Markku Peltonen examines humanist and republican themes in

English political thinking between the mid sixteenth century and

the Civil War. He challenges the dominant view that humanism
fizzled out in the middle of the sixteenth century only to reemerge
during the 1650s in the writings of such classical republicans as
James Harrington and John Milton. The English never lost sight
of humanism as a political discourse. They continued to use such
deeply entrenched notions of the humanist tradition as the
virtuous civic life and vera nobilitas throughout the period to
portray themselves as citizens and to characterize their life as one
of active participation rather than subjection.
In addition, early modern Englishmen resorted to more openly
republican themes. They often argued that a republican form of
government implemented in a highly successful manner the idea
of meritocracy. The classical idea of a mixed constitution also
exerted a profound influence on English political thought. Most
importantly, some theorists felt no qualms about employing the
central notion of republicanism - that governors should be elected
rather than hereditary. As well as excavating humanist and
republican themes, the study aims at locating their uses in their
proper historical circumstances.
 IDEAS IN CONTEXT

CLASSICAL HUMANISM AND

REPUBLICANISM IN ENGLISH
POLITICAL THOUGHT
1570-1640
 IDEAS IN CONTEXT

Edited by Quentin Skinner (General Editor), Lorraine Daston, Wolf Lepenies,

Richard Rorty and J. B. Schneewind

The books in this series will discuss the emergence of intellectual traditions
and of related new disciplines. The procedures, aims and vocabularies that
were generated will be set in the context of the alternatives available within
the contemporary frameworks of ideas and institutions. Through detailed
studies of the evolution of such traditions, and their modification by different
audiences, it is hoped that a new picture will form of the development of ideas
in their concrete contexts. By this means, artificial distinctions between the
history of philosophy, of the various sciences, of society and politics, and of
literature may be seen to dissolve.

The series is published with the support of the Exxon Foundation

A list of books in the series will befound at the end of the volume.
CLASSICAL HUMANISM AND
REPUBLICANISM IN ENGLISH
POLITICAL THOUGHT
1570-1640

MARKKU PELTONEN
University ofHelsinki

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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© Cambridge University Press 1995

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1995

First paperback edition 2004

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data

Peltonen, Markku.
Classical humanism and republicanism in English political thought,
1570-1640 / Markku Peltonen.
p. cm. - (Ideas in context; 36)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0 521 49695 0 hardback
1. Political science—Great Britain—History. 2. Humanism—Great
Britain—History. 3. Republicanism—Great Britain—History.
I. Title. II. Series.
JA84.G7P44 1995
320\0941-dc20 94-44775 CIP

ISBN 0 521 49695 0 hardback

ISBN 0 521 61716 2 paperback

Transferred to digital printing 2003

 Contents

Note on text page viii

Acknowledgements ix
List of Abbreviations xi

Introduction: classical humanism and republicanism in

England before the Civil War i
1 Classical humanism restated 18
2 Classical republicanism in the margins of Elizabethan
politics 54
3 Civic life and the mixed constitution in Jacobean
political thought 119
4 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness
of Britain 190
5 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed
Governement' 229
6 The continuity of the humanist tradition in early
Caroline England 271
Epilogue 308

Bibliography 313
Index 348

vu
 Note on text

Original spelling has been retained throughout (except i/j and u/v in
quotations), with the exception of those editions I have used where
spelling has been modernized.
The year is taken to begin on i January.
The absence of any reference to women is, of course, due to the fact
there were no such references: all treatises cited were written by and
for an audience of men.

vni
 Acknowledgements

I have immensely enjoyed writing this book, so it is a real pleasure to

acknowledge the debts of gratitude which I have contracted in the
process. First of all, I am deeply grateful to Erkki Kouri whose help,
especially in the later stages of the project, has been most invaluable. I
owe much to his academic advice and personal support. I should also
like to thank Pekka Suvanto and Matti Viikari. Pekka Suvanto guided
my early tentative ventures into the field of historical scholarship; Matti
Viikari has always been an uncompromising but kind reader of my
writings.
My greatest debt is to Quentin Skinner. He first took interest in my
writings when they were hardly worthy of critical reaction and has
found the time to read them ever since. He originally suggested the
topic of this book and has read and commented on its several earlier
versions. His ever-instructive judgement and unfailing kindness have
been a constant support and inspiration.
I am also indebted to Stuart Clark and Johann Sommerville for their
early words of encouragement, to David Armitage and Brian Vickers
for their later help and to Pirkko Haapanen for numerous discussions
on republicanism. Thanks also go to John Calton, who corrected the
language of the Introduction, Epilogue and Chapter 3. As for the rest
of the work, I profited immensely from the help of my friends, Anne
Finell, Walter Johnson and, above all, Ad Putter.
Margaret Grover has been my indefatigable guide as to the
intricacies of 'Englishness'. Of the numerous friends with whom I
have shared the enjoyment of scholarship, it would be churlish of me
not to mention Anne Finell, Walter Johnson, M. Grazia Lolla, Ville
Lukkarinen, Eero Palmujoki, Ad Putter, Ilkka Teerijoki and Jukka
Vuori.
I am grateful to the Consistory of Helsinki University for granting
me the Herman Rosenberg Travel Grant. The Academy of Finland
x Acknowledgements
made it possible for me to study at Cambridge University. The timely
financial support of the Emil Aaltonen Foundation and especially that
of Hamalaisosakunta enabled me to complete the manuscript. A part
of Chapter 2 has appeared in The History of Political Thought and another
version of Chapter 4 in The Historical Journal,
I should not have embarked on a project such as this without the
moral support of Soili Paananen, much less carried it out without her
and Frans's stalwart encouragement.
 Abbreviations

Bacon, Essayes Francis Bacon, Essayes (1625), ed- Michael

Kiernan (Oxford English Texts, 1985).
Bacon, Letters Francis Bacon, The letters and life, 7 vols., ed.
James Spedding (London: Longman & Co.,
1862-74).
Bacon, Works Francis Bacon, The works, 7 vols., ed. James
Spedding et al. (London: Longman & Co,

CD1628 Commons debates 1628, 4 vols., ed. Robert C.

Johnson et al. (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1977-8).
CSPI Calendar of state papers relating to Ireland,
1586-96 (London, 1877-85).
Greville, The prose works Fulke Greville, The prose works qfFulke
Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. John Gouws
(Oxford English Texts, 1986).
Greville, The remains Fulke Greville, The remains qfFulke Greville,
ed. G. A. Wilkes (Oxford: Zondervan, 1965).
PD1610 Parliamentary debates in 16 10, ed. S. R.
Gardiner, Camden Society, LXXXI (1862).
Proceedings in the parliaments ofElizabeth I, vol.
PPEI 1 1558-1581, ed. T. E. Hartley (Leicester
University Press, 1981).
Proceedings in parliament 16 10, 2 vols., ed.
PP1610 E. R. Foster (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1966).
Proceedings in parliament 1626, vol. 1 House of
PP1626
Lords, ed. William B. Bidwell and Maija
Jansson (New Haven: Yale University Press,

XI
xii List of abbreviations

Ralegh, Works Walter Ralegh, Works, 8 vols., ed. W. Oldys

(Oxford University Press, 1829).
Somers tracts W a l t e r Scott (ed.), A collection of scarce and
valuable tracts, 13 vols. (London, 1809-15).
Spenser, Poetical works Edmund Spenser, Poetical works, ed. J. C.
Smith and E. de Selincourt (Oxford
University Press, 1912).
State trials A complete collection of State trials, vol. n , ed.
T. B. Howell (London, 1816).
TGKB Francis Bacon, 'Of the true greatness of the
kingdom of Britain5, in Works, vn, pp. 45-64.
 Introduction: classical humanism and republicanism in
England before the Civil War

The Civil War and the Interregnum hold a prime place in the history
of English political thought. There is a high degree of unanimity
amongst historians that English political discourse faced an abrupt and
total turning point in the 1640s and that the period between 1640 and
1660 gave rise to an exceptionally diverse body of political under-
standing and interpretation. One of the most significant and far-
reaching traditions to emerge upon the stage of English political
thinking was republicanism, in the writings of such men as John
Milton, Marchamont Nedham, James Harrington and Algernon
Sidney. Whilst scholars have long been aware of the great importance
of these theorists, they have been keen to emphasize two issues in so far
as the moment of the emergence of republicanism is concerned.
In the first place, they have pointed out that distinctively republican
themes were discussed in a comprehensive manner relatively late.
During the Civil War the idea of kingship was tenaciously held, and
republicanism only gained currency for the first time after the regicide,
as a device to legitimate the foundation of the republic. Secondly, and
closely related to this, scholars have stressed even more strongly that
before the Civil War there were no discernible signs of republicanism.
That is to say, the republican strand of political discourse only
appeared in England after the collapse of the traditional frames of
reference. Before this there was simply 'no room for republican
notions'; the dominant modes of discourse stressing eternal unity,
harmony and hierarchy effectively inhibited the emergence of repub-
lican modes of thinking.1
1
E.g. Zagorin 1954, pp. 146-9, quotation p. 146; Rawson 1969, pp. 187-8; Worden 1990, pp.
225-6; Worden 1991a, pp. 443—5; Wootton 1986, pp. 70—1. Cf., however, Worden 1981, pp.
182, 185-90, which depicts some family contacts; Scott 1988, pp. 18, 48-58. For the abrupt
2 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640
The republicanism of the 1650s is often referred to as classical
republicanism because of its obvious intellectual debt to classical Greek
and especially Roman sources. It conceived of men as citizens rather
than subjects; they were characterized not so much by obedience to the
king as by active participation in the political life of their community
through counselling and the law-making process. The citizens' partici-
patory role was chiefly based on their virtuous characters, which
enabled them to promote the public good. The term 'classical repub-
licanism' thus embraces a cluster of themes concerning citizenship,
public virtue and true nobility. But it also refers to a more specific
constitutional stance. Virtue was closely linked with the distinctively
republican character of classical republicanism: to ensure that the most
virtuous men governed the commonwealth and to control corruption,
magistracy should be elected rather than inherited. In this sense
republicanism (in the narrow sense of a constitution without a king)
could be an anti-monarchical goal: civic values required concomitant
republican institutions, but monarchical arrangements were said to
suppress these. Arrangements usually favoured by classical republicans
were those of the mixed constitution, and the term republic was also
used in the wider and more general sense of referring to a good and
just constitution.2
If historians have concurred that classical republicanism only
emerged in England during the 1650s, their unanimity further extends
to its wider ideological background. They agree, in other words, that
the broader political vocabulary which to a great extent underlay this
form of republicanism - classical humanism - was also absent from
English political debate between the mid sixteenth and mid seven-
teenth centuries. It is commonly assumed that classical humanism
appeared twice in England. In its original form it reached England in
the late fourteenth century and flourished during the early part of the
sixteenth. It fizzled out, however, in the middle of the century to re-
emerge transformed in the 1650s. Most accounts of the role of
humanism in English political thought break off at the middle of the

change, see also Eccleshall 1978, pp. 153, 2; Sharpe 1989, p. 18; Salmon 1959, p. 12. See also
Sommerville 1986, p. 58, for the absence of republicanism before the Civil War. Sommerville,
however, maintains that the Civil War 'was no great watershed in English political thinking',
p. 238.
For an excellent definition of the terminology, to which I am particularly indebted, see
Goldsmith 1987, pp. 226-30. For suggestive remarks, see Worden 1991b, pp. 249-53; Mendle
1989a, pp. 116-17. See also Fink 1945; Worden 1981; Worden 1990; Scott 1988; and more
generally Nippel 1988.
 Introduction 3
sixteenth century; 3 Lawrence Humphrey's treatise The nobles or of
nobilitye (1560 in Latin, 1563 in English) was already 'a belated
Humanist treatise'. 4 It has often been suggested that humanism must
have had a considerable impact on Elizabethan and Jacobean states-
men, but this suggestion has never been fully explored. 5 By and large,
scholars have moved directly to the mid seventeenth century. A case in
point is Zera Fink who, having discussed the mid-sixteenth-century
upholders of the mixed constitution, almost immediately shifts his
attention to James Harrington and John Milton, hence skipping almost
a century. 6 Likewise, Donald W. Hanson claims that pre-Civil War
England was completely dominated by the concept of 'double majesty',
whether in its medieval form of dominium politicum et regale or in its early-
seventeenth-century form of dominium regale et legale. It was only during
the mid-century upheavals that 'civic consciousness', a 'loyalty to
abstract principles of government, justified in the name of concern for
the public good', emerged. This new concept is exemplified by Milton's
insistence that 'the task was "to place every one his private welfare and
happiness in the public peace, liberty, and safety"'.
Historians of English political thinking in the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries have mainly been concerned with the question of
whether there existed any profound ideological disagreement. Whilst a
number of scholars still maintain that the political thought of the
period can be inclusively described as the common theory of Tudor
monarchy - a theory of order and the rule of law 8 - recent scholarship
has stressed that other political vocabularies - absolutism, the ancient
constitution, contractarian theories, including even some forms of
resistance theories - were in fact employed in political arguments of the
day and that 'there was a variety of political viewpoints in early Stuart
England'. 9 A common characteristic of all these accounts, however, is
that they all ignore the humanist tradition. Scholars, irrespective of
3
E.g. Bush 1939, pp. 69-100; Ferguson 1965; McConica 1965; Dowling 1986, Fox and Guy
1986; Schoek 1988; Elton 1990; Guy 1988, pp. 408-13.
4
Morris 1953, pp. 21-6,143-4
5
Caspari 1954, pp. 157, 207-8; Hill 1965, pp. 266-8; Rabb 1981, pp. 72-3; Ferguson 1986, pp.
89-92, 112-25; Gharlton 1965, pp. 41-85; Skinner 1988, pp. 445-6; Worden 1991a, p. 444;
Guy 1993, pp. 14-15.
Fink 1945. See also Rawson 1969, pp. 186-201; Mendle 1985.
7
Hanson 1970, especially pp. 42, 248, 254, 287-90, 310, 333.
8
Raab 1964; Smith 1973; Mendle 1973; Weston and Greenberg 1981; Sharpe 1985, pp. 14—18,
28-31; Russell 1990, pp. 131-60; Collins 1989.
9
Sommerville 1991, p. 70; Peck 1993b; Sommerville 1986; Sommerville 1989; Eccleshall 1978;
Bowler 1981; Bowler 1984; Collinson 1987; Cust 1987, pp. 176-85. See also Men 1938, Judson
1949; Greenleaf 1964.
4 Classical humanism and republicanism ijyo—1640

their general predilection, seem to concur that humanism had no

perceptible impact on the political discourse of the late sixteenth and
early seventeenth centuries. ° It is scarcely any exaggeration to say that
there is a scholarly gap between the mid sixteenth and the mid
seventeenth centuries in so far as the role of the classical humanist
tradition in English political discourse is concerned.
The most forceful and dominant account of these issues has been
offered by J. G. A. Pocock. In his study of the classical republican
tradition, The Machiavellian moment, Pocock has put forward an argu-
ment as to why themes of citizenship and the republic did not gain
ground in Elizabethan and early Stuart England. His point of depar-
ture, which he broadly speaking shares with other scholars, is that the
emergence of republican and 'civic humanist' themes was effectively
hindered by other modes of thought and that their read development in
England only became possible after the collapse of older viewpoints in
the wake of the traumatic experiences of the Civil War and the
Interregnum. So although Pocock shares with other scholars the
assumption that the Civil War entailed a total and abrupt change in
habits of thought, he does not commit himself to the somewhat
simplistic idea of the 'Elizabethan world picture' but offers an ingenious
account of the roles of different political vocabularies in thwarting as
well as paving the way for the development of the ideas of citizenship
and republic.
According to Pocock, the political vocabulary of the early-sixteenth-
century humanists offered a way in which the English could develop
civic awareness by projecting the image of the humanist as a counsellor
to his prince. In this role the humanist possessed skills which the prince
was lacking and he was, therefore, 'contributing to an association a
virtue of his own, an individual capacity for participation in rule, and
had then taken a step in the direction of the Aristotelian image of the
citizen'. Pocock accepts, however, the idea that English humanism
declined in the mid sixteenth century and that its intellectual inheritors,
if it had any, were the Tacitean courtiers in whom we encounter the
first signs of a fully fledged conception of a political community as an
association of active participants. Even though the Tudor notion of
descending authority was incompatible with a theory of mixed govern-
ment, there were indications of republican vocabulary in imperfectly
10
See, however, Sommerville 1986, pp. 81, n.i, 245.
11
Gf., however, Pocock 1966, especially pp. 266-7, 270, where he accepts to an extent Raab's
simplistic account of the political thought of Tudor England.
 Introduction 5

legitimized situations. In these situations there was more room for

independent choices and decisions. 'It was consequently', Pocock
declares, 'in the study of statecraft that Jacobean intellects were most
likely to lay hold upon these elements of the republican tradition which
ascribed distinctive characteristics - interests, humors, particulari - to
kings, nobilities and peoples, and considered how these might conflict
or be reconciled.' 12
For Pocock, the idea of order and all that went with it was only one
way of conceptualizing the political universe before the Civil War.
There were other theoretical standpoints which offered directions for
the early modern Englishman to develop an understanding of the
political world, and which in their own ways developed into modes of
civic consciousness but at the same time effectively impeded evolving
republican and 'civic humanist' conceptions. Amongst these were the
medieval vocabulary of jurisdiction and gubernaculum, the theory of
ancient constitution, the doctrine of the elect nation and the tradition
of natural jurisprudence. All these traditions contributed ultimately to
preventing Englishmen from conceiving themselves as active, partici-
pating citizens and of the commonwealth as a genuine republic. 3
Although Pocock's thesis has met with wide acceptance, his argu-
ments have failed to convince the entire scholarly community. Recently
some historians have become increasingly aware that there is perhaps
something lacking in his account. It has become clear that in parlia-
mentary elections, for instance, a 'surprisingly large social group
became involved in legitimate polities'. And it has been suggested
that during the early seventeenth century the concept of liberty became
associated with 'an ideal of community and a sense of participation in
its public business'. 15 David Norbrook has emphasized how 'the
conscious intentions of some [Elizabethan and Jacobean] poets may in
fact have been less conservative than has often been assumed'. He
painstakingly excavates a number of radical implications from their
works and convincingly argues that many of them were expressed in
classical humanist vocabulary. 16 Linda Levy Peck has recently asserted

12
Pocock 1975b, pp. 338-9, 347, 350-7; Pocock 1966, p. 279.
13
Pocock 1966, pp. 278-9; Pocock 1975b, pp. 334-7, 340-7; Pocock 1977, p. 15; Pocock 1981a,
pp. 54-6; Pocock 1981b, pp. 356-7; see in general also Pocock 1970; Pocock 1971; Pocock
I9
,4 .75a*
Hirst 1975, especially pp. 4, 6-7, 104-5, I52~3> I76~7, I 9 I ~3- Cf. Underdown 1985,
pp. 106-45.
Sacks 1992, quotation from p. no.
16
Norbrook 1984, especially pp. 12-16.
6 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

that the discourses of patronage and corruption were in large part

classical humanist in character. Mentions of the republican notion of
liberty have lately been found in debates about the puritan colonies in
America in the 1630s.18
More to the point, Patrick Collinson has called attention to the fact
that the Englishman's horizon concerning his active and participatory
role in the life of his commonwealth was perhaps not as limited as
Pocock allows. Collinson does not argue for 'a continuous, coherent
republican movement' nor even for 'the incipience in Elizabethan
England of a kind of constitutional monarchy'. But referring on the
theoretical level inter alia to 'the legacy of early-sixteenth-century
humanism' and on the practical level to the Bond of Association, he
points out that the English, whether in the upper or lower stratum of
society, were able to respond 'resourcefully and intelligently to a most
unusual [political] situation'. We must, therefore, be careful 'not to
underestimate both the political sophistication and the political capa-
city of high Elizabethan society'.1 According to Collinson, 'Pocock
underestimated ... quasi-republican modes of political reflection and
action within the intellectual and active reach of existing modes of
consciousness and established constitutional parameters'; 'citizens',
Collinson adds, 'were concealed within subjects'.20
There are two closely related problems in Pocock's interpretation
which offer sufficient reason to re-evaluate his account. First, in treating
the Civil War period as an absolute turning point, his interpretation, in
accordance with other assessments of early modern English political
thought, tends to make too sharp a division between the modes of
political discourse before and after the 1640s. Secondly, although
Pocock recognizes the role of humanism in the incipient development of
civic consciousness, in assuming that it lost force in the mid sixteenth
century, he unduly neglects its importance in the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries. l There is no reason to belittle the importance of
the Civil War in the history of political thought, but it does not follow
that Englishmen were completely incapable of developing a civic
consciousness before that period. It is arguable that Pocock under-
estimates the level of sophistication of pre-Civil War English political

17
Peck 1993a, p. 208 and in general pp. 161-207.
18
Kupperman 1989.
19
Collinson 1987, citations pp. 422,408, 423, 402; see also pp. 406-7.
20
Collinson 1990, pp. 23-4, in general 22-34.
21
See, however, Pocock 1985b, p. 150.
 Introduction 7
writing. A partial embracing and employment of republican themes in
England was not entirely dependent on a complete and dramatic change
in the political context. Nor was a fully fledged republican theory
obligatory for the development of civic consciousness. Englishmen were
to an extent able both to embrace parts of the republican vocabulary in
their own context and to articulate their civic consciousness without a
full-scale republican theory.
The main aim of the present study is, accordingly, to examine the
role of classical humanism in English political writing from the 1570s to
1640. It is hoped that this examination will throw light on a number of
issues central to early modern political thinking. First, a study of
classical humanism should enable us to consider civic consciousness
and the idea of citizenship in pre-Civil War England. If we wish, in
other words, to assess the nature and development of these issues
properly, it is to a large extent the continuance of the classical humanist
vocabulary that ought to serve as the focus of our attention. Moreover,
this investigation will enable us to analyse the republican features of
early modern English political thinking. It is again primarily the
classical humanist tradition which should be examined in order to
gauge the extent of republicanism before the Civil War.

