norms to
accommodate large informal areas in the planning process, the master plans
simply keep them out and suggest no policies. Master plans neglect the diversity
of society ignoring recognition of the poor and even their identity.

There is a flow of information in the form of planning strategies suggested by

international organizations. The Vancouver declaration of the United Nations in
the year 1976 has clearly laid the foundation to adopt clear strategic planning
for all groups of society. Also the spread of modern internet communication has
made aware the successful and best planning practices adopted in different
cities. Modern town planning is originated out of rapid urbanisation which was a
product of industrialization. The planning approaches are borrowed from Europe
and North America. Modern planning ideas were exhibited in the grand Columbian
Exhibition in Chicago in 1893 suggested to make cities more beautiful, design
attractive urban spaces and remove congestion and lack of sanitation. These
planning strategies were adopted by most of the municipalities and also practiced
in India. Major interests in such plans were to ignore the indigenous mohalla
concept of residential areas, bazar streets in the form of markets. Adoption of
neighborhood concept and new building byelaws that ignore traditional housing
patterns has marginalized the people replacing them with pre-conceived plans.
Planning of the city of Chandigarh was a reflection of the architectural aspects
and the European and American planning systems. These plans were the replica
of the works adopted in Brasilia, Paris and other countries. Major criticism of
the planning system in India is that it is unable to solve the root cause of urban
problems. The people are not given due space and voice in decision making.

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Policies and strategies suggested by the UN organizations, later adopted by

the Indian government and now initiation of urban reforms, clearly hints at
decentralizing planning function to urban local bodies and communities. But the
present planning system supports only the private planning system, influence
groups and focus on the profit earning business for the state. City Development
Plans (CDP) under the JNNURM has by-passed the existing master planning system.
Huge investments have been made on the creation of elevated roads, flyovers,
high speed expressways, road widening and beautification drives. The city
development has become a commodity and branding of the various developments
is popularized. The promises are made to modernize the cities in the form of sky
trains, Bus Rapid Transport Systems (BRTS), state of art infrastructure, attractive
entry gates, bridge designing, etc. have become common features. These visions
promote big money and opening up of cities for monopolistic controls. Land in
the urban peripheral areas has been earmarked for various theme cities such as
high tech townships at Allahabad, Saharanpur, Lucknow, Agra and Bulandshar,
Motor Sports City in Gurgaon, Education City in Sonepat, Knowledge City (park),
and entertainment cities, health cities etc. are presented as visible signs of
globalization. The fact is that state governments areacting as facilitators and
come forward to accommodate policies of influential groups promoting branding
of urban services. Private developers are participating in urban development.
But in most of the cases the basic norms and standards are avoided, diluted or
misused.

5.2 CDP-Another Administrative Bottleneck or Solution

City Development Plans (CDP) prepared under the JNNURM also address similar
functions for a town. These plans are considered as action plans aimed with
direct allocation of funds for the city. It contains both the perspective and vision
plan of the city. It focuses on the thrust areas and suggests alternative routes
and strategies. The basic aim of the CDP is prepare a framework and identify
certain projects within the scope of Mission and also prepare broad outlays for
the release. CDP in fact focuses on all the three sub missions of infrastructure
provision, services to urban poor and considerations for reforms by local bodies.
CDP is to be followed with the preparation of detailed project report for the
various identifiable projects.

The JNNURM suggests a new and parallel planning system in the cities. It is also
clearly mentioned that the plans will be prepared by the centrally registered
private consultant companies and no services of the existing planners with the
town and country planning department will be used. The role of the CDP is not
clear in the light of prevailing master plans and development plans in the cities.
It is pertinent to mention here that the master plans have statutory backing and
prepared under the legal provisions of various acts. The CDP provides guidelines
and do not have any legal standing. Administration, urban local government

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may or may not accept its proposals. Time frame for the CDP is also not clear.
Generally CDPs are prepared by a team of experts residing outside cities and
unable to reflect real issues relevant to cities. CDP also do not fit in the light of
the detailed planning procedure suggested in the UDPFFI guidelines. There are
various toolkits that explain the processes to be followed in the preparation of
detailed project reports (DPR). It is mentioned in the toolkits that projects should
be formulated as per the provisions of master plans and development plans,
address all the associated concerns. Existing mechanisms for the preparation
of DPR and even CDP do not refer master plans. It may amount to ignoring the
existing planning and legal processes applicable in a city and state. CDP may
suggest an isolated and fragmented development system. It is full-filling the
strategic objective of planning for the project oriented and do not address the
comprehensive planned development of cities. CDP is aligned to the provision
of strategic infrastructure development in certain areas that generally suits the
global funding agencies.