11

Humanism is taken to include the conscious revival as well as the

reinterpretation of classical Graeco-Roman history, literature and values
and, in so far as political thinking is concerned, their effective application
to the political problems of the contemporary world. It follows that
classical humanism was 'a mode of discourse' or 'a political vocabulary'
rather than 'a programme'; it was a means of grasping and conceptual-
izing politics, rather than a monolithic and detailed plan or strategy. 23
Whether as a scholarly movement or a mode of political thought,
humanism emerged, it is widely agreed, relatively late in England. Its
inception in the mid fifteenth century was due partly to Italian scholars
who diffused humanist ideas in England and partly to those Englishmen
who acquired a predilection for humanist studies in Italy. 24 It is still
22
See e.g. Burke 1990, p . 2; T o d d 1987, p p . 22-3; Ferguson 1965, p p . 162-3; Logan 1977;
Trinkaus 1990, pp. 681—4; Fox and Guy 1986, pp. 31-3.
23
See Pocock 1987b; Pocock 1985c, chapter 1; Pocock 1977, p . 15; Lockyer 1979.
24
Weiss 1957. For a succinct account of the dissemination of Italian humanism, see Burke 1990.
For the connections between England and the continent in the early sixteenth century, see
e.g. Dowling 1986, pp. 140—75.
8 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

essentially correct, however, to follow Francis Bacon in dating the chief

period of humanism, or as Bacon put it in his succinct definition of the
scope of humanism, 'the admiration of ancient authors, the hate of the
schoolmen, the exact study of languages, and the efficacy of preaching',
to the period between Erasmus and Roger Ascham.25
Humanism as a vocabulary of political discourse had a similar
beginning in England. One of the first humanist political treatises in
English was produced by John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, who
translated Cicero's De amicitia as well as Buonaccorso da Montemagna's
Controversial de nobilitate as early as the 1450s. It grew into prominence
during the first part of the sixteenth century, when its most celebrated
treatises such as Thomas More's Utopia (1516), Thomas Elyot's The boke
named the gouemour (1531) and Thomas Starkey's Dialogue between Pole and
Lupset (c. 1529-32) were composed alongside numerous less famous
treatises by such authors as Thomas Lupset, Richard Morison and
John Heywood. A little later, in the mid Tudor period, it found its
exponents in such men as Thomas Becon, Roger Ascham, Thomas
Smith and in the so-called 'Commonwealthmen' in general.
English humanists, together with their North European contempor-
aries, inherited a somewhat equivocal legacy from the political vocabu-
lary of Italian humanism. On the one hand, humanism had been used
to defend and characterize republican values, although it would be
highly misleading to equate republicanism with humanism, for, of
course, there had been pre-humanist republican arguments. 28 In the
course of the fifteenth century, however, strong princely rule emerged
in various Italian cities with the consequence that the humanist
tradition was used to eulogize princely rule. By and large, northern
humanists were more inclined to employ the values and beliefs of the
princely mode of Italian humanism. They were particularly reticent on
some of the two central issues of the republican tradition: liberty and
the citizens' army.29 Instead, they were preoccupied with producing
treatises in the same genres as those Italian humanists who advocated
princely rule - educational treatises and advice-books for princes and

25
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, 111, p p . 283-4. See e.g. McGonica 1965.
26
Mitchell 1938.
27
See e.g. McConica 1965; Caspari 1954; Zeeveld 1969; Ferguson 1963; Ferguson 1965;
Berkowitz 1984; Elton 1979; T o d d 1987; Fox a n d G u y 1986; Elton 1990. For More, see
especially Skinner 1987; Bradshaw 1981. For Starkey, see Mayer 1985; Mayer 1986; Mayer
1989. For Elyot, see e.g. Lehmberg i960.
28
See e.g. Skinner 1990a; N e d e r m a n 1993.
29
Skinner 1978 1, p. 200.
 Introduction 9
their counsellors - and were disposed to endorse similar sets of values
as their Italian predecessors: the commonwealth was in its best state
Q/-V

when a prince with a full range of personal virtues ruled it.

Nevertheless, it is of crucial importance to bear in mind that Italian
republicanism also had from the very beginning a considerable impact
on northern humanists.31 Although English humanists took the princely
context for granted, it did not prevent their adopting a number of
'civic' and republican themes in their writings. In this they partly drew
on Italian republicanism, but their main source of inspiration was the
Roman stoic authors, who were of vital importance in the formation of
the humanist view of politics.32
The first way in which English humanists can be said to have
followed Italian republicanism was in conceiving themselves as refor-
mers of the commonwealth. This issue appeared with vehemence in
Thomas More's Utopia and was treated even more extensively by
Thomas Starkey in his Dialogue. Robert Whittinton translated Cicero's
De qffidis partly to explain what engendered the 'encrease of commen
welthes' and what was the 'cause of [their] ruyne and decaye'. 34 A
more important point of contact with the tradition of republicanism
was the discussion of the merits of the mixed constitution. As is well
known, Thomas Starkey was fully convinced that 'a myxte state' was
not merely the best form of government and 'most convenyent to
conserve the hole out of tyranny'; it was also the most suitable for
curing the diseases of the English body politic.35 It is equally well
known that John Ponet employed the same vocabulary in his argu-
30
See e.g. Skinner 1978 1, p p . 118—28, 213—17, 222—3, 228—43; Skinner 1988, p p . 423—30, 443—5.
For republican humanism, see e.g. Baron 1966; Bayley 1961; Bouwsma 1968. For a balanced
survey, see Rabil 1988. Cf. however Grafton 1991.
31
See in general Skinner 1978 1, p p . 215-42, a n d for a succinct account where this point is m a d e
with particular pertinence, see Skinner 1988, p p . 4 4 5 - 8 . In m y characterization of the impact
of Italian republicanism on the early-sixteenth-century English humanists, I owe an obvious
debt to this account. Gf. in general also T o d d 1987, p p . 22-52; Caspari 1954; Ferguson 1965;
Bradshaw 1991.
32
For the centrality of R o m a n stoicism for the development of the humanist political
vocabulary, see Skinner 1978 1, p . xiv; T o d d 1987, p p . 2 2 - 3 , 27-9; Kristeller 1988, p p . 279,
285; Skinner 1990a, especially p p . 122—3; T u c k 1990.
33
Cf. T o d d 1987, p . 23; Bradshaw 1991, p p . 100,130.
34
The thre boohs of Tullyes offices, translated by R o b e r t Whittinton (London, 1534), 'An
exhortacyon', sigs. b4 r ~5 r ; Anon., The prayse and commendacion of suche as sought comen welthes
(London, n.d. [1549]). See also e.g. Robert Growley, The way to wealth, wherein is plainly taught a
most present remedy for sediaon (n.p. [London], 1550), especially sigs. A3™, B 8 V ; [Humfrey
B r a h a m ] , The institution of a gentleman (London, 1555), sig. *6 r ~ v .
35
T h o m a s Starkey, A dialogue between Pole and Lupset, ed. T . F. Mayer, G a m d e n 4th ser., x x x v n ,
1989, p p . 3 6 - 4 0 , 67-73,111-13,119-23- Gf. e.g. Nippel 1980 p p . 183-9.
io Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

ments against Mary Tudor and that John Aylmer used it in his defence
of her half-sister Elizabeth.36
The belief in their own capacity to bring up and tackle the pressing
problems of the commonwealth increased, as Ferguson and Pocock have
pointed out, English humanists' 'self-image' and their understanding of
their own active political role. 37 It also led them to discard the Italian
princely humanists' predilection for the vita contemplativa and to embrace
instead the Ciceronian and republican conviction that the vita activa was
the highest form of life. Otium — learning — was, however, accommodated
to this conception as a necessary requirement for achieving the true ideal
ofnegotium. An active member of the commonwealth was something akin
to the Ciceronian ideal of a rhetorician: he joined learning (philosophy)
with the active life (eloquence). This was one of the topics which engaged
Hythlodaeus and More in Utopia,38 and it was a governing theme of
Thomas Elyot's The boke named the govemour. It was also the topic with
which Starkey opened his Dialogue, where Lupset persuaded Pole to
believe that 'al men are borne & of nature brought forth, to commyn
such gyftys as be to them gyven, ychone to the profyt of other, in perfayt
cyvylyte, & not to lyve to theyr owne plesure'. This was the true end of
'cyvyle lyfe', as Starkey termed it in true humanist fashion.39 This
essentially Ciceronian doctrine of the great importance of the vita activa
was repeated in numerous lesser known humanist tracts, and it is scarcely
an exaggeration to state that it became a hallmark of the English
humanists.40 The chief ways in which a man could offer his services to
the commonwealth were either to act as a counsellor or more indirectly
to submit written advice. An increasingly important role, however, was
attached to parliament and its law-making function, which was in some
ways becoming central to the English vita activa?1
Another closely related topic which gained currency amongst
36
J[ohn] P[onet], A shorte treatise of politike power (n.p. [Strasburg?], 1556), sigs. A4V-B5V; cf.
Peardon 1982. [John Aylmer], An harborowe for faithfull and trew svbiectes (Strasburg, 1559), sigs.
H2 v -i3 v , Q4V.
Ferguson 1965; Pocock 1975b, pp. 339-40.
38
Skinner 1987, pp. 128-35; Skinner 1988, pp. 449-50; Fox and Guy 1986, pp. 4 0 - 1 .
39
Starkey, A dialogue, pp. 1-6, cf. p. 142.
40
Ferguson 1986, pp. 57-8; Kelso 1929, pp. 39-40. See e.g. c An exhortacyon', The thre bookes of
Tullyes offices, sigs. a5 r , b2 r , b4r; Marcvs Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes of duties to marcus his sonne,
translated by Nicolas Grimalde (London, 1556), sig. c8 v . [Braham], The institudon, sig. D6 F , see
in general sigs. D5V-6V, A2 V , C4r G6 F . See also e.g. [Leonard Cox], The arte or crqfte ofrhethoryke
(London, n.d. [1532?]), sig. B7r; [fosse Glichtove], The boke ofnoblenes: that sheweth how many sortes
andkyndes there is, translated from French by J o h n Larke (n.p. [London], n.d. [1550?]), sig. G I V -
2r.
41
Ferguson 1965, pp. 146-52; Pocock 1975b, pp. 339-40.
 Introduction II

English humanists was the issue of true nobility.42 The idea that only
virtue constituted true nobility had, of course, been stated by Roman
moralists and historians and their authority was used with vehemence
by Italian republican humanists to mount an attack against their
scholastic rivals. Likewise, Thomas More arranged some of the most
important parts of Utopia around this theme, and it was an equally
central topic in Thomas Elyot's and Thomas Starkey's writings. But
the most extensive treatment of this theme appeared in treatises
specifically devoted to the question of what constituted a true gen-
tleman. The earliest treatise in English in this tradition was of course
John Tiptoft's translation of Buonaccorsa de Montenagna's Controversia
de nobilitate and a similar range of topics was later discussed in such
well-known indigenous treatises as John Heywood's Of gentylnesse &
nobylyte (c. 1525) and Humfrey Braham's The institution of a gentleman
(1555). Braham promised to 'describe such a man as may be worthelye
called master, not leaving undeclared the blindnes of those which
thincke theimselves Gentlemen, onely because their fathers & auctoures
did discend of noble houses'. He invoked Cicero in declaring that
'those men maye worthely bee called honourable whom vertue hath
avaunced and reysed them to dignitie'.43 Together with the idea of the
vita activa, this notion could lead to the conclusion that there was an
intimate connection between virtue and citizenship. It was only by a
relentless pursuit of civic virtues that a man could serve the common-
wealth and become a truly noble citizen.

in
In this study I am particularly concerned with examining the con-
tinuity, development and re-evaluation of this cluster of closely related
themes in early modern English political thought. I wish to challenge
the assumption that they were completely replaced by other political
vocabularies after the mid sixteenth century. I shall endeavour to
indicate the remarkable extent to which Elizabethan and Jacobean
writers maintained these values. More particularly, I seek to emphasize
that, far from being completely absent, classical republicanism (as a
42
For an interesting and perceptive discussion of the concept of honour in early modern
England, see James 1986, pp. 308—415.
43
[Braham], The institucion, sigs. *jT, c^T~^. See also for example [Clichtove], The boke ofnoblenes,
passim; The thre boohs ofTuliyes offices (1534), sig. bi r -2 r , D71"; Ciceroes thre boohs of duties (1556),
sig. C3r, c8v. See Zeeveld 1969, pp. 204—11; James 1986, pp. 376-9.
12 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

constitutional stance) had a limited but undoubted impact on English

political thought in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.
There is a caveat here; it is important not to exaggerate the positive
role of republican vocabulary in pre-Civil War England. In a famous
passage Thomas Hobbes could claim that it was mainly the influence
of classical authors that was to be blamed for the Civil War. But
Englishmen were, of course, aware of this danger in the early
seventeenth century, as attested, for instance, by Fulke Greville. An
education in the classics was not 'a road to republicanism' willy-nilly.45
An unmixed republic was hardly a practical option in England before
the Civil War, and we do not, it ought to be emphasized, encounter a
coherent republican movement. But it does not follow that there were
no discernible signs of republican themes. Some of the most celebrated
classical and Italian texts of the republican tradition were translated
into English during this period, and traces of this vocabulary are to be
found in texts composed by Englishmen.
The second, more important, argument concerns the idea of citizen-
ship. Although classical republicanism as a constitutional goal was not
fully developed in early modern England, a theory of citizenship,
public virtue and true nobility based essentially on the classical
humanist and republican traditions, was taken up, studied and fully
endorsed throughout the period. Amongst historians who place the
beginning of civic consciousness in the period before the Civil War, the
widest conviction is that this trend owed its impetus and theoretical
underpinning to puritanism. In political thought as in social theory,
puritans are seen as in the vanguard of new trends. According to
Michael Walzer, 'it was the Calvinists who first switched the emphasis
of political thought from the prince to the saint ... and then
constructed a theoretical justification for independent political action.
What Calvinists said of the saint, other men would later say of the
citizen: the same sense of civic virtue, of discipline and duty, lies behind
the two names.'46
44
Thomas Hobbes Leviathan (1651), ed. C. B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), pp.
267-8. For some elaboration, see Norbrook 1994, p p . 57—8. Fulke Greville, A treatise of
monarchy, stanza 641, in The remains, p. 196. Cf. e.g. Thomas Gibson, The blessing of a good king:
delivered in eight sermons (London, 1614), sig. Aa3v~4r.
45
Gf. Sharpe 1985, p. 30; Worden 1981, p. 183.
46
Walzer 1965, pp. 2, 18, 181-2; also pp. 255-67, 277-90. Cf. e.g. Hill 1986a, 250-6; Hill 1986b,
pp. 212-50; Hill 1972, pp. 47-8; Curtis 1962; Pocock 1975b, pp. 336-8, 345-8; Stone 1986, p .
99; James 1986, pp. 330-1, 403—4; Cust and Hughes 1989, pp. 21-2; Hughes 1991, pp. 87, 89,
102, 105-6,114-15. Gf. Eccleshall 1978, pp. 59-75, 97-121, who relates the development of the
idea of citizenship mainly to the continuance of medieval Aristotelianism.
 Introduction 13

The ideological novelty of Calvinism has recently come under close

scrutiny and its position as precursor of political and social thought has
proved untenable. Scholars have become increasingly aware that
several modes of thought previously ascribed to Calvinists had no
peculiarly Calvinist elements at all: Quentin Skinner has shown that
the theory of resistance developed by Calvinists did not have any
specifically Calvinist features, but was taken up almost directly from
their catholic adversaries; 47 Margo Todd has recently established that
rather than deriving the inspiration for their social ideas exclusively
from the Calvinist theology, puritans owed an obvious debt to
Christian humanism in their social thinking.
It is a central thesis of the present study that in tracing the notions of
civic consciousness and the theory of citizenship in early modern
England, we should not look at expressly puritan or Calvinist modes of
argument. O n the contrary, we should place the development of these
features in the continuance of classical humanism. The arguments and
notions which were used in articulating the idea of citizenship and the
active life did not embody any particularly Calvinist traits at all, but
were instead expressed in a distinctively humanist vocabulary. 49
There are two further points to be made about religion in general
and puritanism in particular. First, although many mid- and late-
seventeenth-century classical republicans were anti-Calvinists, 50 it has
been argued that in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries
there were close links between strong protestantism or puritanism and
humanist political parlance. 51 T o some extent this seems to be the case.
Puritan attitudes towards plays and maypoles, church ales and football
could be described as 'Stoicall 5 . 52 We shall encounter important new
connections between strong protestantism and humanism, most con-
spicuously in the writings of John Barston and Thomas Scott. It is no
news that Thomas Scott exhibited strong features of puritanism in his
pamphlet campaign in the early 1620s. But what is less often appre-
ciated is the fact that he coupled his puritanism with a theory of
citizenship and the commonwealth which owed its main intellectual
allegiance to classical humanism and republicanism. Nonetheless, it
47
Skinner 1978 1, pp. xiv-xv, 11, p. 323.
48
Todd 1987, pp. 8, 16, 17, see also especially pp. 94-5. Cf. Larmine 1982; Adams 1989; Adams

Collinson 1990, p. 26.

50
Worden 1981, p. 195; Worden 1991b, p. 252.
51
Norbrook 1984.
52
Philip Stubbes, The anatomie of abuses (London 1583), sig. L2V.
14 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

should be emphasized even more strongly that it would be grossly

misleading to claim that the vocabulary of classical humanism was the
exclusive domain of puritans. Many of the authors who loom large in
this book (Richard Beacon and Francis Bacon are good examples)
cannot be classified as puritans.
This leads me to the other general point I wish to make about
religion. Since I am concerned with the humanist and republican
aspects of the authors examined, other aspects of their writings receive
far less attention. This should not be taken to mean that I want to
belittle their significance and this applies above all to the role of
religion. By focusing my attention on their humanist and republican
notions and by not expounding religion and other facets of their
thought more fully, I do not imply that the authors examined were
thoroughly secular thinkers, nor that the other features of their writings
are somehow less important or less worthy of analysis. What I wish to
argue is that most of the theorists studied here held deep religious
convictions, which did not inhibit them from deriving political concepts
from Roman stoic sources.
The argument that in tracing the theory of citizenship in early
modern England we should study the humanist tradition receives
further incentive from recent studies of education in early modern
England. According to the standard interpretation, the humanist
university curriculum of the mid sixteenth century was replaced by a
return to the scholastic one at the end of the century. 54 But, as Margo
Todd has convincingly argued, after its introduction to the universities
in the early sixteenth century the humanist curriculum dominated well
into the middle of the seventeenth century. This means, of course,
that when the gentry increasingly sought access to education in the
grammar schools as well as in the universities they received an
essentially humanist education which thus became 'the common
possession of the whole governing class'.56 It is perhaps then not
exceptionally surprising to endeavour to seek humanist traits in the
53
Omitting 'the wisdome which is Divine and MetaphysicalT from his 'handfull of Morality',
J o h n Hitchcock formed an exception rather than a rule, A sanctuary for honest men: or an abstract
of humane wisdome (London, 1617), pp. 3-4, sig. A3 r .
54
Kearney 1970, pp. 77-90; Costello, 1958.
55
T o d d 1987, pp. 53-94; cf. Schmitt 1983, pp. 17-29,,. For the,, introduction of humanism into
English universities, see e.g. Dowling 1986, pp. 23-33, 75—107; McGonica 1965, pp. 76-105;
T o d d 1987, pp. 43-52; Curtis 1959, p p . 70-2, 81-2, 94-6; Simon 1966, p p . 63-123, 148-62,
197-214.
James 1986, p. 270; see also Hexter 1950; Caspari 1954, pp. 132-56; Stone 1964, especially pp.
68-80; Simon 1966, pp. 291-8, 333-68.
 Introduction 15

political discourse of Elizabethan and Jacobean England. O n the

contrary, this is exactly what we should expect to find.
It should be pointed out that by using the term 'tradition' I do not
mean to imply that there was a self-conscious and sustained tradition in
which different periods were linked by continuity of generic concerns.
The authors examined did not consciously participate in an ongoing
conversation, if by this we mean that they referred to authors of
previous periods (with the important exception of Francis Bacon).
Rather, the term 'tradition' refers to a complex of three issues: theorists
addressed similar questions of citizenship, corruption, reformation,
greatness of states and the well-being of the commonwealth; they did
this with similar humanist and republican vocabularies; and they
employed the same Roman stoic and earlier renaissance sources in so
doing.
As well as seeking to show the presence of humanism and some
features of republicanism in English political thought from the 1570s to
the 1630s, I am concerned with the more particular historical circum-
stances in which these arguments emerged. I ask how this vocabulary
was used and what kind of points were put forward by those who
employed it. For my contention is that a more historical interpretation
of political texts is achieved if we endeavour to find out what the
authors were attempting when they composed their works. Although
there was neither a dramatic nor pervasive change in the political
framework, in writing their tracts or translating foreign treatises, early
modern Englishmen were not so much seeking to answer timeless
questions as responding to contemporary problems and issues.
In addition to these somewhat programmatic claims, there are a
number of smaller points which I should like to make in the course of
this study. Although there is a noticeable shift of emphasis of interest
from Cicero to Tacitus at the turn of the century, it is misleading to
describe this shift, as many scholars have done, as a complete change
from a Ciceronian humanism to a Tacitean one. During the Jacobean
period, as I hope to show, we still meet with an essentially Ciceronian
assessment of the commonwealth. This also leads us to re-examine
some of the generally accepted notions regarding Jacobean political
thought. It is commonly claimed that Jacobean political discourse is
exhaustively treated as soon as a proper account of absolutism and
especially of the interpretations of the ancient constitution have been
provided. But, it is argued below, this gives us an overly simplistic view
of the depth and scope of political thought during James I's reign.
16 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Recently historians have been more willing to undermine the once

popular idea of the insularity (or more accurately parochialism) of
Jacobean political thinking and to admit that Englishmen were
perfectly familiar with theoretical traditions other than their indigenous
ancient constitution.57 The unearthing of the classical humanist vocab-
ulary in Jacobean England elucidates not only the development of the
theory of citizenship in England but also, and more particularly, the
full range of political thinking of the period.
Furthermore, an attempt is made here to seek and establish an
ideological context for Francis Bacon's political writings. Scholars
commonly assume that this is to be found in his scientific pursuits - that
he was carrying out a comprehensive single project including a reform
of natural philosophy, a reform of law and a political programme of a
similar nature. 58 I should like to argue, however, that the ideological
context for Bacon's theoretical contributions to politics should be
sought in classical humanist vocabulary. Some of his most important
political writings were composed in the Machiavellian tradition and his
ideas of politics in his more philosophical works carried characteristi-
cally humanist features.
Finally, an account of classical humanism and republicanism in
English political thought before the Civil War must have an immediate
bearing on the interpretation of the reception of Machiavelli's writings
in England. The dominant interpretation of his impact on pre-Civil
War English politics is congruent with some of the general accounts of
the political thought of the period. Although Machiavelli was known in
England at an early stage, his writings, the standard interpretation
proclaims, met with a profound repugnance and dismay. This was so
because the encounter of England and Machiavelli was an encounter
between one dominated by 'an Auerustinian universe' and another
dominated by purely secular politics.5 Machiavelli's writings, we have
lately been told, constituted a grave threat to the 'Elizabethan world
picture' since they 'not only challenged but subverted all the premises
of the early modern English commonweal'.60 Whatever can be said
about the interpretations of Machiavelli himself in these accounts, it is
clear that they leave something to be desired with regard to the

57
Sommerville 1986, pp. 57-85; Sommerville 1989; Sommerville 1991; Peck 1993b.
58
For documentation, see chapter 4 below.
59
Raab 1964 pp 30-106. See also Praz 1928; Beck 1935; Mosse 1957; Morris 1969. Cf. Shutte
1983-
Sharpe 1989, pp. 25-8; Sharpe 1985, p. 28. Cf. Collins 1989, especially pp. no—11.
 Introduction 17

reception of his writing in England. 61 A comprehensive account of this

reception is beyond the scope of this study, and I treat it only in so far
as Machiavelli's republicanism is concerned.
It is to begin with completely unnecessary to presuppose that every
sign of a 'secular' political outlook is also indicative of a debt to
Machiavelli. Tudor and early Stuart Englishmen were entirely capable
of treating politics as a separate field of enquiry without any necessary
help from Machiavelli's works. The whole humanist tradition and
especially classical authors themselves provided the Englishman with a
massive body of 'secular' literature which enabled him to embrace
'secular' concepts of politics, whilst at the same time he of course
retained his Christian outlook. 62 Terms like 'an Augustinian universe'
or the order theory of the 'Elizabethan world picture' are perhaps not
extremely helpful concepts, much less exhaustive ones, for describing
the modes of political thought in early modern England.
Moreover, although it is clear that the bulk of the references to
Machiavelli was closely connected with the dichotomy between religion
and policy, 63 it is arguable that we should not focus our attention
exclusively on these passages or more broadly on the mention of
Machiavelli's name, but instead seek to place the reading of his writings
in the proper context of the humanist political vocabulary in Tudor
and early Stuart England. Machiavelli was scarcely only a theorist of
'policy' as against 'religion', neither was he only read as such. As we
shall see, the most extensive usage of his republican writings in pre-
Civil War England did not mention his name at all. And it was hardly
a usage confined to the dichotomy of'policy' and 'religion'.
61
For detailed, pertinent criticism, see Anglo 1966. I am much indebted to Stuart Clark for
drawing my attention to Anglo's work.
62
Gf. e.g. Ferguson 1965, pp. 166-7.
63
Raab's extensive list can in fact be enlarged considerably.
 CHAPTER I

Classical humanism restated

Towards the end of the Discourses concerning government Algernon Sidney

praised Henry V's government. Henry's main aim, Sidney said, had
been 'the conquest of France' and he had, therefore, shown utmost
care not 'to encroach upon the liberties of his subjects'. Since the only
way to pursue glory and greatness was 'by the bravery of a free and
well-satisfied people', Henry had instead maintained the 'courage,
strength, and love' of his people. This willingness 'to preserve their
subjects' liberty' had always been the chief characteristic of 'virtuous
and brave' princes, who knew that this was the only means of
encouraging 'the people's valour'. Although Henry had made an
attempt to perpetuate his government and to discourage his successors
from enslaving the people, he had not succeeded. On the contrary,
Sidney was 'inclined to date the general impairing of our government'
from Henry's death onwards. Princes had almost continuously at-
tempted 'to advance their prerogative' at the cost of the people's
liberty. The only exception had been Queen Elizabeth. Following
Henry, she had not set 'about to mangle acts of parliament' but had
maintained the virtuous nature of the people and thereby the principles
of'the mixed monarchies'.1
This chapter is concerned with the ways in which Elizabethans in the
1570s and 1580s were engaged in an attempt to perceive their common-
wealth in terms of classical humanism and themselves as virtuous citizens
devoted to the civic life and public service for the promotion of the
common good. While it is often pointed out that authors such as
Algernon Sidney's great-uncle, Philip Sidney, or Edmund Spenser, owe
an obvious debt to this tradition, it has been argued, as we have seen,
that humanism as a political vocabulary declined in the mid sixteenth
century. The main aim of this chapter is to show the remarkable extent
1
Algernon Sidney, Discourses concerning government (1698) ed. Thomas G. West (Indianapolis:
Liberty Fund, 1990), pp. 575-8.

18
 Classical humanism restated 19

to which central humanist and even republican concepts and values

were strenuously restated just at the time when they are said to have
been replaced by the values of neo-medieval chivalric culture. 2
Although the uninterrupted reprinting of some central humanist
treatises (e.g. Cicero's De qfficiis seven times between 1558 and 1600,
Elyot's Thegouemour 1565, 1580, Castiglione's The courtier \n English 1561,
1577, 1586, in Latin 1571, 1577, 1585) yields prima facie evidence for this
contention, we need to consider two kinds of treatises in order to assess
the ubiquity of humanist preoccupations. In the first place, traditional
humanist values were upheld in the numerous translations of Italian
and other continental humanist treatises, some of which had consider-
able republican leanings. Although some of these translations are well
known, it is arguable that their importance in political thought has not
been sufficiently recognized. Since reading is not a passive process, we
cannot draw a clear distinction between the production of an original
text and the translation of a foreign or classical one. It follows that
translations should be understood as political and ethical comments on
the contemporary world.3 These translations of humanist treatises
include Thomas Blundeville's translation of Federico Furio Ceriol's A
briefe treatise of counselers (originally printed in 1559) from the Italian
version of Alfonso d'Ulloa, Thomas Browne's translation of A ritch
storehouse or treasurie for nobilitye and gentleman (1549) b y t h e G e r m a n
humanist Johannes Sturm, both published in 1570, and John Charlton's
translation of Cornelius Valerius' Brevis et perspicua totius ethicae sen de
moribus philosophise descriptio (1566) printed in 1571 with a typical
humanist title The casket of iewels. These were followed in 1576 by
Hieronymus Osorio's A discourse ofciuill, and Christian nobilitie translated
by William Blandy and in 1581 by Stefano Guazzo's The duile conuersa-
tion (the first three books in 1581, the complete treatise in 1586).4
However, the most remarkable of all these translations is an abbrevia-
tion of Franceso Patrizi's De institutione reipublicae rendered into English
by Richard Robinson and published in 1576 under the ambiguous title
A moral methode of duill policie. Closely related is the most famous
translation of the whole period: Thomas North's translation of

For a recent statement to this effect, see Smuts 1987, pp. 20-1. For a more balanced account,
see Ferguson 1986.
Boutcher 1991, pp. xii—xiii, 44, 46; in general pp. 45-67; Norbrook 1994, p. 46; Womersley
1991. The importance of translations in this period is acknowledged by Caspari 1954, pp. 152-
5. See also e.g. Gonley 1927; Matthiessen 1931; Lathrop 1933; Baldwin 1944.
For Guazzo's impact on England, see lievsay 1961.
20 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

Plutarch's The lives of the noble Grecians and Romanes first published in 1579
and reprinted four times before 1640.
By and large, a similar set of ideas was developed in a number of
tracts composed by Englishmen themselves. Although the arguments of
these English tracts converged, it is important to understand that they
owed allegiance to two different intellectual traditions. First, there are
Thomas Rogers's extensive A philosophicall discourse entituled, the anatomie of
the minde published in 1576 and John Foord's compact Synopsis politica
published in 1582,5 which owe their closest allegiance to the Aristotelian
theory of citizenship. Secondly, there are a number of writers whose
arguments are essentially Ciceronian in character. Amongst these are
the dialogue with the somewhat misleading title The praise of solitarinesse
by Roger Baynes (who incidentally was soon to leave the country for his
religion) published in 1577, John Lyly's Euphues, Thomas Pritchard's The
schook ofhonest and vertuous lyfe and an anonymous dialogue, entitled Cyuile
and vncyuile life (reprinted in 1586 as The English courtier, and the cuntrey-
gentlemari), all published in 1579. One of the most centrally important of
these treatises is Haly Heron's strongly Ciceronian A newe discourse of
morall philosophie, also issued in 1579 and sometimes described as the first
English collection of essays.6 These were soon followed by such treatises
as William Blandy's own tract The castle: or picture ofpollicy (1581), Lodovick
Bryskett's A discourse of civill life (written in the early 1580s, but not
published until 1606), based on G. B. Giraldi Cintio's Diabghi della vita
civile, and John Feme's extensive and somewhat conservative The blazon
qfgentrie published in 1586. Some of the same themes were reiterated by
John Rainolds in his lectures on Aristotle's Rhetoric delivered in the
1570s,7 and by Philip Stubbes in The anatomie of abuses (1583).
Perhaps the most obvious point of contact between the earlier
humanist tradition and these writers is the prominent place given to the
unqualified endorsement of the benefits of the vita activa. The literary
tactics often chosen were first to emphasize the theoretical excellence of
the contemplative life, and then to show that in practice the civic life of
negotium proved to be the most desirable. This arrangement appeared in
5
John Foord matriculated from St John's, Cambridge in Michaelmas 1572, obtained his BA
1576—7 and his MA in 1580. In 1584 he became rector of Goodnestone, Kent, Venn and
Venn 1927 pt 1, vol. 11, p. 157; John Foord, Synopsis politica (London, 1582), sig. ^4 V ; for his
admiration for Ramus, see sig. U41". For Ramus, see e.g. Grafton and Jardine 1986, pp. 161—
200. Foord's tract is mentioned but not discussed in Binns 1990, p. 517.
6
For Heron, see Heltzel 1952.
7
John Rainolds, Oxford lectures on Aristotle's 'Rhetoric', ed. Lawrence D. Green (Newark: University
of Delaware Press, 1986).
 Classical humanism restated 21

Patrizi's A moral methode. As Robinson rendered Patrizi's argument,

'there can be nothinge more sweeter or better to bee wyshed unto
mortall men, then to leade a private lyfe'. But because of the nature of
human things, the only way to avoid corruption was to organize a
society as 'a Civill and well instituted common weale'. 8 A man ought to
be a 'Civil man' — a man who was 'profitable to his common weale5;
everyone should be willing 'to worke and traveile' in order 'to helpe the
common weal'. The same theme was even more central to Guazzo's
The ciuile conuersation, which was organized as a defence of the civic life.
Guazzo presented the conventional defence of the vita contemplativa,
when he pointed out at the beginning of the first book that 'the solitary
. . . is whollye raised up to the contemplation of his originall and happie
state'. It followed that a cloister was an appropriate place for a man
and he should at all cost avoid 'the government of common weales'.
The other interlocutor, Anniball, retorted that the solitary life was 'the
forme of a beast'. Man was not born wholly for himself and, therefore,
everyone should learn 'civile behaviour'. An immediate agreement was
reached on this point, when Guazzo answered that it had not been his
intention to praise those who 'do altogether withdrawe themselves into
solitarie places', trying to escape the duties in the commonwealth, but
simply to point out that man needed solitude in order to gain knowl-
edge and learning.
English authors not only expressed the same preference for an active
life but some even adopted a strikingly similar argument. When Haly
Heron began to discuss this issue, he exhorted men to be careful 'least
[sic] by too muche contemplation, and desyre of knowledge, we be
removed from al exercise & practise'. Although otium was excellent as
such, it should only be taken as a means to negotium. 'Let us', Heron

8
Francesco Patrizi, A moral methode of ciuile polide, translated by Richard Robinson (London,
1576), fo.iv.
Ibid., fos. 48V~49V.
10
Stefano Guazzo, The ciuile conuersation ... divided intofoure bookes, the first three translated from
French by G[eorge] Pettie, the fourth translated from Italian by Barth. Young (London,
1586), fos. 6v~7r, 8 r -i3 v . See also Conrad Valerius, The casket of iewels: contaynynge a playne
description ofmorallphilosophie, translated byjfohn] C[harlton] (London, 1571), sig. B4V; Joannes
Sturmius, A ritch storehouse or treasuriefor nobilitye and gentleman, which in Latine is called nobilitas
literata, translated by Tfhomas] Bfrowne] (London, 1570), fo. igv; Jeronimo Osorio de
Fonseca, The five bookes ... contayninge a discourse of duill, and Christian nobilitie, translated by
William Blandy (London, 1576), fos. 5 v -6 r , 2$v; Federico Furio [Ceriol], A very briefe and
profitable treatise declaring howe many counsells, and what maner ofcounselers a prince that willgouerne well
ought to haue, abridged and translated by Thomas Blundeville (London, 1570), sig. N4r; cf. also
e.g. Pierre de La Primaudaye, The French academie, translated by T. B[owes?] (London, 1586),
PP- 74-5, 98-9, 369-70-
22 Classical humanism and republicanism 15J0-1640

argued, 'say with Tully, that it is better to practise and doe advisedly,
then to thinke and imagine never so wysely.'11 Not surprisingly, Heron
placed his chief emphasis on 'the true knowledge of duties, than the
which nothing is more commendable in youth, nothing more profitable
in a common welth, & nothing more acceptable unto God, which thing
M. Cicero, the floare of eloquent Philosophers' had eminently showed
in his 'large instructions of Duties'.12
According to Thomas Rogers, mankind could be divided into two.
The first group consisted of those who forsook 'this world' and 'addicte
them selves to the contemplation of celestiall thinges'. They imitated
'the divine & celestiall nature' and they were, therefore, called
'Contemplators'. Although there were 'infinite' arguments in support
of their goal, Rogers dismissed them outright. 'Those contemplators',
he argued, were 'not onely odious, but also ridiculous unto many'.
Those who were called 'Civile' and whose chief end was 'a civile and
active felicitie' formed the second group. Rogers gave several reasons
for preferring this civil mode of life to the contemplative. On the one
hand, was the argument based on the Aristotelian idea that man was
'called Animal sociale'. But the main argument Rogers put forward
was that man was not born for himself, but partly for 'his friends' and
mostly for 'his countrey'. A 'good man', therefore, was 'a civile man'. 13
John Lyly explained that there were both the 'active life', which was
'about civill function and administration of the common weale', and
'the contemplative life', which was 'continual meditation and studie'.
As the former was 'an idle life' without the latter, so the latter was
utterly 'unprofitable' without the former.14
As David Norbrook has emphasized, Philip Sidney's Old Arcadia not
merely 'subverts the expectations aroused by its title and subjects the
Italian courtly ideal of retirement, contemplation and love, to severe
Protestant humanist scrutiny', it also calls into question the irresponsi-
bility of an absolute ruler and seeks the ideal solution from the vita activa.15
11
Haly Heron, A newe discourse of morall philosophie, entituled the kayes qfcowisaile (London, 1579), pp.
101-2,109—10.
" ibid., pp. 5-6.
Thomas Rogers, A philosophical! discourse, entituled, the anatomie of the minde (London, 1576), fos.
8i v -82 v , 8 4 r - 8 5 v ; see also fos. 68 V -69 V , sig. z 3 v - 4 r , z 5 ™ , z8r"v. In the preface Rogers said
that he had already written his treatise whilst he was a student, sig. [A3V—41]. Gf. in general
e.g. Anon., A discourse of the commonweal of this realm of England (1581), ed. Mary Dewar
(Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1969), pp. 16-17.
14
John Lyly, Euphues: the anatomy of wit (1579), ed. Edward Arber (London, 1868), p. 142, in
general pp. 143,154; cf. however pp. 148,187—8.
15
Norbrook 1984, pp. 92-7; Worden 1991b, pp. 244-5.
 Classical humanism restated 23

At the beginning of the Old Arcadia Basilius tries to avoid the future
blows of fortune, forecast by the oracle, by resolving 'to retire himself
with his wife and daughters into a solitary place'. Although Philanax
makes the attempt to change Basilius' mind by calling forth virtuous
action to overcome fortune, Basilius keeps his head. A similar discus-
sion is repeated by Musidorus and Pyrocles, the former of whom
impugns the contemplative life and 'solitariness', which 'doth most
separate a man from well doing'. The latter retorts that solitariness and
excellent contemplation go hand in hand. Moreover, the vita contempla-
tiva receives fulsome praise in some of the eclogues of the Old Arcadia}6
Later in the work, however, negotium gains the upper hand of otium. In
the third book, Basilius regrets his embracement of 'this solitary life'
and he feels 'inclined to return to his palace'. Euarchus agrees to help
the Arcadians because it enables him 'to employ his old years in doing
good, the only happy action of man's life'. Finally, Philanax receives his
compensation when it is generally admitted that Basilius' 'solitary life'
has not merely failed to bring the desired effect, but has exposed him
'to any traitorous attempt'. 17 In The defence ofpoesie, Sidney, of course,
abandoned all this evocation and gave his unconditional preference for
the active life.18 'But the truth is,' Fulke Greville described Sidney, 'his
end was not writing even while he wrote, nor his knowledge moulded
for tables or schools, but both his wit and understanding bent upon his
heart to make himselfe and others, not in words or opinion, but in life
and action, good and great.' Thomas Moffet agreed: Sidney esteemed
'the commonwealth before all things', being 'inspired by a certain
heroic temper and very active virtue'. 9
The question as to whether the contemplative or active life should
be preferred forms a central theme in the anonymous Cyuile and vncyuile
life. This is a dialogue between 'Vincent' and 'Vallentine', and the chief
issue 'whyther it were better for the Gentlemen of Englande to make
most abode in their Contrey houses, (as our English manner is,) or els
ordinaryly to inhabite the Cittie and cheefe Townes, as in some
16
Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (The old Arcadia), ed. Katherine Duncan-Jones
(Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 5-9, 12-15, 76, 145-6.
17
Sidney, Old Arcadia, pp. 156, 310, 334. See also Fulke Greville, A dedication to Sir Philip Sidney, in
The prose works, pp. 8, 9-10.
18
Philip Sidney, Vie defence of poesie, in The complete works, 4 vols., ed. Albert Feuillerat
(Cambridge University Press, 1922—6), in, pp. 11-12. See e.g. Caspari 1954, pp. 161-5, 171;
lindebaum 1990.
19
Greville, A dedication to Sidney, in The prose works, p. 12, cf. e.g. p. 25. Thomas Moffet, Nobilis: or
a view of the life and death of a Sidney (1593), ed. and translated by Virgil B. Heltzel and Hoyt H.
Hudson (San Marino: Huntington library, 1940), p. 88, see also pp. 71, 76, 79, 80-1, 83.
24 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

forraine Nations is the custome'.20 Vincent began by complaining of

the corruption which he believed he was witnessing in England.
Traditionally gentlemen lived in the country offering hospitality to
their equals and bestowing charity on their inferiors, but were not, as
Vincent carefully pointed out, 'called to attendance in our Princes
service'. Underlying this harmony was cour care in education of
children', which made them 'honest and just, wise and welthy, obedient
and assured'. However, all this was placed in jeopardy by the new
fashion of living in towns and cities. While Vallentine fully concurred
with his interlocutor that a good education was of crucial importance,
he could not accept the way of living it was meant to serve in Vincent's
vision. If the aim was cto bring up your children in honesty, which is
vertue, and cheefely justice', it should be borne in mind 'what Tully
telleth you . . . That men are not only borne to themselves.' It follows
that 'there bee persons prepared for sundry actions, not so much to
serve their owne turnes, as their Prince and Countrey'. And this kind of
life, according to Vallentine, was only possible in the court and city.22
Vallentine admitted that there was much wickedness and corruption in
these places but insisted that the best men were also to be found there
and that 'it is good, to know evill, not to use it, but to avoyd it'. Many
could indeed make their advancement in court 'by mere flattery' but it
was virtue which would carry the day: 'when occasion of service doth
happen, men of value & vertue bee those that shal stand their country
in steede, and honor them selves'.23
Some theorists did not feel any particular inclination to admit even
the theoretical excellence of contemplative life, but argued outright
that civic life should always be preferred. Thomas Pritchard based his
work on the virtuous life mainly on Cicero, calling him 'that gay
Gardener, and cunning Arborer' and 'a princely piller of Philoso-
phie'. 24 Closely following his authority, Pritchard argued that 'all is
vaine' if 'Diligence' and 'Practice' were abandoned; a man ought to
'imitate the busie Bees', since 'Tullie saith in his Offices, that wee bee
borne partly to pleasure and profit our freendes, our Parentes, and
most of all, our native Countrey'.25 When the herald, John Feme,
20
Anon., Cyuile and vncyuile life (London, 1579), sig. A4V.
21
Ibid., sig. Bir—B4V.
22
Ibid., sigs. B4 v -ci v .
23
Ibid., sigs. c i v - 2 r , D3 r .
24
Thomas Pritchard, The schoole of honest and vertuouslyfeprofitable and necessary for all estates and
degrees (London, n.d. [1579]), pp. 6, 9.
25
Ibid., pp. 15-16, 28, 30-1.
 Classical humanism restated 25

described how 'the grave authoritie of antiquitie' admonished everyone

to 'exercise and honest labor', it was chiefly 'publique' actions which he
had in mind. 26 Despite the fact that true felicity was found 'above the
stars', Lodovick Bryskett focused his attention on moral philosophy and
was convinced that it was above all this branch of learning which gave
men 'an active or practicke felicitie', since 'Tullie saith, and Plato
before him' that we have not been born for ourselves but for our
country.27 John Rainolds justified his lectures on Aristotle's Rhetoric by
referring to Juan Luis Vives and Cicero, according to whom rhetoric
was immensely useful for 'public life' (vita communis). Similarly, Thomas
North pointed out in his translation of Plutarch's Lives that by reading
Plutarch Englishmen would 'be animated to the better service' of the
queen. Since Plutarch provided many examples of people who had
'strayned their wits, not regarded their states, ventured their persons,
cast away their lives, not onely for the honor and safetie, but also for
the pleasure of their Princes', his reader should be ready to do 'service'
for his prince and country both in war and peace. 28
An equally unqualified endorsement of the priority of civic life was
given by John Foord. In his preface Foord wrote that Socrates had led
philosophy to 'civic life' {vita civilis) and that this tradition had
vigorously been maintained until it had degenerated into the barren
disputes of scholastic philosophy. Scholasticism had held sway until
Foord's own time when Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Cicero were
rediscovered.29 Having established this standard humanist view, Foord
proceeded in the main part of his tract to explain the contents of
philosophy and pointed out at the beginning that 'private utility should
be rather omitted, than the public good endangered'. He defined
'citizen' as 'an excellent man given to the commonwealth'.30 Towards
the end of his tract Foord quoted Cicero as saying that 'a private
citizen' should be 'neither mean and contemptible nor enraging, but
live on equal and fair terms with the other citizens, and want such
things in the commonwealth which are quiet and honourable. Because
such, said Cicero, we are accustomed both to perceive and call a good
26
John Feme, The blazon qfgentrie: deluded into two parts (London, 1586), sig. A4r
27
Lodovick Bryskett, A discourse ofcivill life: containing the ethike part of rnorall philosophie (London,
1606), pp. 18-22. See also William Blandy, The castle or picture ofpollicy, shewing forth most Uuely,
theface, body and paries of a commonwealth (London, 1581), fo. 8V.
28
Rainolds, Oxford lectures, pp. 95, 267; Plutarch, The lives of the noble Grecians and Romanes,
translated from French by Thomas North (London, 1579), sig. *2 r ~ v .
29
John Foord, Synopsis politico (London, 1582), sig. ^[3^.
Ibid., fos. i v , 5V: 'privata potius utilitas est omittendo, quam communis perclitanda salus'.
'Givis est vir bonus civitate donatus.'
26 Classical humanism and republicanism i^yo-1640

citizen.'31 But Cicero had also argued, as Foord was careful to point
out, that citizens should know how to obey in order to know how to
rule.32
Reading Foord's tract, Gabriel Harvey fully concurred. Negotium, he
commented both on the title-page and in the margins of Foord's tract,
was far more important than otium, since 'all theory is puerile, without
manly practice'. 3 A decade earlier Erasmus' Parabolae had occasioned
Harvey to voice the same opinion; even most refined knowledge was
mere vanity without private or public action. 34 In his Ciceronianus (1577)
Harvey pointed out that Cicero was 'supreme in all pleadings, forensic
and parliamentary [senatoriis], rustic and urban, oratorical and philoso-
phical, jesting and serious, public and private'. But it was not merely
Cicero's style and eloquence which aroused admiration; his subject
matter inspired equal respect. Harvey explained that he had observed
in Cicero 'not only the oratorical eloquence ... but also consular and
senatorial wisdom'. Cicero had thus been a man of 'profound wisdom
in thought' and a real 'statesman' (politicum). Beside many other things,
Cicero taught how to be 'a highly respected citizen' and 'the possessor
of a soul overflowing with the noblest virtues'.35
Philip Stubbes's Anatomie of abuses is, of course, permeated by puritan
strictures on public morality, but every now and then Stubbes had
recourse to classical and renaissance authors including Aristotle, Cicero
and Sallust as well as Erasmus, Vives and Thomas Elyot. It should
occasion little surprise, therefore, that he could write in his discussion
of charity: 'And common reason advertiseth us, that wee are not borne
for our selves onelie: for Ortus nostri partem patria, partem amid, partem
parentes vendicant, Our Countrey challenged! a part of our byrth, our