Selection of projects under CDP is unable to address the problems of cities and
will not able to achieve the mission objective of planned development in cities.
It also does not favor the 74th amendment to the Constitution requiring transfer
of city planning functions to urban local bodies. CDP is prepared by a panel of
enlisted consultants who are not familiar with the core issues of a particular
city. Grants are directly allocated as per the DPR prepared under allocation of
funds in CDP. Out of total 527 projects sanctioned till 2010, 70.19 percent funds

Table 3: Sector-wise release of funds under Sub-Mission for Urban Infrastructure and
Governance (Rs. In Lakh)
S . SECTOR No. of Project Cost of Projects Percent Share
No. Sanctioned
1 Drainage/Storm Water 71 824903.82 13.75
Channel
2 Roads/Flyovers 98 815538.21 13.60
3 Water Supply 147 1923171.46 32.06
4 Sewerage 108 1462411.22 24.38
5 Urban Renewal 11 48790.28 0.81
6 Mass Rapid Transport System 21 521159.64 8.69
7 Other Urban Transport 15 80588.01 1.34
8 Solid Waste Management 41 202417.69 3.37
9 Development Heritage Areas 6 21408.33 0.36
10 Preservation of Water Bodies 4 11670.54 0.19
11 Parking 5 86042.43 1.43
527 5998101.63
Source: www.jnnurm.in

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have been spent on infrastructure projects related to water supply, sewerage

and drainage in JNNURM cities. Construction of roads and flyovers, provision of
specialized bus services in the MRTS scheme is 13.6 and 8.69 percent respectively.
There is very less emphasis on solid waste management, preservation of water
and paring provisions in the cities (Table 3).

CDP preparation was arbitrary and undemocratically completed by experts, many

of whom had no prior knowledge of a city. It is pertinent to mention that the
existing master plan approach adopted by various state governments is not linked
with investments plans or five year economic plans prepared by the state town
and country planning departments. Also the master plans prepared for various
cities are at different stages of implementation. Proposals made in the CDP are
directed to use funds for the cities. CDPs prepared by the private consultants
have created a third tier system between the state town and country planning
departments, town plan and building division of urban local bodies. This will
affect a logical and needed flow of information, data and process for the overall
planned development of cities.

6. CONCLUSIONS
Urbanisation in India is dominated by few metropolitan cities called mega cities.
The cities of Mumbai, Kolkata, New Delhi, Chennai and Bangalore dominate
urban population of the country. Processes of globalization have been seen as
an alternative form of development. In the light of serious resource crunch,
liberalization and globalization has been seen as the only alternative form of
development. It is important to remember that cities are always the key centers
of production, distribution, service, finance and political power. The emphasis
on the urban sector along with liberalization policies of economies has created
a platform and open invitation for the FDI in Indian cities. Global companies
invested in India due to availability of large consumer market having base
in urban India. So the outcome of these policies is manifold. There are large
independent townships in the peripheral areas of the metropolitan cities. As
per study a number of vacant houses are more than the number of households
deprived of this facility. In India its contribution is 5.7 percent in 1999-2000 and
it accounts for 16-17 percent of total cement consumption.

The industrial townships with world class facilities are emerging in different
part of the country. Specialized projects in the form of IT parks, STP and EPU
are mushrooming with collaboration of different state governments. There are
huge investments and these are shaping the spatial profiles of cities. So Indian
cities are in the process of transformation and there is more threat to peripheral
areas of cities. Urban policy in India is focused towards the promotion of global
agenda leading to conflict and multiple identity crises. Globalization processes
are focused broadly on those cities which have enhanced economic base as can

Bikramjit. S. Sekhon 88
Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 8 - 4, October - December 2011, 76 - 89

be visualized through downsizing the role of governments, deregulations, and

privatization.

Planning is a vital component and is considered to change in the light of global

economies and to make Indian cities more receptive to foreign investments.
Despite the directives in the 74th amendment to strengthen planning in urban
local bodies and decentralize through wider community consultations, yet the
planning decisions are kept with the state high power committees under the
direct control of the government. Planning is being used as a tool to manage land
and resources in urban areas.

REFERENCES
Ghuman J.S (1990) Decentralization Planning: Issues and Challenges, A paper presented at
the 39th Annual Seminar on Metropolitan Decentralization, ITPI New Delhi.
Mohan, R. (2005) Understanding the Development Metropolis: Lesson from the city Study of
Bogota and Cali, Colombia, Oxford University Press, New York.
Patel, B. (2009) Principles First, Planning Follows, A Seminar Paper, New Delhi.
Sandhu R.S. (2003) Urbanisation in India, Sociological Contributions, Sage, New Delhi.
Tiwari, V.K.(1997) Urbanisation in India: Patterns and Perspectives, Urban India, Vol. XVII.
United Nations (2002) World Urbanisation Prospects, New York.
World Bank(2006) Actionable Ideas, Habitat Jam, World Urban Forum Report, World Bank.

Call for Papers and News Items

The Editor requests members to send articles for inclusion in

the Journal and Newsletter. Chairpersons and Secretaries of the
various Regional Chapters and Committees of the Institute are
particularly requested to send highlights of their activities for the
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for the Journal may be sent as a soft copy (MS Word) as well as
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Editor

Bikramjit. S. Sekhon 89