Ibid., fo. 24V: 'Cicero primo officiorum privatum voluit, neque submissum and abiectum,
neque se efferentem, sed aequo and pari cum civibus jure vivere: eaque in repub. velle, quae
tranquilla and honesta sunt. Quia talem and sentire, inquit, and bonum civem dicere
solemus.' Cicero, De qffidis, 1.34.124.
Foord, Synopsis politica, fo. 24V: 'Idemque Cicero tertio de legibus, non solum ut tempore
imperaturos. Nam qui modeste paret, inquit, videtur, qui aliquando imperet dignus esse.'
Cicero, De legibus, 111.2.5.
Gabriel Harvey, Marginalia, ed. G. C. Moore Smith (Stratford, 1913), p. 199; Stern 1979, p.
154-
Harvey, Marginalia, pp. 141-3.
Gabriel Harvey, Ciceronianus (1577), ed. Harold S. Wilson, translated by Clarence A. Forbes,
University of Nebraska Studies in the Humanities, no. 4, 1945, pp. 49-51, 79, see also pp. 97,
101; idem, The works, ed. Alexander B. Grosart (London: Huth Library, 1884), 3 vols., 1, pp.
136-7; idem, Rhetor, vel duorum dierum oratio, de natura, arte, & exercitatione rhetorica (London, 1577),
sigs. E3 r , n v
 Classical humanism restated 27

brethren and frendes require an other parte, and our parentes . . . doe
vendicate a third parte.' 3
The longest and most thorough treatment of the respective merits of
the contemplative and the active life appeared in Roger Baynes's
dialogue The praise of solitarinesse. Its main topic was whether man 'ought
rather to make choise of Solitarinesse or Societie'. 37 Eudoxus argued
for the vita contemplativa, presenting most of the traditional arguments in
support. He began by pointing out that the curing of the mind by the
exercise of philosophy was possible only in complete solitude. It was in
this state that we could reach 'the freenesse and libertie of our minde'.
The majority of the people were corrupted, discarding true honesty
and thinking that the things which were profitable were also honest. By
reversing the order of these crucial concepts they abandoned all
morality. It was impossible to try to cure them; a man could 'but little
benefite the common wealth, nor doe good unto such, as will neyther
take warning, nor can away to be controlled'. On the contrary, such
company would also corrupt the wise man. The only way a man could
safeguard himself from degeneration was to remain in a solitary state,
to 'withdrawe him from the companie of such lewde disposed persons,
retiring from thence into some solitarie corner'. The clearest instance
of this prevailing degeneration and perverted order of values was the
fact that 'small and petite robberies are severally punished, when great
and horrible offences are praysed and commended'. Faced with such
atrocities a wise man should 'patiently suffer, all adversities and
mischaunces that shal hap to betide him' and instead 'enjoy a well
settled minde'.
The contention of the advocates of the vita activa that man was born
primarily for the commonwealth could easily be answered by pointing
out that man was not merely a member of the particular common-
wealth 'whereunto by birth we are privately allotted'. All men were
also members of the universal commonwealth of mankind and it was
'more commendable' to pursue the good of this larger community. But
this was not possible so long as a man was 'conversaunt abroade in any
publike assembly, bycause in such places he can never be at quiet, but
shall still be tormented and beaten with trouble'. To prove his point,
Eudoxus resorted to the authority of religion and 'the auntient
Philosophers' like Seneca and Plato. Although they had taught us 'to
36
Stubbes, The anatomie of abuses, sig. B4V.
37
Roger Baynes, The praise of solitarinesse, set down in the form of a dialogue, wherein is conteyned, a
discourse philosophical, of thelyfeactiue and contemplatiue (London, 1577), p. 1.
28 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

exercise pittie towards our parents, our friends, our countrey, and
generally unto al men', their most important lesson was 'to have a
continuall regarde to the due preservation of oure just and honest
minds'. Most importantly 'Cicero himselfe' had agreed about this.
Although Cicero had declared that 'the lyfe active' was 'more commo-
dious' 'for the benefite of the common wealth', he had also confessed
'that the contemplative life, is more safe and easie both for the soule
and bodie'. It was easy, therefore, to point at 'the leadable disposition
of Cicero, or the excellencie of his glorious quietnesse'. Finally,
Eudoxus gave a short exposition of both ways of living. Whereas man
leading a vita activa was beset by troubles from the very beginning and
was bound either to oppress 'the just & rightfull cause' or to uphold
'the wicked and unhonest pretence', solitary man had, as Eudoxus
carefully pointed out, 'free choyce, either to staye at home, to walk
abrode, or at libertie to go whersoever he lusteth', being 'without
trouble or care of the worlde'; he could perfect himself in the 'fynding
out and foliowyng of Truth'. 38
Lysippus was the interlocutor who attempted to discharge Eudoxus'
arguments and to uphold the values of an active life. He opened his
case by ridiculing Eudoxus' entire stance. The most ideal life advocated
by Eudoxus consisted of solitude where 'a man withdrawing himselfe
from company, seeketh rather to live in the voide and desolate places
of the earth, and there playing the Philosopher in the open wildernesse,
doth seeme alone to contente hymselfe'. But the main way in which he
sought to establish the superiority of the vita activa was by giving a
Ciceronian account of the beginning of the commonwealth. Those who
were accounted wise utterly condemned 'that uncivile kind of life,
which ignorant people in the beginning of the world did brutishly
leade, much after the manner of unreasonable beastes'. Lysippus
described this original state of nature in most gloomy terms. Amongst
these people 'there was neyther societie nor friendship maynteyned, no
man living in the boundes of lawfull matrimony, no man certaine of his
owne children, nor any law to distinguish the good from the evill
mainteyned among them'. It was only when they were taught by
reason that men began to organize themselves into commonwealths.
This further taught man that it was 'his duetie, not onely to employ the
best of his labour, but also to adventure the losse of hys life, for the
better maintenance of the commen Wealth'. This straightforward

38
Ibid., pp. 2-3, 7, 49-50, 52-5, 65-6, 75-6, 80; see especially also pp. 61-6, 73-84.
 Classical humanism restated 29

lesson could be gathered from Plato, but above all from Cicero.
Cicero's true message had been that a man ought to avoid withdrawing
himself 'unto Solitarinesse' and ought instead 'to stay in the Citie, and
there to endevour as well as hee maye to doe that which is good'. The
practical results of this lesson could be seen in innumerable instances
amongst the Greeks and above all the Romans, but it was most readily
to be seen in 'Tully, that greate Prince of Eloquence . . . who although
sometimes', as Lysippus was willing to admit, 'seemed to command the
Solitary life', had in fact been forced to do this and his real preference
had always lain in 'the Citie, which he esteemd more pretious than any
golde'. 39
Despite their numerous convincing arguments, neither Eudoxus nor
Lysippus could persuade the other to renounce his own conviction and
accept the opposite. Although Eudoxus in particular showed some
signs of giving in, admitting that 'manye things . . . maye on both sides
be spoken', in the end he remained 'fully perswaded, that more may be
alleaged, in the commendation of Solitarinesse, than of Societie'. 40 The
decision of the debate was, therefore, referred to Tales - the third
interlocutor. At an earlier stage of the debate Tales had drawn
attention to the rhetorical nature of the discussion by pointing out that
'this question may sufficiently be debated on both sides'. 41 When it fell
to him to settle the debate, he began by showing similar hesitations;
there was scarcely anything substantial to be added to Eudoxus' or
Lysippus' arguments. Whether the preference was to be given to the
contemplative or the active life depended partly on 'the time and the
nature of eche man'.
At the beginning of his account Tales reminded his interlocutors that
every living creature now and again needed solitude, and men also
needed solitude of mind in order to be able to dwell by themselves and
to converse with the wise. But the kind of solitude Eudoxus had in
mind was suitable only for those who were capable of conferring 'wyth
their bookes', since withdrawal 'wythoute learning is a very banish-
ment, or rather a prison'. It was primarily this solitude that Eudoxus
had been defending and it was essentially the same that underlay
Cicero's rhetorical question: 'What is sweter than learned rest?' There

39
Ibid., pp. 4 - 5 , 56—9, 67, 69-71; see in general pp. 67-73. For a Ciceronian account of the
birth of civil life, see also Heron, A newe discourse, pp. 37-8, and especially Blandy, The castle, fo.
I V
3 -
40
Baynes, The praise of solitarinesse, pp. 59, 73, 49.
41
Ibid., p . 6.
30 Classical humanism and republicanism i^yo-1640

was no doubt that the 'Solitarinesse of place' was 'to be preferred unto
students, & to such only as are thought to be wise5. It was thus Eudoxus
and the otium which seemed to carry the day.
But Tales went on to argue that although withdrawal ought to have
preference for the sake of learning, learning itself should not be
favoured for its own sake. Those who were inclined to solitude in order
to achieve learning should always be ready, 'when neede shall require',
to 'come abroade, refusing no peril, either for the safetie of their
countrey, or for the savegarde of their friends'. Learning was but a
means to the further end of the promotion of the commonwealth; life
was given to man 'for the only use and behoofe of his countrey'. An
active life for the good of his country was the true end of a man's life
and it was the only way in which he could win 'fame and everlasting
renowne' and not 'live in shame and reproche'. Tales' conclusion was
thus that both the contemplative and the active life were required. 'A
wise man therfore', he told his interlocutors, 'ought chiefly to knowe,
howe beste to applye bothe time and place, aswell unto Solitarinesse as
to Societie, following therin as nere as he may, the example of suches
as in former time, have to his knowledge performed the like.' This was
a conclusion which Eudoxus and Lysippus could readily accept.42
Before reaching this essentially Ciceronian conclusion, namely that a
contemplative life of learning was invaluable, but only in so far as it
served the ends of the active life, a question of crucial importance had
to be settled. As Lysippus put it, 'we first define what vertue is: And
after ... we wil further consider, whether Solitarinesse or societie may
seme more convenient for the obteining therof.43 The point of
departure of the treatise had been to explain 'first, what Vertue is, and
whether a wise man that desireth to live vertuously ought rather to
make choise of solitarinesse or Societie'.44 The ensuing, somewhat
ambivalent, discussion of virtue was opened by a brief description of
the different classical schools of ethics excluding 'the Cinicke secte'. A
strong case was presented for the superiority of the stoic definition. It
was above all Cicero whose authority was employed in arguments
against the role of the goods of body and fortune. Every day it was
possible to encounter evidence 'that a noble & vertuous minde may
possible lie hid under each kind of forme'. Along with physical beauty,
physical strength and riches were regarded as 'indifferent things' in
42
Ibid., pp. 84-6.
43
Ibid., p. 7.
44
Ibid., p. 1.
 Classical humanism restated 31

respect of the chief goodness.45 The underlying stoicism also surfaced

in the treatment of the nature and contents of the concept of 'virtue'.
Tales in particular firmly held that although there were four main
virtues with different fields of application, each one of them was but a
part of a single whole and in this respect there was 'but one onely
vertue'. 46
Eudoxus and Tales argued further the stoic idea that virtue consisted
in the avoidance of perturbation.47 Although Lysippus was willing to
admit this, he also referred to Cicero's Ticsculan disputations to point out
that few or no philosophers could lead a life 'as reason requireth'.
Furthermore, Cicero had taught that philosophy and wisdom was
'nothing except it be put in practise'. The chief characteristic of
philosophy was rather 'to make hir lovers to live wel in publique
conversation, than to speake & teach wel in private schooles' - a lesson
which was most obvious in Cicero's own life. Following 'the discipline
of Panetius the Stoike', Cicero had indeed set down 'the duetie of
eache marine exceedingly well' and he had even borne 'valiauntlye'
calamitous private and public perturbations, such as his daughter's
death or 'the Monarchie of Cesar oppressing the publike libertie'. But
it was sufficient neither to suppress perturbations nor to know virtue
and duty in detail. It was of overriding importance to be virtuous both
'in worde and deede'. As Tales put it later, only when a man combined
eloquence with wisdom, could he become 'a member very profitable,
both privately for hys friends, and generally for the whole estate'. 48
This classical appreciation of the close connection between the active
life and virtues was also endorsed in other treatises which emphasized
the superiority of negotium. For Furio Ceriol one of the first things a
consummate counsellor ought to be familiar with was 'the ende and
true use of every vertue'. According to Patrizi, those who held office
ought to retain virtues, and conversely, offices should be reserved for
the virtuous.50 Cornelius Valerius argued that the only way men could
successfully pursue their chosen end was when 'vertue' was 'the guide'.
It was consequently impossible to govern 'a weale publike' if a man was
not 'informed with the rules of condicions and fashioned unto every
45
Ibid., pp. 9-18; see also pp. 41-2.
46
Ibid., pp. 40-1.
47
Ibid., pp. 24—5, 26-7, 38, 39-40.
48
Ibid., pp. 2 8 - 3 2 , 4 2 - 3 , 47-8.
49
Furio [Ceriol], A very briefe treatise, sig. F3 r . Gf. in general e.g. Geffrey Fenton, Golden epistles,
conteyning varietie of discourse, both morall, phifosophicall, and divine (London, 1577), sig. A2r~3r.
50
Patrizi, A moral methode, fos. 4V, 2i r , 48 V .
32 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

vertue'.51 In defining the key concepts of his treatise, Guazzo empha-

sized that 'to live civillie, is not sayd in respect of the Citie, but of the
qualities of the minde'. 'To be short,' he specified, 'my meaning is, that
civile Conversation is an honest commendable, and vertuous kinde of
living in the world.'52 Haly Heron agreed with Baynes that gifts of
fortune and nature - riches and health - were of no significance in
comparison with the 'quiet possession of vertues'. It followed that the
requirements of public duty hinged on virtues only.53 According to
Bryskett, 'civill felicitie' was simply 'an inward reward for morall
vertues', and John Lyly, John Foord and Philip Sidney, as well as the
author of the Cyuile and vncyuile life, agreed.54 When Thomas Rogers
defined a good man, who 'serveth God devoutly, and dealeth upright-
lye with all men', as a 'a civile man', he pointed out that such a man
was 'adorned with all vertues'; he 'embraceth vertue with all his hart'.
This was the chief quality which enabled him to promote the common
good.55
The underlying reason why virtues were given such a central place
in the pursuit of the common good was the particular assessment of
their intrinsic character. In truly Ciceronian fashion it was maintained
that the real cause of virtue demanded not just knowledge but practice.
In this account, as Baynes had declared, learning was valuable only in
so far as it was useful. Osorio argued that a learned man was not 'most
worthye & honourable', although he was furnished with 'rare and
singular vertues' and with 'profound knowledge in deepeste matters', as
long as he did not employ these qualities 'to the availe and commoditye
of the common wealth'. A man could be called 'a good and vertuous
man' when he was well instructed in the 'precepts of moralitie', but he
would win praise only when 'he applie them to the profite &
commoditie of the weale publique'.56 The reason Heron exhorted his
readers to avoid 'too much contemplation' was that, as he paraphrased
Cicero, 'the chiefe praise of vertue consiste in Doing, and not in
Saying'. Those who 'spend their whole life in the curious studie of
Science, not regarding anye kinde of good practise' made a crucial
51
Valerius, The casket ofiewels, sigs. c8 v , D7 v -8 r .
52
Guazzo, The duile conuersation, fos. 22 r ~ v 55 v ~56 r .
53
Heron, A newe discourse, pp. 4 - 5 , 38—9. See also e.g. Pritchard, The schoole of honestlyfe,pp. 9-11,
14—15; Bryskett, A discourse of civill life, pp. 155-6; Rogers, A philosophicall discourse, fos. 28 r ~ v ,
8 o r - 8 i r , but see fos. 65 v -66 r .
54
Bryskett, A discourse of civill life, p. 41; Lyly, Euphues, pp. 183, 151, 153; Foord, Synopsis politico, fo.
5V; Sidney, Old Arcadia, pp. 6, 8, 18, 20, 314.
55
Rogers, A phibsophicall discourse, fos. 85™, see also fos. 3O v -3i r , 54 v ~55 r , 58™.
56
Osorio, TheJive bookes ofnobilitie, fos. 5 v -6 r , 23V.
 Classical humanism restated 33

mistake, since the ultimate end of all learning was its virtuous applica-
tion in practice.57 Pritchard said: 'if diligence bee dismiste, and practice
put aside, all is vaine, for the beeinge and continuance of Vertue, is in
action and exercise'. Cicero had established this point not merely in his
own life by being 'advaunced to dignitie and high calling among the
Romaines', but also cin his Rhetorickes' by writing 'that preceptes and
rules of disciplines avayle nothinge, without daily diligence and
paynefull practise therof. 'The true tutche of vertue', Pritchard later
added, 'doth not consist in the knowledge and science therof: but in
exhibiting the same'; virtue 'consisteth in action, and daily deede of
honesty'. In a well-known passage, Philip Sidney concurred: 'So that
the ending end of all earthly learning, being vertuous action, those skils
that most serve to bring forth that, have a most just title to be Princes
over al the rest.'58
As well as discussing the nature of virtue, these authors treated the
question of its particular qualities. First and foremost, as Baynes's Tales
argued, the general virtue consisted in searching out 'the truth of eache
matter' and especially in making 'choyce betweene profitable and
unprofitable' - a quality which was called 'by the name of Prudence'.
When the general virtue focused on 'the mayntayning of humayne
Societye', it was called 'by the name ofJustice'; when it exhibited itself
in the 'valor of an unvincible harte', it was called courage or fortitude;
and when it pertained to 'the orderly disposition of our sayings and
doings', its name was 'Modestie' or temperance. 59 The same list of
cardinal virtues (although hardly with such a close imitation of Cicero's
actual choice of words) was prominent in Patrizi's description of the
qualities of magistrates, in Furio Ceriol's account of the counsellor, in
Osorio's account of nobility and in Valerius' treatment of moral
philosophy, where the whole discussion was organized in accordance
with it.60 It occupied a scarcely less conspicuous place in the tracts
composed by Englishmen. Although in the second part of A discourse of
civill life Lodovick Bryskett drew the Aristotelian distinction between
intellectual and moral virtues, later, when he defined the virtues
'appertaining to civill life', he maintained that they were four in
57
Heron, A newe discourse, pp. 101-2.
58
Pritchard, The schoole of honestlyfe,pp. 15-17, 28; Sidney, The defence ofpoesie, in Works, in, p. 12.
59
Baynes, The praise ofsolitarinesse, pp. 40-1.
60
Patrizi, A moral methode, fos. 2i r -22 r , 5OV; cf. Richard Robinson, The vineyarde of vertue collected,
composed, and digested into a tripartite order (London, n.d. [1579]), where the account was essentially
Christian; Furio [Ceriol], A briefe treatise, sig. D3 v ~4 r ; Osorio, The jive bookes ofnobilitie, fos. 24r—
27V; Valerius, The casket ofiewels, sigs. D2 v ~3 r , K7 r .
34 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

number: fortitude, temperance, justice and prudence.61 The cardinal

virtues were, according to John Feme, 'the fountaynes, out of which al
gentienes, should and ought to streame'.62 Thomas Pritchard opened
his discussion of honest life by referring to Cicero who had 'grafted
upon this Tree of vertue: foure brave branches: out of which, bud
many springing sproutes, very necessary and spectant to perfection ...
of mans life. That is, Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude.'63
Having pointed out that the only way of reaching the platform of'civile
man' was to embrace virtue, Thomas Rogers proceeded to 'declare
what this vertue is, and of howe many partes it consisteth'. Faithful to
his habits he began by presenting the different definitions of the ancient
schools of moral philosophy. Aristotle, he wrote, divided virtues into
intellectual and moral ones. 'But Plato best of all sayeth plainly, that
vertue is divided into fowre parts' and it was this division which Rogers
himself followed in the second part of his book which was devoted to a
detailed explication of every virtue.64
Following their Roman authorities, humanists had argued that as
well as advancing the good of the commonwealth the virtuous active
life conferred honour and praise on the actors themselves. This
conclusion was as strongly endorsed by the writers under discussion.
Thus Baynes's Tales decided on the respective merits of the active and
the contemplative life by reiterating that the former was the only way
to win 'everlasting renowne'. 'Every man', as Richard Robinson
rendered Patrizi's argument, 'laboureth for renowme, which when he
shal se hymselfe prevented of, and that hee is frustrate of hope, he is
never at quiet in hys mynde.'65 As Guazzo maintained: 'when I sayde
that ambition is the cause of manie abuses, I meant not those men,
which knowing their owne valour, aspire to highe enterprises and
honours, which by the instinct of Nature wee all covet: for that honour
Pip*
is the reward of vertue, and counted a divine thing.'
The same argument was endorsed with equal vehemence by the
English theorists. Haly Heron described the results of virtuous pursuits
as 'the sweete Nectar & Heavenlye perpetuall flowing streames of
61
Bryskett, A discourse qfcivill life, pp. 120, 214-59; Foord, Synopsis politico, fos. 7 v - n v .
62
Feme, The blazon qfgentrie, 1, p. 30. See Blandy, The castle, fos. 9 v -i4- r .
63
Pritchard, The schoole ofhonestlyfe,p. 6.
64
Rogers, A philosophicall discourse, fos. 85 v -8y r . For an endorsement of this a n d other traditional
humanist values by John Dee, see Sherman 1990.
65
Patrizi, A moral methode, fos. 5 v -6 r , 3V, 88 r .
66
Guazzo, The civile conuersation, fo. 44 r . See also Furio [Geriol], A very brief treatise, sig. I3V—4r. See
also e.g. Valerius, The casket qfiewels, sig. I2 r .
 Classical humanism restated 35

Fame'. Bryskett went as far as to argue that, irrespective of whether a

man was in public or in private, 'he never undertaketh any thing but
that which carieth withall reputation, dignitie & honour 5. A man, he
added, ought 'to direct ail his actions to the mark of honour, a thing
esteemed . . . among all others the greatest externall good'. It was,
however, 'unfitting' to hold honour as the direct aim of one's actions;
the only true aim was simply 'honorable and vertuous actions'. 68
There was thus a dilemma: on the one hand, glory and honour were
said to constitute the only true reward of man's action but, on the other
hand, the unequivocal pursuit of these values was regarded as a distortion
of their intrinsic nature. Nowhere is this dilemma presented with such
acuteness as in Rogers's A philosophicall discourse. According to Rogers,
ambition was 'an unmeasurable desire of glory' - 'the most daungerous
thing in a common weale'. The proper quest for honour took place when
man's behaviour was governed by the principles of wisdom and the
ultimate aim of his action was the public good. To illustrate his point,
Rogers referred to Tacitus and Cicero who had shown how ambition
began to grow amongst the Romans, with the result of serious internal
commotions and finally the tyrannies of Pompey and Caesar, who had
not sought 'the profiting & commodity of their countrey, but their private
commoditie'. But Rogers was most emphatic to stress that although glory
'ought not to be hunted after', it nonetheless followed 'good deedes' just
'as the shadowe doth followe the bodie'. 69
These arguments that the virtuous vita activa would have favourable
effects on the community at large and bring glory to the actor himself
were almost invariably coupled with a closely related and equally central
question of the classical republican tradition. This was the question of
true citizenship: what were the necessary characteristics for a man to
qualify as a truly noble citizen? Hence Patrizi treated in the sixth book of
his treatise the issues of 'Nobilitie' and 'true citizens' and Osorio
reiterated that 'I have thought it therefore must appertynent to my
purpose, to search out diligently the nature, originall, right rule, and
foundation of true Nobilitye.'70 Hence, too, when Anniball suggested in
Guazzo's The ciuile conuersation that they should 'speake of Gentlemen and
Yeomen, betweene whom by reason of their difference and inequalitie,

67
Heron, A newe discourse, p. 46.
68
Bryskett, A discourse ofcwill life, pp. 222, 231, 241—2, see also p. 76.
69
Rogers, A philosophicall discourse, fos. IO V -II V , 8V, 6g v , i37v— i38 v . Cf. in general Feme, The blazon
ofgentrie, sig. A3V. Blandy, The castle, fos. f, io r .
70
Osorio, Thefiveboohs of nobilitie, fo. 2V.
36 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

there are diverse thinges to be observed in companie', Guazzo immedi-

ately requested Anniball to 'undo me the knot of this gentrie'.71
Again, the English authors agreed. Heron claimed that it 'hath beene
a doubtfull question of long time amongst the learned, touchyng the
firste cause and originall occasion of Gentrie',72 whilst the chief issue
John Feme raised in his extensive treatise was 'what is civill nobilitie'.73
The same task was undertaken by Richard Mulcaster in his educational
treatise when he asked, 'what it is to be a gentleman or a nobleman, and
what force the termes of nobilitie or gentrie do infer to be in the persons,
to whom they are proper'.74 Persons presented to the degree of MA in
Oxford in 1583 were asked to dispute whether true nobility was
achieved by one's own virtues or by those of one's forefathers.
In seeking to answer this question, Patrizi referred to Cicero and
argued that 'it is better, that I do florishe in mine owne actes that I
have done, then to leane upon the reputacion of auncestrie'.76 It
followed that in the best commonwealth it was looked to that justice
was done and that honour and nobility were conferred according to
true merits of virtuous actions for the public good. The same idea had
already occurred in the first book, where Patrizi gave a Ciceronian
account of the origins of the civic society. One of the chief character-
istics of a well-ordered society was that 'there were rewardes bestowed
on them which excelled in any manner of vertue'.77 Furio Ceriol
suggested that the prince should establish a council devoted to advising
him about the bestowal of rewards. Due to the lack of such councils,
'the vertuous sort which commonly be no cravers, are sildome or never
considered, and such as least deserve, are alwayes best rewarded'.78
The same idea was discussed even more fully in Osorio's treatise on
nobility, according to which, virtue was 'worker and causer of so noble
a qualitie' that it 'doth deserve greate honour and estimation'; nobility
was 'a kindred excelling in more rare and principall vertues'.79

71
Guazzo, The duile conuersation, fos. 8 i v - 8 2 r .
72
Heron, A newe discourse, p. 36.
73
Feme, The blazon of gentrie, 1, p. 12.
74
Richard Mulcaster, Positions wherin those primitive circumstances be examined, which are necessariefor the
training vp of children (London 1581), p. 197.
75
Register of the University of Oxford, vol. 11 (1571-1622), p t 1, ed. Andrew Clark (Oxford University
Press, 1887), p . 170; cf. 1587, p. 171.
76
Patrizi, A moral methode, fos. 59™.
77
I b i d , fo. 3V.
78
Furio [Ceriol], A very brief treatise, sig. C4V; see also sig. I3 v ~4 r .
79
Osorio, The Jive bookes of nobilitie, fos. 22V, 23 V , cf. sig. b3 r . See also L a Primaudaye, The French
academie, p. 254; Guazzo, The duile conuersation, fo. 84 r .
 Classical humanism restated 37

Thomas Rogers firmly held that those who were born of 'noble
parentage' but who did not possess 'noble qualities' could not win
honour and glory. 'And therefore', he continued, 'true is that sentence
of Cicero, Noble men, except they be vigilant, honest, valiant, and
mercifull (notwithstanding their byrth) must needes geve place unto
them, which are adorned with those goodly vertues.' A man is happy
when 'he is honored of men', and 'this honor is called the reward of
vertue'. Rogers illustrated his argument by providing a traditional
humanist example of how the temple of honour in Rome had been
reached in no other way than by going through the temple of virtue.
Although John Foord followed Aristotle and defined nobility as
'ancient riches and virtue', he nevertheless freely admitted that
common people could attain nobility by excelling in virtue rather than
in fortune.81 Even the herald John Feme, who argued that 'Noblenes
mixt', combining birth and virtues, was the best one, confessed that
'the inmeasurable highte, of eternall glorye and immortalitie' acquired
by virtues 'excelleth the other noblenesse of bloode', and cited Cicero
against Aristotle's 'childish' doctrine 'that noblenes (the honor due to
vertues) might proceede from riches'. Instead, 'true nobilitye, hath no
other fountaine, from whence to fetch her source, then onely vertue'. 82
For William Blandy, 'every man in this lyfe (as on a Theatre or stage)
playes one parte or other, which meriteth shame and obloquie, or
deserveth (as his owne right) due commendation'.
In his educational handbook Richard Mulcaster explained that 'to
become a gentleman is to beare the cognisance of vertue, wherto
honour is companion'. He did not feel inclined to give a further
account of the issue partly 'bycause the argument is so large . . . and so
brave a subject cannot chuse but minister passing brave discourses' and
partly because there were already so many treatises on the issue. But he
nonetheless reminded the reader that 'true nobilitie have vertue for her
ground'. 84 In the Cyuile and vncyuile life Vincent and Vallentine could
easily agree that it was not the external things such as riches, 'apparell
and jesture' which made a gentleman but rather 'the inwarde vertues

80
Rogers, A philosophical! discourse, fos. 67 r -6g r . Cf. e.g. Geffrey Fenton, A forme of Christian pollide
gathered out of French (London, 1574), p . 222.
81
Foord, Synopsis politico, fos. i3 r , i2 v .
82
Feme, The blazon ofgentrie, sig. A3 r , 1, pp. 4, 13-30, and especially p. 76. For Feme, see James
1986, pp. 379-80, 382. See also Leonard Wright, A display of duty, deckt with sage sayings, pithy
sentences, and proper similies (1589), (London, 1616), fo. 4 r .
83
Blandy The castle, fo. T .
84
Mulcaster, Positions, pp. 194-201.
38 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

and perfections be in troth of most waight, and cheefly required'; 'true

honor consisteth not in the admiration of the common people, but in
the vertue of him that therwith is indued'. It followed that they who
'liveth most vertuously ... are fittest for the state'.85 Haly Heron
presented numerous possible answers to the question of the origins of
nobility. Ancient poets had suggested that gentry was 'the verye
offspring of the Goddes', while ancient philosophers had claimed that
nobility derived its pedigree from the sun, the moon and 'manye other
celestiall creatures'. The common people held the erroneous view that
'riches' had been 'the beginning of noble birth'. In the same way as
Patrizi, Heron commenced his own answer by explaining in Ciceronian
terms how civil society had been founded by degrees and how from the
foundation of 'civil government' followed not merely 'the crown of
princely dignities', but also 'the banner of true nobilitie'. There was no
natural nobility and it was consequently 'the worthy fame of vertues
alone' that raised man 'to the toppe and type of Honour'.86
John Lyly declared that you are not necessarily 'a gentleman'
although 'thy ancestours were of nobilitie'; 'a right Gentleman is
sooner seene by the tryall of his vertue then biasing of his armes'.87
Philip Sidney agreed, esteeming, according to Fulke Greville, 'noble
actions far above nobility itself. Although John Rainolds confessed that
'it is a desirable beginning for the course of a happy life to be born of
good parents', he was confirmed that 'noble birth ... weakens us in the
course of virtue more than it furthers us'. 'It is', Rainolds told his
students, 'absolutely stupid and absurd to set the dignity of men in the
rotten antiquity of time.' As Cicero and Juvenal had amply demon-
strated, 'true nobility does not depend upon ancestral statues, but upon
one's own virtues; not upon the titles of one's ancestors, but upon one's
own deeds'. The conclusion was inescapable: 'virtue is the one and
only nobility'.88 According to Philip Stubbes, he was 'no Gentleman'
who claimed his title by virtue of his 'byrth', because it was 'onely by
vertue' that one attained nobility.89 Edmund Spenser insisted that 'the
gentle minde' and 'gentle deeds' demonstrated 'Of what degree and

85
Anon., Cyuile and vncyuile life, sigs. M^r, N3V; see also F4V.
86
Heron, A newe discourse, pp. 37-8, see also p. 46. Cf. in general e.g. Thomas Crewe, The nosegay
of morall phibsophie (London, 1580), sigs. ci r , Gir; John Bosswell, Workes ofarmorie, deuyded into
three bookes (n.p., 1572), fos. i6 r ~ v ; George Whetstone, The honourable repvtation of a sovldier
(Leyden, 1586), pp. 26-8, 32, 60.
87
Lyly, Euphues, pp. 190-1, 135.
88
Greville, A dedication, in The prose works, p. 23; Rainolds, Oxford lectures, pp. 301-5.
89
Stubbes, The anatomie of abuses, sigs. c8 r -Di r , B6 v ~7 r .
 Classical humanism restated 39

what race he is growne'. 90 But he asserted even more strongly that it

was pompous and vain to conely boast of Armes and Auncestrie'
without striving for Vertuous deedes5.91 In a well-known passage he
versed:
And certes it hath oftentimes bene seene,
That of the like, whose linage was unknowne,
More brave and noble knights have raysed beene,
As their victorious deedes have often showen,
Being with fame through many Nations blowen,
Then those, which have bene dandled in the lap.92
There is little doubt that the vocabulary of classical humanism was
developed with a vengeance in the 1570s and 1580s. The main aim of
human life was said to be the advancement of the common good which
could only be attained by a relentless pursuit of a virtuous vita activa. In
articulating the key concepts of humanist tradition, the theorists under
discussion were further engaged in developing the consciousness of
Englishmen as active citizens. The underlying argument was that the
common good could not materialize unless everyone was fully com-
mitted to promote this aim by exercising the full range of civic virtues.
It is from this point of view that we can perhaps best understand why
Englishmen could find republican treatises, such as Patrizi's, so relevant
to their own circumstances. Patrizi defined a 'civil man' and 'a good
Cittizen' as a person who turned out to be 'profitable to his common
weale'; it was the duty of'all citizens to worke and traveile5 in order 'to
helpe the common weal, that not onely it be kept in good estate, but
that it maye every day encrease better and better'. 93 The vocabulary
used by Thomas Rogers, for instance, was strikingly similar. He
presented a man who was in so 'harde contemplation' that he was
'unwylling to bestowe his paines in keeping' his country 'from servitude'
as a counterpart of 'a civile man' who was 'adorned with all vertues'
and who promoted the common good by his 'civile actions'. 94 The
public good was, therefore, not totally dependent on the qualities and
abilities of the prince, but also, and perhaps in particular, on the
virtuous civic participation of the people as a whole. What was needed
in order to accomplish this end was not so much any specific skill as a
90
Faerie Queene, vi.iii.i, in Poetical works.
91
'The teares of the muses', lines 79-96, in Poetical works, p. 481.
92
Faerie Queene, vi.iv.36.
93
Patrizi, A moral methode, fos. 48V~49V; cf. fo. 5i v .
94
Rogers, A philosophicall treatise, fos. 69 r ~ v , 8i v -82 r , 84 r -85 v ; cf. Foord, Synopsis politica, fos. y^~v,
where Foord discussed the issue of'the best citizens'.
40 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

more general inclination to serve the commonwealth and a readiness to

commit oneself to the advancement of its well-being.
Although it was widely agreed that everyone should actively seek to
promote the common good by exercising his virtuous qualities and that
this was the best and perhaps the only way to reach the honourable
aim, the question can still be raised how these virtues should be put
into practice, and what kind of activities should specifically be singled
out. In other words, what were the spheres of the citizen's active life?
One significant way of displaying one's virtuous character and advan-
cing the common good was to be a soldier. The willingness to defend
the fatherland was often directly linked with the cardinal virtue of
courage, and since the former was taken to be the duty of every person,
courage was frequently interpreted as a chief virtue of the people.
According to Valerius, fortitude consisted in a double duty 'to
adventure, and to sustaine daungers & adversities'. A major instance of
the virtue in practice was 'Citizens fighting for their countrie'. 95 Osorio
agreed and presented the greatness of Rome as his example. In Rome
men, who had been 'by race and birth no gentlemen', had attained
'the hyghest degree of honour and dignity' by a lavish display of 'their
rare and singular fortitude'.96 Although Patrizi maintained that it was
best 'to bee quiet, and to lyve in peace', he nevertheless admitted that
one should always be ready to defend one's country. In accomplishing
this, it was of the utmost importance to avoid the use of mercenaries
and to employ citizens in the defence of the commonwealth. 97 This
republican idea of the militia received its fullest treatment in Machia-
velli's The arte of wane first published in English as early as 1560 and
reprinted in 1588.
The same range of beliefs emerges again in the treatises written by
the English. Thomas Pritchard wrote that one of the virtuous actions
'towardes our native Countrey' was 'to defend the same' and 'to dye
for the honour of thy Countrey as there are many of the Romanes and
others Chronicled in Iivie'. 9 Rogers believed that one aspect of a
'civile' man was his readiness to defend the fatherland.99 But the idea
of the militia, so central to Italian republicanism, was more fully
discussed and endorsed in a number of military tracts. The common

95
Valerius, The casket qfiewels, sig. H7 r -8 r ; cf. sig. vf.
96
Osorio, TheJive bookes ofnobilitie, fos. 2^r-2jT.
97
Patrizi, A morall methode, fos. 761"—77 r, 82 v -83 r , f, cf. 72V.
98
Pritchard, The schoole qfvertuouslyfe,p. 30. Cf. e.g. Anon., Cytale and vncyuile life, sig. ci v .
99
Rogers, A philosophical! discourse, fo. io,8r, cf. Foord, Synopsis politico, fos. 131", iyr~v.
 Classical humanism restated 41

point of departure of these military treatises was the Machiavellian idea

that there was a close connection betwen good arms and good laws.
'Never was theare', Thomas Procter declared, 'a great & famous estate,
whearein armes and lawes, civill governement, and martiall prowesse
florished not together.' Thomas Digges reminded the reader that 'the
whole course of Histories of all times and Countreys' had shown that
'Kingdomes have flourished' when they took care that military skills
were duly maintained and practised, 'and contrarywyse, how most
happie Empires after warlike Discipline have bin corrupted, have fallen
to ruine, and miserable servitude'. 0 0
Although there were authors who defended warfare as a professional
vocation, 0 1 the most common argument was to emphasize that
untrustworthy mercenaries should be avoided and to put the main
emphasis on the employment of a citizen-militia - as suggested by the
'interventionists' of the Privy Council in 1585. 'Not every mercio-
narie' and 'common hirelyng . . . is a Soldiour fitte to bee regestered',
Thomas Churchyard wrote, and stressed that as soon as service was
over soldiers must return to their former occupations. 103 According to
Thomas Procter, the employment of mercenaries was the only serious
shortcoming of the 'otherwise moste excellent governement, and
plentyfull provisyon of all thinges, both for peace and warre' of
Venice. 104 One ought to follow the ancient Greeks and Romans who
had fought their wars chiefly 'to purchase fame' for themselves and to
acquire 'honour, and advauncement unto their countreys, and
common wealthes'; they had not availed themselves 'of the spoiles &
prises of their conquests'. Procter could thus summarize his whole
argument in a marginal note: according to Aristotle, 'he loseth the

T[homas] P[rocter], Of the knowledge andconducts of wanes, two bookes (n.p., 1578), fo. 48 V , see also
sig. f 3 v -4 r ; Leonard and Thomas Digges, An arithmetkall militare treatise, named Stratioticos
(London, 1579), sig. A2r, ai v . See also Thomas Styward, Thepathwaie to martiall discipline, deuided
into two bookes (London, 1581), sig. A4r; Barnaby Rich, Allarme to Englandforeshewing what perilles
are procured, where the people Hue without regarde of martiall lawe (London, 1578), sig. F2r.
Geoffrey Gates, The defence of militarieprofession (London, 1579), especially p . 12. See in general
Jorgensen 1956, pp. 224-30.
Guy 1988, p . 287. For the renaissance background, see e.g. Bayley 1961; Hale i960.
Thomas Churchyard, A generall rehearsall of wanes, wherein isjiue hundred seuerall sendees of land and
sea (London, 1579), sig. M2V. Cf. Styward, Thepathwaie to martiall discipline, p . 149.
Pjrocter], Of the knowledge of wanes, fos. 3 5 r v - See in general Thomas Blundeville, The true order
and methode ofwryting and reading hystories (London, 1574), sig. A3 V -£. George Whetstone, The
English mynor: a regard wherein al estates may behold the conquests ofenuy (London, 1586), p. 83. Cf.
also Charles Merbury, A briefe discourse of myall monarchie, as of the best common weak (London,
1581), p . 14.
42 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

name of a good Citizen, which preferreth privat profit, before the

common weale'.105
The strongest analysis of the republican idea of a citizen-militia is to
be found in Leonard and Thomas Digges's Stratioticos. It was of crucial
importance to discard the contemporary corrupt methods - the
methods of cthe Barbarous Gothes' 06 - and to adopt the ancient
discipline most conspicuously revealed in Roman history. Leonard and
Thomas Digges could speak of 'the profession of a Souldior', but they
also maintained that scrupulous care should be exercised that soldiers
had 'some occupation'. If they were mere professional soldiers they
sought 'the warres onely in hope of spoile'. As soon as the war came to
an end, the soldier must 'retourne to his Occupation or former calling'.
The ultimate lesson of this became evident in the story of Lucius
Quintius Cincinnatus who had been called from the plough to dictator-
ship, had 'guided mightie Armies, over-ruled Kings, and yet [had]
thought it no disgrace to returne againe to his private estate, vendi-
cating nothing but the Fame and honour to himselfe'.107 The most
disastrous consequences of a professional army could be gathered from
'the dissolute disorder of [Roman] Emperours', who had disarmed the
Roman people and had established 'a Pretorian Garde' instead. This
most unfortunate state of affairs, exemplified by the fact that the
Pretorian guard had been ready to sell 'the Empire for money to whom
they list', had had two fateful consequences. First, after their disarma-
ment, the Roman people, instead of giving laws to the whole world, as
they had used to do, had been 'invaded, spoyled, sacked and con-
quered' by their enemies. Secondly, they had had 'most servilely to
abide ... all kinde of injurie and villanie among themselves'.108 The
moral of Digges's reasoning was obvious. The only way to have a good
army, which looked to its own glory and to the good of the common-
wealth instead of its own private pecuniary gain, was to arm the
people. More importantly, the disarmament of the people prompted
corruption both from within as well as without the community. The
replacement of a militia by a professional army left the people
defenceless against alien invaders, and internally against the yoke of
tyranny. The citizen-militia was, therefore, not merely a useful weapon

105
Pfrocter], Of the knowledge of warres, fos. i4 v -i5 v . Gf. Feme, The blazon ofgentrie, 1, p. 38; Rich,
Allarme to England, sig.
106
Digges, Stratioticos, sig. ai v .
107
Ibid, pp. 81, 83.
108
I b i d , sig. A 3 V .
 Classical humanism restated 43

against an alien conqueror; it was also an efficacious device against

internal tyranny.
The authors of military manuals acknowledged the dual aspect of
the active life. According to Thomas Styward, 'Tullie in his first booke
of Offices speaketh of a double commoditie these men doe yeeld to
their countreie who making warres goe armed, and roabed doe
governe the Common-wealth.'109 cAn other thing also there is', wrote
Thomas Procter, 'which maketh a captaine most honourable, & to be
as a father unto his countrey, that is, after warres ended, if he can
frame him selfe to peace, good government, & to be as profitable unto
the cyvill estate by his industrie & policye, as he was by his valure in the
warres.' 110 In 1586 Oxford students were asked to dispute whether
'arms should be preferred to toga\nx It is of course true that in his
account of 'the brave Courtier' Edmund Spenser gave a prominent
place to martial exercises. But when he described the ways in which the
courtier could serve his prince, he spoke not merely about 'Armes and
warlike amenaunce' but also about 'wise and civill governaunce'.
For he is practiz'd well in policie,
And thereto doth his Courting most applie:
To learne the enterdeale of Princes strange,
To marke th'intent of Counsells, and the change
Of states, and eke of private men somewhile.11
But a more unqualified endorsement of the Ciceronian preference
for the civil aspects of the vita activa was given by the writers of moral
treatises. Although it was admitted that warfare was necessary and a
true citizen ought to be ready to defend his fatherland, it was argued,
often with a direct reference to Cicero, that to take part in the political
life of the commonwealth and to act as its governor was the way in
which men could acquire the greatest amount of worldly glory. Patrizi
emphasized that it was crucial to guarantee that every citizen was able
to take part in government in order to maintain the rules of equality
and justice and to safeguard the opportunities of all to win honour and
glory.113 For Gabriel Harvey it was only a balanced combination of a
Spartan soldier and an Athenian rhetorician which made a perfect life.
109
Styward, The pathwaie to martiall discipline, p. 163. Cf. e.g. George Whetstone, An heptameron of
ciuill discourses (London, 1582), sig. si r ; idem, The honourable reputation, p. 69; idem, A mirovrfor
magestrates qfcyties (London, 1584), fo. 5V.
110
P[rocter], Of the knowledge of warres, fo. i8 r .
111
Register, vol. 11, pt 1, p . 171.
112
'Mother Hvbberds tale', lines 781—7, in Poetical works, p p . 502—3.
113
Patrizi, A moral methode, fos. 5 v -6 r ; cf. fos. 19/, 2 i ^ v .
44 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

According to Thomas Rogers, those were 'good citizens' and 'civile'

men 'who in war, who in peace deserve well of their contrie', those
who always 'beare in remembrance the benefits of their contrie'.114
The chief task of true nobility consisted in the governance of the
commonwealth.115 According to Valerius, 'a good Citizen' was one
who employed his 'civill vertues' in public offices. Similarly, for Haly
Heron it was best in all actions to prefer 'the steadfast counsaile of
advised policie' to 'the rash enterprise of malaperte boldnesse'. It had
long been 'a great question' whether 'the valiant or wise' were 'more
profitable' 'in the administration of the common wealth'. Heron
himself, however, had no hesitation in answering the question. He
wanted to close the whole controversy 'with the opinion of Cicero' that
the force of the arms was small without counsel at home. It followed
that a man won 'everlasting fame' as a governor rather than as a
soldier.117 The same preference for 'the great foresight' of governors
underlay Baynes's dialogue. According to him, it was pertinent to ask
whether Scipios and Horatius Codes had 'deserved theyr immortall
fame and estimation in the world, for the greatnesse of their strength,
or for the singularitie of their vertue'. The answer, however, was clear.
Baynes urged in a truly Ciceronian fashion that they had won honour
and praise because of their singularly virtuous characters; pure physical
force was the quality of brutish beasts.118 When Thomas Pritchard
discussed what kind of behaviour could be called virtuous, he pointed
out that 'a man must of necessitie be able to governe himselfe, before
hee be admitted and thought worthy to have submission of others'.
Since men attained the highest degree of prudence when they were
old, the governance of the commonwealth, as Cicero had explained,
was chiefly guided by old men.119 According to William Blandy,
prudence 'resteth in the knowledge of civile governement'; it taught
men not merely to govern themselves and their families, but above all
'to rule poletikely great Cittyes and Commonwealthes'.120
Traditionally, an area where this active participation in political life
114
Harvey, Marginalia, pp. 145, 147; Rogers, A phifosophicall discourse, fo. I98 r .
115
Osorio, The Jive bookes ofnobilitie, fos. 5 v -6 r ; Sturmius, A ritch storehouse, fo. ig v ; cf. also fo. 5V.
Furio [Ceriol], A very briefe treatise, sigs. A2r, Fi r , N4r; Feme, The blazon of gentrie, 1, p. 30;
Mulcaster, Positions, pp. 184, 192-3, 132.
116
Valerius, The casket ofiewels, sig. E6r—8r. Cf. in general Guazzo, The duile conuersation, fos. i5 r ~ v .
117
Heron, A newe discourse, pp. 51-2, 44-5, 47.
118
Baynes, The praise of solitarinesse, pp. 13-14, 4-6, 11-12. Cf. A discourse of the commonweal, pp. 2 4 -
5; Rogers, A philosophicall discourse, fos. 137^138^ Blandy, The castle, fos. io v -i2 v .
119
Pritchard, The schoole ofvertuous lyfe, p p . 17-18, 27; in general p p . 17-27.
120
Blandy, The castle, fo. i3 v .
 Classical humanism restated 45

had materialized was in the role of counsellors. Thus it comes as no

surprise that this idea was equally vigorously embraced in the 1570s
and 1580s. The idea of counsel was often topically linked with
parliament. When Thomas Blundeville rendered Furio Ceriol's treatise
into English, he claimed that in England parliament was the counter-
part both of Furio CerioPs 'counsell of revenewes' and council of the
191

'matters of lawe'. Inside Westminster parliament was often regarded

as a centre of political activity, with its chief task being counselling.
'The heathen man Tully', as one MP justified his treatment of the issue
of succession in 1566, 'said that man is not borne for himself only, but
partlie for his parents, partlie for his children, and partlie for his
cuntrie. And surely, Mr Speaker, I doe condemne him as very
unnaturall that regardeth neither parentes nor children, and him most
unnaturall and unworthie to live in any common wealth that regardeth
not his cuntrie.' 122 When Peter Wentworth was examined by the
committee of the commons for his famous speech of 8 February 1576,
which cost him his liberty for a month, he defended his speech
declaring that as an MP he was 'no private person'; on the contrary he
claimed to be 'publique and a councellor to the whole'. 123
In his short tract John Foord dwelt long on the issue of the duties of
'the public citizen', i.e. magistrates and their particular tasks, deriving
some of his concepts from Aristotle's Politics and most of them from
Cicero's De qfficiis, as well as De legibiis.12* In addition to the office of
magistrates, citizens could display the vita activa in public assemblies of
three different kinds. The first was the senate, which consisted of the
king, senators and all the magistrates. A senator was 'raised by merits',
and when Foord briefly explained the senator's qualities, he took them
directly from Cicero's De legibus.125 The two other assemblies were
drawn from the whole community and they were distinguished from
each other not so much by composition as by function. When the
community was assembled to discuss and decide judicial issues it was
called 'the juridical assembly' (comitia judidaria). But when the same
community convened to grant liberties, honours and citizenship as well
as to choose magistrates, it was known as 'the voting assembly' {comitia
suffragatoria).
121
Furio [Ceriol], A very brief treatise^ sigs. B3 r , C3 r .
122 ppj?/^ I} p I 2 g . s e e ajsQ p 227.
123
Ibid., 1, p . 435, see also p p . 431, 428.
124
Foord, Synopsis politica, fos. i 3 v - i 4 r , fos. I3V—24* passim, sigs. ^[7r—Air.
125
Ibid., fos. 27', n v - i 2 r , 7 r .
126
Ibid., fos. 25 r -26 v .
46 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

As we have seen, an important aspect of early-sixteenth-century

English humanism had been the emphasis on education in achieving
the virtuous commonwealth. In the 1570s and 1580s it occupied an
equally centred place in treatises specifically devoted to issues of
education,127 but it was also vigorously endorsed in moral treatises
whether translated or composed by Englishmen themselves. According
to Patrizi, learning was a prerequisite for citizenship and it was
consequently necessary 'to trayne young children' in learning 'if in
tyme to come wee desire to have them ... to be reputed and take in the
nomber of Cytyzens'.128 Thomas Pritchard insisted that the English
should imitate the 'care the auncient Romans' had taken 'to traine up
their children in Vertue'. 129 Haly Heron claimed that the only way to
guarantee that the young would attain 'the perfection of vertue' was
carefully to train them 'by good governmente & wholesome instruc-
tions'. The 'practise of good education' was amongst the 'most profit-
able commodities of the common wealth'. Presenting the standard
contrast between proper education in learning and that in horses and
hunting, Heron could conclude that the former was 'too lightly
regarded'.130 According to Thomas North, history in general and
Plutarch in particular outclassed 'all other learning'. The main reason
for the preeminence of history was its closeness to action. Other fields
of learning were 'private' and thus 'fitter for Universities then cities';
they were 'fuller of contemplacion than experience' and 'more com-
mendable in the students them selves, than profitable unto others'.
Histories, on the other hand, were 'fit for every place, reache to all
persons, serve for all tymes'. Edmund Spenser's ideal courtier was
able to take part in his country's 'civill governaunce', because he had
conferred
with wise discourse
Of Natures workes, of heavens continuall course,
Of forreine lands, of people different,
Of kingdomes change, of divers government,
Of dreadfull battailes or renowmed Knights.132
127
Ascham, Scholemaster (1570), in English works, ed. W . A. Wright (Cambridge University Press,
1904), pp. 171-302; Mulcaster, Positions', Wplliam] K[empe], The education of children in learning:
declared by the dignitie, vtUitie, and method thereof (London, 1588); Sturmius, A ritch storehouse,
Valerius, Casket ofiewels.
128
Patrizi, A morall methods, fo. i2 v , in general fos. n r - i g r .
129
Pritchard, The schoole ofvertuous lyfe, p . 24, in general p p . 21—8.
130
Heron, A newe discourse, p p . 8—9; cf. Harvey, Marginalia, p . 145.
131
Plutarch, The lives, sig. * 3 r .
132
'Mother Hvbberds tale', lines 763-7.
 Classical humanism restated 47

John Lyly and John Foord not only claimed that education was of
crucial importance for the attainment of virtue, but also gave a short
description of the contents of an ideal schooling. These included
religion, languages, rhetoric, dialectic and philosophy, and this broad
programme was crowned by travelling, preferably by taking part in a
diplomatic journey. Foord was fully convinced that if young men
carefully followed his plan of tuition, they would become good men
and 'best citizens'. 133 It was, however, Lodovick Bryskett who offered
the most detailed analysis of the importance of education. 'The
foundation of honest and vertuous living', as he put it, was established
already during one's childhood. Without a proper training in his youth,
a man could not become virtuous later; the only 'way to have cities and
commonwealths furnished with vertuous and civil men, consisted in the
bringing up of children commendably'.
If education was the means to inculcate virtues into people's minds
and to prepare them for civic life, a principal way in which their actual
participation in politics and the well-being of their community had
been guaranteed in the republican tradition was to hold on to the
mixed constitution. This arrangement had also been suggested in
England by Thomas Starkey in his reform programme and it had
received further treatment in writings of men such as John Ponet and
John Aylmer. In the latter part of the sixteenth century we still
sometimes catch an echo of the principles of mixed government, as in
Thomas Smith's account of England as a mixed state. According to
John Vowell alias Hooker, parliament 'is the hiest, cheefest, and
greatest Court' of the realm consisting of the three estates of the king,
the nobles and the commons. Hooker did not employ the term 'mixed',
but he argued that laws were only made with the approbation of these
three estates.135
According to Fulke Greville, Philip Sidney regarded Poland as a
'well-mixed and balanced aristocracy' and thought that Italy was bereft
of the 'excellent temper of spirits' because of the 'tyrannies of Spain
and Rome'. 136 In a letter to his brother Robert, he asserted that the
English government was similar to that of Venice; in all the other
133
Lyly, Euphues, pp. 123,136; Foord, Synopsis politico, fos. 5 V -7 V .
134
Bryskett, A discourse qfciuill life, pp. 42-3, 9, 50-61, 97-119.
135 T h o m a s Smith, De republica Anglorum (1583), ed. Mary Dewar (Cambridge University Press,
1982), pp. 49-52; John Vowell alias Hooker, The order and usage of the keeping of a parlement in
England (1572) in Vernon F. Snow, Parliament in Elizabethan England: John Hooker's Order and usage
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), p. 181. See e.g. Mendle 1985, pp. 56-9.
136
Greville, A dedication, in The prose works, pp. 50, 61.
48 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Italian communities there was nothing 'but tyranous oppression, &

servile yeilding'.137 Young Francis Bacon went so far as to assert that 'it
may be, in civil states, a republic is a better policy than a kingdom',
though he added that 'yet God forbid that lawful kingdoms should be
tied to innovate and make alteration'. 138 In 1579 Arthur Hall drew
some public reproof when he wrote that the Commons was a young
partner in the trinity of the parliament. But he also maintained that the
principles of the mixed constitution had only been put into practice in
England. With his insular patriotism he expressed some surprise that
Plato had been able to develop these principles, although he had
known nothing of 'England, and much lesse [of] the English Parlia-
ment'. Hall claimed that the three bodies gathered to a parliament had
authority not merely to make laws but even to take away 'the Crowne
ofthisRealme'. 139
More importantly, as Patrick Collinson has convincingly demon-
strated, the major members of the English political nation were able to
envisage the English monarchy as possessing crucial republican ele-
ments, in particular, when the problem of the queen's safety was most
pressing. In the 1572 parliament, the future of Mary Stuart was hotly
debated and a form of resistance theory was deployed to show that
Elizabeth ought to dispense with Mary. The most telling implication
was that 'monarchy is taken to be not an indelible and sacred anointing
but a public and localised office, like any other form of magistracy'. 14
Twelve years later there was an attempt to solve the problem by the
Bond of Association. This was soon to be followed by a parliamentary
'Act for the Surety of the Queen's Most Royal Person'. By swearing to
pursue anybody attempting to harm the queen, the signatories of the
Bond were advancing a form of republicanism. There was no explicit
reference to the succession which implied that authority was to reside
in the commonwealth as a whole. But Burghley and his epigoni were not
content to stop here; in case the queen should die they wanted to make
it, in Collinson's apt phrase, 'a regularised Interregnum' - that is to
say, they wanted to answer the most pressing question of 'who should
succeed'. The solution was sought in the institutions of the Privy
137
Philip Sidney to Robert Sidney, n.d. (1578/9), in Works, in, p. 127.
138
Bacon, Advertisementtouchingthe controversies of the Church of England (1589), in Letters, 1, p. 85.
139
[Arthur Hall], 'An admonition to the father of F.A.', a n appendix to A letter sent by F. A .
touchyng the proceedings in a private quarell... betweene Arthur Hall, and Melchisedech Mallerie gentlemen,
to his veryjriende L . B. being in Italie (n.p., n.d. [1579]), sigs. D4 v -Ei r . See Mendle 1985, pp. 61-2;
Elton 1981, especially p p . 91—8; Neale 1953 1, p p . 407-9.
140
Collinson 1987, p p . 411-13. See also Bowler 1981; Bowler 1984.
 Classical humanism restated 49

Council and parliament. The former, strengthened by the available

members of the Lords and senior judges of the realm, would recall the
last parliament which would then settle the urgent question.141 A
dominant section of the political nation from Lord Burghley onwards
could conceive of England - under highly exceptional circumstances at
least — as a 'Polish style' republic or as 'a mixed polity'.
It is against this background that John Foord's brief account of the
prince becomes understandable as well as highly significant. He could
extol the prince as a god amongst men, but he also classified him as
one amongst the many magistrates. The main difference between the
prince and the other magistrates was not so much the inherent and
mysterious nature of his authority as simply the fact that his period in
office was perpetual, unlike that of other magistrates. This apart,
however, the king was almost just like any other magistrate. First, he
was elected. Referring to Aristotle's Politics, Foord provocatively
claimed that the king was elected and that when the senators and
nobles held the election, they should appoint the prince amongst
themselves. Secondly, and even more to the point of English politics
in the early 1580s, Foord listed amongst the extraordinary magistrates,
who were elected for an interval time, 'regent' (interrex). The regent was,
he succinctly defined, 'a magistrate who was legally put in the place of
the deceased king by the voting assembly'. Thus, two years before
Burghley's secretive plans John Foord had published the idea that it
was to parliament that the commonwealth should turn should its prince
suddenly and unexpectedly pass away.
In view of this it is perhaps even more astonishing to find that the
English displayed a particular reticence about the mixed constitution.
Such eminent councillors as Lord Burghley and Sir Francis Wal-
singham devised a scheme in which England would have strong
republican elements, and these plans received publicity in John Foord's

141
Collinson 1987, p p . 413-21. See also Cressy 1982; Guy 1988, pp. 331-3.
142
Collinson 1987, pp. 419, 421; Lake 1987, p. 336.
143
Foord, Synopsis politico., fo. i5 r : 'In electione Regis cavendum, ne quis nisi Senator, aut Eques,
isque reqendae reipub. scientissimus a d regiam dignitatem admittatur: quod prudenter
Aristoteles quinto lib. polit. admonet.' Aristotle, Politics, I 3 i o b 8 - i o .
144
Foord, Synopsis politico, fo. 22 r : 'Est autem Interrex, magistrates in demortui regis locum
legitime suffectus, comitiis scilicet suffragatoriis.' See also the chart at the end of the tract. In
J o h n Lyly's Euphues and his England, Fidus' bees summoned ' a Parliament, wherin they consult,
for lawes, statutes, penalties, chusing officers, and creating their king, not by affection but
reason, not by the greater part, but the better'. Euphues found this description so convincing
that h e thought it highly apposite for men to imitate Fidus' bees, Euphues and his England
(1580), ed. Edward Arber (London, 1868), pp. 263-5.
50 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

treatise, but neither he nor any other English author examined in this
chapter subscribed to the idea of the mixed constitution, or even had
anything relevant to say about the issue. Anticipating subsequent
chapters, it is arguable, perhaps surprisingly, that the English were
more taciturn about the issues of the mixed constitution during the late
sixteenth century than they were during James I's reign.
This is not to say, however, that the idea of the mixed constitution
was totally absent from public discussion in the 1570s and 1580s.
Michael Mendle has shown how the first wave of presbyterianism in
England (Thomas Cartwright and Walter Travers) explored the
possibility of mixed government in the service of their cause. 145 More-
over, even if the English writers examined in this chapter felt disin-
clined to discuss these issues, they were treated in a comprehensive
manner in translated treatises. Discussing the different forms of govern-
ment, Conrad Valerius claimed that 'that Common weale whiche
consisteth of them three whiche are esteemed good, Cicero in his
bookes De Repufc supposeth to be best, by reason it is more excelent,
more profitable, and of longer perpetuitie than the rest'. 146 Furio
Ceriol embraced the same idea, offering amongst his instances Poland
as well as England.147
Patrizi opened his whole treatise by posing 'a very olde5 question
'disputed upon amongest excellenteste writers in Philosophic: whether
it were better to live wel, and safelye to bee governed by a good Prince,
and to obey him rulinge injustice and equitie, or elles to live in a free
cittie and Communaltye established by good lawes & traditions 5.148
Although in principle a monarchy seemed to be an ideal form of
government, since it enabled the people 'to leade a private lyfe', in
practice it proved to lapse easily into corruption. 'Therefore', Robinson
rendered Patrizi's argument, 'I judge, that the lyfe of a Civil and well
instituted common weale is to be thought far more safer, then of everye
Prince, for that is a continuall and almoste an immortall state of
lyfe.'149 The main weakness of monarchy was the fact that it turned out
to be impossible to find 'one prince whiche embraceth all vertues' and
145
Mendle 1985, pp. 6 4 - 8 .
146
Valerius, The casket ofiewels, sig. E5 r -6 r .
147
Furio [Ceriol], A very brief treatise, sig. Fi v -2 r . T h e other translated treatises which argued for
the mixed state included [Pierre de La Place], Politiqve discourses, treating of the differences and
inequalities of vocations, as well publique, as priuate, translated by Aegremont Ratcliffe (London,
1578), fos. i8r—2i r; Bartolome Felippe, The covnseller: a treatise of counsels and counsellers of princes,
translated b y j [ o h n ] T[horius] (London, 1589), pp. 34—5.
148
Patrizi, A morall methode, fo. i r .
149
Ibid., fos. i v -2 r .
 Classical humanism restated 51

even if such a prince were to be found, he would, nevertheless, most

easily degenerate. 150 Neither of these disadvantages could arise in a
republic where both the nobility as well as the people were involved in
government. The chief benefit of such a system was that it could avoid
the corruption of the magistrates by virtue of their continuous rotation.
It was of crucial importance not merely to maintain the hope of every
law-abiding citizen 'to beare rule in tyme to come'; it was of equal
importance to assure him who 'hath Jurisdiction or governaunce' to
keep constantly in mind 'that not long after, it may come to passe that
he must obay others'. Furthermore, power had the inescapable
tendency to corrupt its exerciser, as was manifest in 'Julius Caesar, who
being continual Dictator, invaded the Publique weale'. It followed, as
Robinson translated Patrizi's argument, that 'a magistrate ought to
have a determinate & prefixed tyme apointed for ye government &
exercise of his office. For, to beare aucthoritie continuallye in a free
cittieishatefull.' 151
Although it is difficult to judge the exact intentions of Robinson and
other translators, there is little doubt that they regarded these repub-
lican tracts as relevant to the English context. Evidence that this was
indeed the case comes from Richard Robinson. Whilst he was clearly
aware of the ultimately republican nature of Patrizi's treatise, he had
certain misgivings about it. When Patrizi argued that princes were
prone to degenerate, Robinson explained in the margin: 'Hee meaneth
of such as are careles for the common weale.' And when Patrizi
declared that it was impossible to find a prince who could grasp all
virtues, Robinson commented misleadingly: 'The prayse of a
Prynce.' Robinson wanted to soften or even to camouflage alto-
gether the sharpness of Patrizi's point. But at the same time he
regarded Patrizi's account as relevant and applicable to England. In
the epistle dedicatory Robinson explained that whilst 'the greater part'
of Christendom did 'so nuzzle themselves in wickednesse', England, in
striking contrast to this appalling state of affairs, lived in peace and
prosperity. The avoidance of 'civile dissention' in England was mainly
due to God's 'unspeakeable love'. But Robinson believed that it also
depended on the fact that the queen was 'assisted with so many christal
starres of stately light under her, garnishing and savegarding the good
government of this her majesties Realme'. The chief benefit brought
150
Ibid., fos. ir-2r.
151
Ibid., fos. 4 v ~5 r , 5 V -6 V , igv-2Or, 2ir, 24 V .
152
Ibid, fos. iv, 2r.
52 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

about by her counsellors was the 'most holsome, godly, & politique
lawes, and constitutions, for the continual conservation of the publique
weale therof universally, free from all private prejudice and publique
perturbation5.153
The promotion of the common good and the safeguarding of the
commonwealth were an outcome of the active participation of govern-
ours and counsellors, rather than emanating from the prince alone. In
translating Patrizi's treatise, Robinson also endeavoured to guarantee
the continuity of this happy state of affairs. Although the book
consisted, as Robinson explained, mainly of 'prophane principles of
olde time . . . for the direction of Mundane matters, in Civyll govern-
emente', it was still highly applicable to a Christian commonwealth. He
boldly maintained that 'therein is Copie of matter worthye Memorye
and Imitation for every estate and member of a good Christian
common weale at this daye'; the book touched 'good order in
mayntenaunce of a Monarchye, and the government thereof.154 This
suggests, then, that when Robinson presented his translation of Patrizi's
republican De institution* reipublicae to his English audience, he intended
its meaning to be taken seriously. Just as the organizers of the Bond of
Association took their own semi-republican devices to be the best
means of preparing for a possible interregnum, so Robinson claimed
that Patrizi taught England how it could avoid the grasp of the
continental 'civil dissention'.
In this chapter we have discussed the continuity and revival of the
humanist political vocabulary in mid Elizabethan England. There
seems to be little doubt that far from fizzling out in the mid sixteenth
century, the humanist tradition continued to flourish. However, the
question arises of why the English continued to use it. What were they
in effect doing by writing or translating these humanist treatises? On
the most general level this question can be answered by saying that
they did not do this for any one particular reason. In translating
Patrizi's De institutione reipublicae, Robinson could be said to have
endeavoured to stave off the corruption of the English commonwealth
and many of the tracts examined in this chapter should perhaps be
read against the backcloth of the increasing ideological tension of the
1570s and 1580s. But Haly Heron composed A newe discourse of morall
philosophie for a certain John Kay and for all those who were in need of
some guidance about how to 'be well armed against those daungerous
153
Ibid.,sig. 2.v.
154
Ibid.,sig.3.r.
 Classical humanism restated 53

delights' which ever loomed large at the entrance of the court. The
only way, he said, to sail the 'boysterous Sea' of the court or to climb
without falling its 'steepe hyll' and 'huge mountayne' was to strenuously
embrace the cardinal virtues.155 In the following chapters we shall see
more specifically how the humanist political vocabulary and sometimes
even outright republicanism were used in a variety of different contexts
and with a variety of different intentions in English political debate
before the Civil War.

Heron, A newe discourse, sig. A2 v ~4 r .

 CHAPTER 2

Classical republicanism in the margins of

Elizabethan politics

It is clear that classical humanist and even republican arguments were

prevalent in the mid Elizabethan period. But in order to gauge the
most thorough as well as the radical uses of these arguments in
particular contexts, we have to move from the centre of Elizabethan
politics to its margins. It is significant that the most pervasive and
extreme employment of humanist and republican arguments occurred
at the margins rather than at the centre of the political community and
that they have been little known, at all. This is first an indication of the
applicability of republican notions. Classical polls and Italian renais-
sance communities were, of course, urban communities, and it should
therefore come as no surprise that political notions derived from these
sources could be adapted to an English urban community as well.
Similarly, it is hardly original to indicate the instability of an unsettled
frontier, such as Ireland. But what is not often appreciated is that both
sets of circumstances could offer an apposite context for republican
arguments to emerge.
Secondly, the occurrence of humanist and republican arguments at
social margins rather than at the centre reveals something of their
controversial nature. It was less dangerous to employ them in such
obscure places as Tewkesbury or Ireland; as soon as they were brought
to the centre, they were marginalized by the use of translations of
foreign treatises to convey the message. Finally, the fact that applica-
tions of humanist and republican arguments took place only on the
fringes of the Elizabethan political world is an indication of the
restricted influence which the authors examined in this chapter
exerted. like Thomas Starkey earlier in the century, some of these
authors seem to have been almost ignored by their contemporaries and
historians alike. This fact tells us about the limits of the applicability of
republican parlance in pre-Civil War England. As already emphasized,
it never became a major, let alone a dominant, way of speaking in

54
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 55
politics, but it was not completely absent. The aim of this chapter is to
show that even the most radical Machiavellian form of republicanism
could be both understood and used in Elizabethan England.

In his helpful summary, Patrick Collinson has reminded us that there

were at least three levels at which the sixteenth-century Englishman
could become a participant in political life: 'local community, county
community and commonwealth or community of the realm'. These
were partially 'overlapping' communities, but they were also, in
Collinson's apt phrase, 'semi-autonomous, self-governing political cul-
tures'.1 In the first part of the present chapter, we are concerned with
the lowest level, local community.2 Broadly speaking, the political
activities of a town were twofold. If enfranchised, it (or the varied
composition of its electorate) was - at least at the time of parliamentary
elections — a part of the political nation. At other times a town looked
after its own affairs and took care of its own government.
The complexity of the political structure of a town and the extent of
its political autonomy depended on whether it had a royal charter.
Boroughs were already marked by 'a bewildering degree of institutional
variation'; most of them had a number of courts and councils. The
prevailing trend, assisted in most cases by the outside influence of
central government or local magnates, was towards a more oligarchic
form of government at the expense of the common council, although
this development did not lead to a complete exclusion of broader
participation.4 Small, unchartered towns were, in many respects, more
like the village communities below them than the large corporate towns
above them. This meant that their political structure was relatively
simple, but that they, nevertheless, experienced some political life of
their own.5
Of course, contemporaries appreciated the political nature of their
local community. For Thomas Wilson, all cities, 'by reason of the great
1
Collinson 1990, pp. 20-1.
2
On the politics of the county community, see e.g. McGulloch 1986.
3
Cf. Hirst 1975, pp. 90-105 for the varied compositions of urban electorates and for their
political importance, see Sacks 1992, pp. 101—8. For a different view, see Kishlansky 1986;
Tittler 1989.
4
Clark and Slack 1976, pp. 126-40, 29—30; Clark 1977, pp. 12—4, 139-42, 251—5; Barry 1990, pp.
24—30 and references there. For the medieval background, see e.g. Reynolds 1977, pp. 91—130,
171-81.
5
Clark and Slack 1976, pp. 22, 29,127.
56 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

privilledges they enjoy', were 'a Common Wealth among themselves'.6

According to William Blandy, prudence taught men how to govern
themselves and their families, as well as how 'to rule poletikely great
Cittyes and Commonwealthes'.7 In his guide to the writing and
composition of letters, William Fullwood emphasized the importance
of Vertue' because 'in this Citie there is great neede of wise men, for to
governe the publike affayres'.8
Historians have been fully aware of the politics of locality, but
they have only more recently begun to see this phenomenon in the
context of the development of a civic consciousness. Patrick Col-
linson has argued perhaps most forcefully for the semi-republican
nature of the local community. In his critique of Pocock's thesis of
the absence of civic consciousness in pre-Civil War England, he has
reminded us of these strictly local but thoroughly political arrange-
ments.9 The self-government of local communities and their semi-
republican measures are clear signs of political awareness, but they
were not necessarily inspired by an articulation of an ideological
vocabulary - republican or otherwise. To be sure, there have been
attempts to uncover an ideology underlying the autonomous political
activities of the local community. According to Peter Clark, an
'urban ideology' can be found in puritanism. 'To civic leaders [of
Gloucester]', Clark writes, 'trying to govern a community beset by
rising population, economic instability, widespread poverty, and
other social and political difficulties, puritanism, with its emphasis on
public control and godly discipline, had a powerful appeal. Puritan
ideology served to buttress and justify measures concerning the poor
and lower classes. It further served to consolidate oligarchic authority
and to unite the ruling elite during a period of sustained communal
stress.'10
Now all this may very well be. But it would be rash to infer from the
instance of Gloucester that puritanism played the only or even the
dominant role in the urban context. Although there is some evidence
that the juristic vocabulary of the ancient constitution was already
6
Thomas Wilson, 'The state of England anno Dom. 1600', ed. F. J. Fisher, Camden Society,
3rd ser., LII, Camden miscellany 16 (1936), p. 20.
7
Blandy, The castle, fo. i3 v .
8
William Fullwood, The enemie ofidlenesse teaching the manner and stile how to endite, compose, and wryte
all sortes of epistles and letters (1568) (London, 1571), fo. 54V.
9
Collinson 1987, pp. 395-7; Collinson 1990, pp. 30-2. Cf. Reynolds 1982; Roy 1988.
10
Clark 1979, p. 184, in general pp. 181-4; see also Clark 1988, pp. 84-7, 89; Clark 1978; Clark
J
977> PP- 34J> J 53-4; R o Y i9 8 8 > PP- 216-18.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 57
being applied in the urban context,11 there is also substantial evidence
for arguing that humanist and republican vocabularies were used to
express the civic nature of urban politics and to defend the self-
government of local communities. It was perhaps not for nothing that
as early as the first half of the fourteenth century extracts from Brunetto
Latini's republican Li livres dou tresor were copied into the Liber
custumarum of London.12
Many Italian humanist treatises, some of which were translated into
English, were, of course, composed in an urban context. Richard
Robinson, the translator of Patrizi's A moral methode, was a freeman of
the Leathersellers' Company in London and dedicated his translation
to Sir William Allen, a London alderman, praying for 'the welfare and
felicitye of this honourable Cittie'. 13 A sixteenth-century Englishman
perusing George Pettie's translation of Guazzo's The civile conuersation
could read of the importance of public debate, for 'Commonweales,
Cities, yea, small Townes, do they not assemble together to choose
officers, & to establish orders by common consent?' 14
Giving a short account of the beginning and florescence of human
society, John Vowell alias Hooker argued in 1575 that after the fall men
had become Vagabonds, rungates and wanderers uppon the face of the
Earth', but had soon started to desire 'some better kinde of stay &
assurednesse of life: and therfore began to devise and to consult, how to
provide a remedy for this disease, & salve for this sore'. They could not
find a better remedy than cto be reduced to some kind of government'
and Vowell proceeded to cite Patrizi's De institutione reipublicae in order
to show that people had 'made choise of such as were moste wise,
discreet and valiant among them selvyes, whome they appointed to be
their Rulers'.15 Three years earlier he had already pointed out how
Patrizi had taught that 'the best order of government of the common
welth: procedeth alwais from tholde and ancient Senators'. 16

11
Anon., A breefe, declaring and approving the necessarie and inuiokble maintenance of the laudable customes
of London (London, 1584), sig. AI V , pp. 3—10.
12
Reynolds 1982, pp. 22—3; For Latini, see e.g. Skinner 1990a.
13
Patrizi, A moral methode, sig. ,/£\ cf. Wright 1958, p. 356.
14
Guazzo, The civile conuersation, fos. I5 r-V .
15
John Vowell alias Hooker, Orders enacted for orphans and their portions within the citie of Excester
(London, [1575]), sig. A2r~JV. See also J o h n Vowell alias Hooker, A pamphlet of the offices and duties
of euerie particular sworned officer, of the citie of Excester (London, 1584). For Vowell's humanist
background, see Snow 1977, pp. 38—49.
16
John Vowell alias Hooker, The order and usage of the keeping of a parlement in England (1572), in
Vernon F. Snow, Parliament in Elizabethan England: John Hooker's order and usage (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1977), p. 117.
58 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Vowell claimed that in establishing a flourishing commonwealth the

examples of Rome and Sparta were to be imitated. The success of Rome
had mainly been due to the ingenuity of Romulus, who 'instituted lawes
first for Religion and then for pollycies'. Their maintenance had resulted
in diligence, just rule and impartial counsel, which, as Vowell argued,
quoting Sallust as his authority, had ultimately brought Rome to great-
ness. This state of affairs had lasted as long as 'eche man lived in his
estate, and regarded the common welth, before the private profit... but
when clyming mindes and ambicious heds would rule the roste, when
the common state was neglected, and private profit preferred', the
greatness of Rome had turned to utter ruin.18
The purpose of Vowell's account was not so much to explain how the
English commonwealth ought to be organized as simply to extol the
government of his hometown, Exeter. He dedicated his treatise to the
'grave & prudent' mayor and 'senators' of Exeter and having pointed
out the proper way of ordering a commonwealth, he described Exeter as
'so wel governed by prudent Magistrates' that it had survived the most
troubled times. This was mainly due to its 'sure foundation' which had
been built 'upon good government and common societie'. Its inhabitants
were, therefore, 'not onely valiant and strong, beeing able to withstand
the enemie: but also wise, politike and welthy, able to maintain the
common societie, and the privat family'.19 It is thus of some interest to
note that John Vowell followed Cicero in his description of the inception
of human society, cited Sallust to show how Rome had become great
and found Francesco Patrizi's De institutione reipublicae, rather than his De
regno et regis institutione, of particular relevance. More significant still is that
all this was done with a view to paying tribute to Exeter. In Vowell's
analysis Exeter was seen (in classical republican terms) as constituting a
commonwealth of its own, taking care of its foreign and domestic
relations and rinding room for the citizen to display his virtuous talents.
It is unclear, however, whether Vowell had any more polemical
point in mind when he described Exeter as a commonwealth of its
own. We have to travel from Devon back to Tewkesbury in Gloucester-
shire, some ten miles north of the centre of the puritan urban ideology
of Gloucester, in order to encounter a fully fledged recourse to classical
humanism in the development of a civic ideology in an urban context.
Although the freedoms of Tewkesbury had been confirmed and
17
Vowell, Orders, sig. A4r; Sallust, Catiline, 52.19—23.
18
Vowell, Orders, sig. BI V .
19
Ibid., sigs. A4 v -Bi r .
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 59
extended several times from the beginning of the fourteenth century
onwards, the town was granted its first incorporation in 1575.20 The
rise in the status of Tewkesbury was accomplished with the help of the
earl of Leicester, whom the inhabitants of the town had obviously
approached and who was afterwards rewarded for his intercession.21
The incorporation determined, amongst other things, that the govern-
ment of the town consist of two bailiffs and twelve 'principal burgesses'
who were to form 'the common council'.22
It was to commemorate this historic occasion that the first townclerk
of Tewkesbury, John Barston, published a treatise, the Sqfegarde of
societie, in 1576. Barston claimed that his treatise had long been in the
making and that it was only the earl of Leicester's visit to Tewkesbury
and especially his 'late preferments layde to our towne' which had
prompted him to publish it.23 Barston had been at St John's College,
Cambridge from 1566 to 1570 and had afterwards gone to London to
pursue legal studies. In the charter of 1575, he was nominated as the
first townclerk to 'exercise the same so long as he should behave
himself well'. In 1589 he was elected bailiff and was presumably still
alive in 1609 when his name appears in a list of people who secured
the loan by which the manor of Tewkesbury was purchased by the
corporation.24 As well as commemorating the event and paying tribute
to the earl of Leicester, to whom the treatise was dedicated, Barston
wanted to explain how an incorporated town formed a commonwealth
of its own. In writing the Sqfegarde of societie, he was thus using classical
humanist vocabulary to extol the civic values of the urban community.
Barston claimed that he had made himself familiar with 'histories of
many people, Lacedemons, Atheniens, Romanes & others' and that he
had compared the fruits of this reading with what he had gathered
from philosophy, a discipline in which he 'had bin somwhat studied,
20
Ellington 1968, pp. 146-7. For medieval confirmations, see Weinbaum 1943, pp. 43~4-
Willcox 1940, pp. 4, 211-14 erroneously states that Tewkesbury was incorporated only in 1609
when in fact it received a confirmation and enfranchisement from James I.
21
Bennett 1830, pp. 42-3, 207.
22
An abstract of the charter is in ibid., pp. 378-81; see also Weinbaum 1943, p. 44; Ellington
1968, pp. 146-7. The number of principal burgesses was raised to 24 in 1605, and in 1610 a
body of 24 assistant burgesses was added to them; Ellington 1968, pp. 147-8.
23
J o h n Barston, Sqfegarde of societie: describing the institution of leaves and policies, to preserue euery
felowship of people by degrees of ciuil gouernment; gathered of the moralls and policies ofphilosophie (London,
1576), sig. A4V, A5 v -6 r . He claimed that he had begun his writing after finishing his university
studies.
24
Venn and Venn 1927, pt 1, vol. 1, p. 99, where his name is spelled 'Barstowe'; Bennett 1830,
pp. 380-1, 417, 208 n. John Barston 'chandler' appears in a list of freemen of Tewkesbury in
1574, [Day] 1991, p. 181. Cf. Ellington 1968, p. 149.
60 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

and greate deale more delighted'. But he had also compared 'the
growth of our english lawes' with the laws of other nations.25
Despite these elaborate comparisons, Barston did not claim any
originality for his conclusions or precepts: they were scarcely more
than 'borowed speeches, of the store of other authors' and his
'argumente . . . often handled of many learned heretofore'. None-
theless, he expressed a sincere hope that his readers would be
delighted 'with the varietie of examples and speeches of learned
writers' to be found in his book.26 Apart from 'the Bookes of holy
Scripture', these 'learned writers' were the staple authors of classical
learning: the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle; the Roman
historians Iivy, Sallust and Tacitus; the Roman moralists Seneca,
Martial and Cicero. Of all these authors it was Aristotle and
especially Cicero whom Barston cited and whose authority he
invoked most often. In particular, his long discussions on marriage,
family and household were mainly derived from Aristotle.
Barston could devote a considerable space to the issues of family and
household, but the main purpose of the work was to lay down the
principles concerning the organization of the government of towns and
cities. The numerous books on 'regiment and common weale' dealt
with issues of communities at large, but they also focused attention on
'that special kind of societie and felowship of one people gathered
togither in one towne'. Following these books, Barston intended to
show how to build a 'societie of people' into a 'commonweale' in
general and how to establish 'civill behaviour in towns and cities' in
particular: 'how cities are incorporate & maintained', why they were
'put in use', how they were governed and how, unlike 'the rusticke and
unmanored sorte sequestred and devided', they could become 'a body
politicke and civill in themselves'.28
If towns and cities were proper commonwealths in their own right,
for what reason were they established as civic communities? Barston
answered this in two different ways. On the one hand, he emphasized
the importance of peace and tranquillity as a true end of a common-
wealth.29 But he also boldly proclaimed that another central goal of the
commonwealth was to uphold liberty. The manner in which laws were

25
Barston, Safegarde of societie, sig. A3 v ~4 r .
26
Ibid., sigs. A7 V -8 V , Bi r , B2 r .
27
I b i d , sig. B I ™ , fos. 26™, 45 v -6o v .
28
lI D
b ii da ,, SlgS. A 8 V --BBI VI , fos. i r , 4 r , 25™, 2 3 r .
sigs. AB
22 99 ThiH T V
I b i d , fns
fos. mi
io7 r ,OA
24'
62 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

hurting theyr freedomes by the singularitie that sometimes creepeth in

with new friendes'.37
If there was that intimate a connection between liberty, on the one
hand, and the commonwealth and the civic life, on the other, then the
crucial question of what it meant to live in a commonwealth and to
lead a civic life needed to be addressed. There is little doubt that the
term 'civic life' was sometimes used to distinguish civic life from
barbarian life. But civic life also consisted in promoting the good of the
whole commonwealth: 'every societie of people, is established for
common weale'; 'the publike societie' should be 'duely honored' by all
in their 'private causes' and the ultimate aim should be that 'the
common preferment of all may be more easily perfited'.38 It was of the
utmost importance, therefore, that everyone possessed 'countrey love,
care of common weale, a weldisposed mynde to preferre the universall
of all as willingly as any private cause or singular intente'. This
conviction could most easily have been drawn from the teachings of
'the Stoikes' in general and from those of Cicero in particular. Quoting
from the first book of De qfficiis, Barston argued that 'no societie is like
unto that which every man hath with the common weale. We are
carefull and loving of our parents, our children, our friendes, but our
native country is the universall parente of us all, for whiche no good
man will refuse to lose his life.'39 It was necessary, 'as the Stoikes
confirme', that everyone be willing 'to joyne himselfe, by his private
commodities and travels, to profit all other as well as him selfe'.4
Liberty depended chiefly on the willingness of everyone to serve the
commonwealth and the public good. According to Barston, everyone
of'priviledged persons of one libertie' ought to 'use his calling, to profit
all, & to damnifie none, and that must be by preposing private lucre
that may not impugne publike utilitie, since that universal cause of that
whole common weale is the perticuler cause of every private person'.
The most illustrious men of the Roman commonwealth, who had
'thought it gretest securitie to adventure life & goods for the common
weale', stood in complete contrast to many of Barston's contempor-
aries, who, 'in despight as it were of duetie and contempte of their
calling', were 'most odious and hateful to god and man', were

37
Ibid., fos. 6i v -62 r .
38
I b i d , sigs. A8 V , Bi v -2 r .
39
I b i d , fo. 3OV; De qfficiis, 1.17.57.
40
Barston, Sqfegarde of societie, fos. 3O r -3i v .
I b i d , fos. 3i v ~32 r .
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 63
'occupied ... to obscure and deface the universall stat of all' and, most
importantly of all, took no care whatsoever 'to enlarge the common
weale'.42
Barston's argument can thus be said to be essentially classical
republican in character. Liberty was closely linked with civility, the
civic mode of life; freedom was found not so much in nature as in civic
society without which men would be living in 'servitude'. Moreover,
liberty could be realized only if everyone led the civic way of life, was
willing to disregard his own particular good and to promote whole-
heartedly the good of the whole community, without which it was
impossible to avoid servitude.
Completely in line with the classical humanist tradition, Barston
never tired of repeating that there was an exceptionally close link
between civic life and virtue. It was 'behavior tempered by vertue'
which led to 'civilitie'. When Plato, Aristotle and Cicero had given
their accounts of the commonwealth, they had begun 'first of all to set
foorth vertue' since 'it is the only cause efficient of a civill and happye
life'.44 Barston followed suit. He asserted that the first thing to be
spelled out was that 'the state of civill life' was best explained by 'a
morall description of the actes of vertuous living'.
The possession of virtue was thus the indispensable wherewithal to
secure civic life and thereby the commonwealth. Virtue was, as Barston
went to great lengths to emphasize, 'the fountaine and roote of all that
may be called honest and good, the possession whereof must needes be
then the only ornament of mans life'. This overarching concept was, as
he defined succinctly, 'the very consente or righteousnes of reason it
self. It consisted of four specific qualities: prudence, justice, courage
and temperance. Rather than offering detailed definitions and exposi-
tions of the contents of these qualities, Barston simply stressed their
importance and concurred with Cicero that 'all that may bee called
honest, proceedeth from one of these foure'.47 Virtue taught 'to know
office and dutie to such as defende our tranquility, and minister justice
to all that are oppressed'. Following his stoic authorities, Barston also
maintained that virtue taught men 'howe to pacifie and rule the
disordered passions and perturbations of the minde, and to subject the
42
Ibid., fos. 33 r ~34 r .
43
Cf. Skinner 1990b, p . 305.
44
Barston, Sqfegarde of societie, sigs. A ^ r , A$r, BI V , fos. i r , i v .
45
Ibid., fos. i n v , 2 5 v .
46
Ibid., fos. i v -2 r , 35 r .
47
Ibid., fos. 35 r -36 r .
64 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

motions of our appetites and unrulie wil, to obey reason'. Virtue urged
man cto use reason for the governoure of all his appetites, and to
subdue all manner affections to the rule of reason'.48
It is clear that the time-honoured humanist notion of the virtuous
civic life underlay Barston's idea of the local community of towns. It
comes as no surprise, therefore, that Barston turned to a further theme
of classical humanism: the question of what qualities constitute a truly
noble citizen. It is arguable that the humanist notion of true nobility
furnished Barston with an argument to censure the oligarchy of
Tewkesbury. According to him, it was a widely held belief that birth
and riches made the true citizen. But in his view, this was an utterly
wrong way of settling the issue. He was fully convinced that 'dignitie
was not ballanced by birth: estimation rayned not in riches: credite
came not of continuance'. Denouncing the holder of the opposite view,
he averred that 'to bee a gentleman, to bee a riche man, to be an elder,
without vertue, withoute wisedome, without experience or knowledge,
were counted bare bragges, supercilious sutes, and a naked nothing, to
bring a man to dignitie, estimation, or credite'. Instead of ancient
lineage or the possession of riches, the only way to be counted a true
citizen of an urban community was to embrace virtue. 'In such civill
societies of one towne', Barston firmly held, 'each degree likewise was
duely made of suche as by wisedome, good moderation, vertuous
endevours and knowledge, deserved of the common weale.' He
illustrated his argument with the staple example of Cicero and
contended that it was better to stand at the beginning of a noble family
than to bring up the rear. Cicero had himself been named 'Pater Patriae'
although, as Barston carefully emphasized, 'of long time hys linage was
obscured'. Plato, too, had stated most emphatically that those who 'by
their vertue and good gifts' attained 'nobilitie by themselves' were 6vere
nobiles, noble men indeede'.49
A true humanist, however, Barston thought that it was one thing to
identify such a happy commonwealth and quite another to achieve it
in practice. The reason why Barston was not content with a mere
account of a virtuous commonwealth is not far to seek. One of the
themes which runs through his entire work is man's proneness to
48
Ibid., fos. 2^ v , 35 r . T h e only stoic concept which Barston criticized was that of 'severe life'. It
was improper to claim that that which 'soundeth not of the very inwardes of vertue, were to
be condemned'. This stoic severity was 'to grafte men of stone that have no feeling'. There
should be, according to Barston, room for 'bodyly health', 'honest pleasure' and 'lawful
lucre', fos. 34V, 4i r .
49
Ibid., fos. 62 r -63 v , cf. fo. 28™.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 65

corruption: 'the nature of man is so corrupted, that naturally he hateth

vertue, & is most shamefully prone to al manner vice'.50 'The golden
worlde', when 'the very love & commendation of vertue' had been
taken as a 'sufficient price, to invite and stirre men to all maner
goodnesse', had degenerated into 'these iron times', as 'vertue was
exiled, and the rust and canker of vice freated mens hartes to chuse the
deapth of evil'. This general corruption was most apparent in man's
tendency to abandon honesty, especially for private monetary gain.
The 'covetous wretche' was most vividly 'set foorth by Martial in his
Epigrammes'. It was of great importance that 'wealth' would 'not tarrie
with them that be vertuouse', that 'every man accept his estate' and
that 'a civil & honest life' was taken to be 'the chiefest instrument to
felicitie'.51
Although the commonwealth was thus liable to be corrupted, one of
Barston's main aims in the Sqfegarde ofsocietie was to explain how man's
depraved nature could be prevented from gaining the upper hand and
to lay out the ways in which his instructions could be put into practice
in urban communities. One possible way of accomplishing this would
be to observe religious duties. Referring again to Cicero and Aristotle,
Barston argued that as soon as 'godly religion once goe to wrecke, all
trust, all societie of mankinde, justice and all vertue decyeth'. It
followed that scrupulous heed should be taken to maintain and to
further 'chiefly, and most of all of Christian profession'. Wherever
religion was duly embraced in 'uniforme order' and with 'the extirpa-
tions of schismes, and divisions', there 'morall policies, even for
religions sake, shall worke in all degrees'. There is thus a strong
religious element in Barston's tract. His account of the birth of civil
society was essentially scriptural: once men had lost 'original right-
eousnesse', they had been in great need of 'temporall lawes'.52 More-
over, he asserted that 'godly religion' was the first and principal
safeguard of society. In order to guarantee 'the godly discipline of the
church', the magistrates should establish and maintain 'good and
reasonable lawes'.5 Religious issues (such as religious uniformity, the
repression of schism, observance of religious feasts and almsgiving)
loom large in Barston's list of the citizen's duties.54

50
Ibid., fos. 1™, 2V, 4 - v - 5 r , sigs. Bi r , A8 V .
51
Ibid., fos. 2 V -3 V , 42 r -45 r .
52
Ibid., sig. Bi r .
53
Ibid., fos. 2Q.r-3Or; i o 2 r - i o 5 r .
54
Ibid., fos. iO2v—iO5r, 109/— n o r .
66 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

Another important way of inducing the people to adopt virtue was

to take care of their education, because there was an exceptionally
close relationship between 'learning' and 'government'. 'Common
scholes & learned tutors' were indispensable for the cultivation of
virtue; they offered the young an opportunity to be 'nousled in vertue
from tender yeeres' so that 'their life may profit the common weale in
times of more maturitie and ripenesse'. Schools were, as Plato had
already pointed out, 'the Pilote of policies'.55
Although religion and education were of great weight in bringing
people round to a virtuous life for the common good, it was laws
and government which had by far the most crucial place in the
Barstonian analysis. It is possible to discern two ways in which
Barston treated the issue of law. On the one hand, he presented a
typical eulogy of common law, announcing that 'our english lawes'
defied comparison. The excellence of common law was partly due to
its age; there was 'no comparison' to its 'most credible antiquitie'.
But it also overshadowed all other laws, including even Roman law,
in contents. Its 'greate equitie, reason, and reasonable grounds therof
doe make the practice firme and inviolable'. Barston admitted that
when 'the Normans had conquered the lande all was chaunged and
nothyng almost suffered that was auntient'. 'Brytons' had not only
been given new laws; these new laws had been introduced in a
language unknown to them so that the conquerors could more easily
abuse them. But the changes which the Norman conquest had
brought did not detract from the preeminence of England's ancient
common law: 'no nation or people of the world enjoy the lyke
privilege of peace and quietnesse, and all manner saftie by their
popular lawes, as this noble Hand'.56
This encomium of the common law apart, Barston developed
another notion of law more in line with the classical republican
tradition, in which the law was seen not so much as preventing other
people from offending one's private rights or privileges than as coercing
everybody to virtue, thereby promoting the common good.57 Barston
informed his readers that his purpose was, above all, to explain that
'the beginning of lawes [was] to incorporate societies unto vertue'. It
ought to be apparent to everybody that a commonwealth was 'by lawes
confirmed' and that laws were invented and first put into practice
55
I b i d , fos. 2V, 4 5 V , 5 6 r - 5 8 v , I O 2 V - I O 5 V .
56 r v v v
I b i d , fos. 22oO- J, 2i2 I --22
22 .
57
Skinner 1990b, p . 305.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 67
because people lacked the 'inclination to vertue'. Men were reprobates,
they hated virtue and the only way, therefore, to build a lasting
virtuous commonwealth was by establishing laws to act as 'spurres to
pricke men unto vertue'. 58
It was not enough, however, to have good and profitable laws;
equally crucial was their proper application. Whereas moral induce-
ment was employed by philosophers, laws were the methods of 'all
politicke good princes and magistrates'.59 The role of government in
attaining a truly virtuous commonwealth raised the most important
question: how was the government of a commonwealth to be orga-
nized? Although people had at the beginning been 'content every
where to subject themselves to kings & princes', they had slowly
discovered 'the mane defaltes in princes and Magistrates', once they
had come 'to know civilitie' and to embrace 'freedom'. This had been
so because 'ambition, avarice and crueltie' had led many princes 'to
practise extortion, oppression and tirannie ouer the common people',
so much so that 'many were weary and refused all maner [of] regiment
and subjection'. It had thus become a crucial question what kind of
'regiment' was best: 'among the learned were stirred great contentions
& quarrelling, dispensations of the best state & condition of the
common weale'.60
Despite the tyrannous inclination of princes, Barston emphasized
that 'it is most reasonablie of all concluded for many politike and
godly causes, that no state is to be compared to the royall scepter
of a King', as the constitutional history of Rome had convincingly
demonstrated. The worst form was 'that most pernicious state of
Democratia', whereas aristocracy — the 'rule of the honorable and
auncient nobles, without a certayne and undoubted Prince' - was
almost equally unsuccessful. 'For what perillous commotions, and
uprores', Barston asked rhetorically, '[had] vexed the Citie of
Rome, as long as the onely Counsell of Aldermenne governed, as
in Venice at thys daye?' It followed that the 'lawfull principalitie of
one heade and governour, is most of all agreeing to the safetie of
the common weale'.61
Although Barston had thus come to the conclusion that pure
monarchy was the best form of government, he had not yet
58
Barston, Safegarde ofsodetie, sigs. A5V, A8 V —BT, fo. i I ^ v , see also fos. 4 r - i 3 r , 2V~3V, 66 r .
59
Ibid., sig. A8 V , fos. i r , 2 v ~3 r .
60
Ibid., fos. i 3 r - i 5 r .
61
Ibid., fos. i5 r -i9 r .
68 Classical humanism and republicanism 15J0—1640

exhausted the subject. In the discussion that followed, he not only

delimited the prince's authority; he also proceeded to endorse the
idea of the mixed constitution. It was the only effective remedy to
curb the tyrannous nature of the prince. First, kings should rule by
laws alone. 'For if Princes', Barston wrote, 'rule not by lawes, but at
libertie, if they bee not themselves subjecte to lawes, but altogither
lawlesse, if wilfull will should stand for unwriten law: then might
authoritie be doubted lawfull, all government would bee uncerten,
and justice should bee wrested to maintaine wrong in steade of right
and equitie.' Princes were not above the law, but the laws set strict
limits to their rule. As soon as a prince tried to reverse these
priorities, he became a tyrant. 'The lawes of the countrey' defined
the prince's 'office and function'. 'A King', Barston concluded in an
almost conciliar fashion, 'hath not the rule of lawe, but is the only
minister and nothing els.'
It was scarcely surprising, therefore, that when Barston discussed the
way in which laws were made in England, he emphasized the
communal character of the legislative process. Laws were generally
made, he wrote, by 'common consent', which in England happened in
'parliament'. The underlying reason was that laws were 'of force and
authoritie, when common consent had subscribed therunto, and not
before, whiche else avayled nothing of it selfe, to abridge any one his
liberty & freedome'.63 It followed, as Barston later pointed out, that the
English government was a mixed one. The way in which English laws
had been made accounted for their just and equal nature. In imple-
menting laws, there was no 'more lawfull or laudable order', Barston
patriotically claimed, '... than the triple regiment afore spoken of.
Though Barston had not mentioned 'the triple regiment' before, he left
no uncertainty as to what he meant. It referred to the ways in which
laws were established by 'the free consent and agreement of all three,
the prince of all, the noble and universall commons, in common
parliament and councel togyther assembled'.
This triple form of implementing laws constituted the strongest
safeguard of liberty and a bulwark against servitude. Barston contrasted
'the golden worlde' and the more recent 'iron times', but he also
contrasted 'the servitude and bondage of old time' and the 'libertie,
peace and quietnesse' of his own times. The former age was a period
62 Ibid, fo. i9r-
63 Ibid, fos.6 r ,
64
Ibid, fo. 22V.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 69

when 'people lived . . . more beastly in despaire, than regarding

honestie or vertue: so hopelesse of manumission and libertie'. They
were 'godlesse, and of brutishe condition: on whose neckes Princes and
noble men layde such greevous taxes and intollerable distresses, for the
building and maintenance of theyr Castles and strong holdes, on which
they did trust and depende, more than on politike lawes and lawfull
governmente', so much so that 'the whole wealth of the land was in
fewe besydes the Prince5.65 Barston refrained from specifying how
Englishmen threw off the yoke of this servitude and came to embrace
civility, but he was most outspoken in contrasting liberty, virtue, the
civic life and 'the triple regiment' of parliament with servitude, vice,
the lack of civility and tyranny.
The main context in which Barston developed the idea of the mixed
constitution was that of municipal government. His intention was to
'declare the corporation of a well governed Citie or towne, as they are
to be ruled by private lawes and inferious magistrates, and as they are
from the rusticke and unmanored sorte sequestered and devided, to be
a body politicke and civill in themselves5. A municipal commonwealth
was, he boldly claimed in Ciceronian fashion, '[a] multitude or body
politike, enuring a civil, mannerly and honest life . . . where magistrates
do rule, the senate or elders gyve councell, the people use their
freedome of consente5. Barston thus conceived of the government of
the urban commonwealth as a mixed constitution.
In organizing the government of an urban community, the muni-
cipal government of Massilia (Marseilles) had much to commend itself.
As Strabo explained, 'the good order of governemente that was used in
regiment and rule of their common weale5 was taken care of by '600
chiefe burgesses, senators or Aldermen5. From these, fifteen were
'elected and chosen to be magistrates and governours for the yeere5.
Finally, three special magistrates were chosen from these fifteen 'to bee
judges of the lawe, to keepe courses, to heare and determine trespasses,
and to judge every man right5.68 Although the ideal form of municipal
government would thus involve a significant number of 'chiefe
burgesses5, Barston regarded the example of Roman consuls and
dictators or 'Lorde commaunder, and as we call it Mayor5, as teaching

65
Ibid., fos. 24 v -25 r , cf. fo. I5 r .
66
Ibid., fo. 25V.
67
Ibid., fos. 25V—26r, cf. sig. B2r; Cicero, De republica, n.33.57,1.35.55.
68
Barston, Sqfegarde ofsocietie, fos. 78 r ~ v ; Strabo, Geography, 4.1.5. For Cicero, Massilia was a pure
aristocracy, De republica, 1.27.43.
70 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640
the central role of one or two magistrates. In some towns the chief
magistrate's task would have been given to ten or twelve 'jurates or
sworne men', but to determine the exact number was not so important
as to follow the general rule 'that many heads do rather endanger and
prejudice tranquilitie'.69
Barston emphasized the fact that these chief magistrates should be
'yeerely' elected, because power had the irresistible tendency to
corrupt: 'continuance' could 'easily change' the rulers' 'conditions', so
much so 'that in stede of justice, tyrannie should be used'. Taking
Caesar as his example, he explained the corrupting effect of power:
'when Julius Caesar would have bin Dictator of Rome by patent, many
good men, forseeing what mighte folowe, they abjured the citie, and
some chose to die, and the greatest part betooke them to a private life'.
Experience thus taught that 'honor and estimation wil make most men
to adventure honestie' and that without limiting their term of office
many 'woulde make maisteries and gaynes of offices'. The only
conceivable way of bridling this 'ambition' was therefore to limit the
duration of a magistrate's office to one year.70
An equally important question concerning these 'yeerely offices of
magistrates' was: 'who shuld be elected thereunto?'7 Barston placed
especial emphasis on the same values that we found in his account of
true nobility, thereby revealing his critique of oligarchy. First, 'simple
and ignorant men of handicrafts' were disqualified, both because they
were 'rash' and because they could not suppress their own 'affection'.
Moreover, to an accomplished magistrate, learning was an indispen-
sable asset.72 But it was of the greatest importance that he was 'an
honest & civil man', which Barston took to mean that he was 'more
careful for common weale, than greedy after gaines: not so wise in his
owne conceit, as submisse & tractable to beare the wisest: not
impugning good councel, not of manifest evill report, not a mayntayner
of quarells, & last of al, not unexpert in the customes of his country'.
The election of a magistrate should, therefore, be based on the
personal merits and virtues of the candidates, not, as Barston was at
some pains to point out, on ancestry or personal wealth: 'How far
69
Barston, Sqfegarde qfsocietie, fos. 78 v ~79 r . Cf. Robert Greene, The royal exchange: contayning sundry
aphorismes of phyfosophie, and golden principles of morrall and natural! quadruplicities (London, 1590),
sig. f 2V, where 'the Lord Mayor of London' is said to possess 'absolute governaunce and
regiment of the Cittie' in contrast to the limited authority of the Venetian 'Duke'.
70
Barston, Sqfegarde ofsocietie, fo. 7gr.
71
Ibid., fos. 7 9 r - v .
72
Ibid., fos. 79 v -8o r .
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 71
deceyved then are they, that make no more a doe to choose a
magistrate, but to find him ancient & welthy, though he lack al things
else besides?'73
In his short description of the chief magistrates' duties, Barston put a
high premium on the good of the whole commonwealth. The magis-
trate 'must forget his private being, so long as his office lasteth, and
should more esteeme publike utilitie than his owne lucre'. He should,
as Cicero had affirmed, embrace 'humanitie' rather than 'prowes of
manhood'; he should preserve equity and justice like Manlius Tor-
quatus, who had been ready to punish his own son; and he should
uphold the laws and customs remembering that 'chaunge and ex-
chaunge of government' had caused Rome's eventual ruin.74 Rather
than being 'of an abjecte and servile minde', he should be 'a prudente
and politike governour' and remember that 'the maintenaunce of
liberties ... [was] the whole charge of the Magistrates'.75 As to the
common people, the magistrate ought to bear in mind that 'it shoulde
be lawfull in all free Cities, for every man to speake his conscience'.76
Finally, the magistrate should win the common people's 'favoure' and
'forfeite good governement by their necessarie ayde' thinking that
'nothyng may safely be established without them'.77
But urban government required two further arrangements, should
the best state of the commonwealth be achieved. First, in addition to
the magistrates there should be 'the senate or elders' whose chief duty
was to give 'councell'. A consummate counsellor ought to have
'experience in things passed', 'due consideration of the tyme presente'
and 'a good understanding of al that may folowe'. He should also know
'whether it be lawfull that is proposed, by what meane it maye bee,
howe necessarie it is, and for what cause' it was proposed. In a word,
he must thoroughly embrace prudence and he would be able 'to doe
good service in counsell for the common weale, and to make him
merite the good reporte and estimation'.78
The common people made the triple form of government of an
urban community complete. In line with his earlier denunciation of
democracy, Barston stressed that the common people were but 'a
73
Ibid., fos. 8 o r - 8 i r . Cf. e.g. Robert Crowley, A sermon made in the chappel at the Gylde Halle in
London, the xxix. day of September, 1^4 (London, 1575), sigs. 03*", D2 v ~3 r .
74
Barston, Safegarde ofsocietie, fos. 82 v -83 r , 8 4 r - 8 8 r .
75
Ibid., fo. 87".
76
Ibid., fo. 8 3 V .
77
Ibid., fo. 88 r .
78
Ibid., fo. 9i v -gg r ; cf. sig. B2 r .
72 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

monstrous beast with manye heades'. The commonwealth would most

certainly be destroyed by 'civill dissention' and concord was thus of
capital importance. The common people must not acquire 'the aspiring
minde' of ambition, but ought to suppress 'their affectes and perturba-
tions' and to swear obedience to the magistrates.79 In short, towns
should be governed on the principle that 'the fewest must governe' and
'the most of all shoulde obey5.80 Nevertheless, the common people had
their role to play in the government of towns. They should use 'their
freedome of consente'. In the case of the community of the realm, the
people's role amounted to consent in the law-making process in
parliament. In the urban context, Barston emphasized that the magis-
trates should not ignore the common people, arguing that the
commons' consent was a 'necessarie ayde' to good government. In
politics of'all free Cities', it was important to guarantee people's liberty
of speech. Moreover, care should be taken to follow the excellent
Roman rule that nothing should receive the force of law without
tribunal consent.81 An even more important occasion when the people
could use its 'freedome of consente' was the election of the magistrates.
We have seen how Barston agreed with Strabo that it was the duty of
'600 chiefe burgesses, or senators' to elect them.82 The actual govern-
ment of Tewkesbury, determined by its charter, was more oligarchic
than Barston's proposals. It is, therefore, arguable that in extending the
freedom to elect magistrates to such a large body, Barston was again
launching an attack against a tight oligarchy.
John Barston's treatise offers us a complete use of classical humanist
and republican notions in an urban context. The main aim of the
urban commonwealth was to maintain liberty. To make this possible,
Barston envisaged a community where everyone would be willing to
disregard his private good and to practise his civic virtues in pursuit of
the common good. The government of the community was to be
organized as a mixed state where the dominant role was played by the
aristocracy. But it was not an aristocracy based on lineage and
inherited wealth. On the contrary, Barston's exposition of true nobility,

79
Ibid., fos. 66 V -68 V , in general fos. 6 6 v - 7 8 r .
80
I b i d , fo. 28V.
81
I b i d , fos. 83 V , 88 V .
82
I b i d , fos. 7 8 ^ . Cf. Greene, The royal exchange, sig. ^J2V, where the 'absolute governaunce' of
'the Lord Mayour of London' is, nevertheless, described as being ultimately dependent on the
fact that 'the honourable Cittizens' of London were 'alwaies carefull for the Common-wealth'
and willing, therefore, to 'elect such a grave, an auncient Magistrate, as for his vertue,
religion, wealth & worthinesse, may rightly be called Pater Patriot.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 73
and his concept of the mixed constitution in particular, can be taken as
a critique of the oligarchic form of municipal government and as a
defence of a virtuous aristocracy. Above all, Barston seems to have
regarded a self-governing republic as the ideal type of commonwealth,
since, as he was most careful to emphasize, its governors were to be
elected.

11

A great deal of scholarly attention has been paid to Machiavelli's

impact on sixteenth-century England. Englishmen were familiar with
Machiavelli's writings from an early date and although the predomi-
nant reaction was one of repugnance, there were authors who were
inclined to embrace Machiavellian ideas. William Thomas based his
secret advice to Edward VI on Machiavelli, and Stephen Gardiner did
likewise in his advice to Philip of Spain. In Gardiner's case Machiavelli
not only provided pieces of morally neutral advice; he also led the way
to a preference for political effectiveness over the claims of morality
and religion.83 Although this last point has often been regarded as the
most distinctive feature of Machiavelli's political thought, his repub-
licanism is its most important element for our present purposes.
The idea of a republican Machiavelli was slow to emerge. Reginald
Pole had claimed that Machiavelli had written Ilprincipe with a view to
overthrowing the prince, but it was Alberico Gentili in the 1580s who
pointed out that the Florentine had been 'a eulogist of democracy, and
its most spirited champion'. 84 There seemed to be a growing interest in
Machiavelli's work in general and his republican writings in particular,
as shown by the fact that John Wolfe printed both // principe and the
Discorsi in London with the fictitious imprint 'Palermo'. According to
Wolfe, Machiavelli taught 'what difference there was between a just
prince and a tyrant, between government by many good men and
government by a few bad ones, and between a well-regulated common-
wealth and a confused and licentious multitude'. 85 Peter S. Donaldson
is undoubtedly right in saying that neither Gentili's remarks nor
Wolfe's preface can be taken 'as evidence of any systematic republican
83
For Thomas, see Raab 1964, pp. 40-8; Donaldson 1988, pp. 41-4, and references given there;
for Gardiner, see Donaldon, 1988, pp. 48-85, especially, pp. 68-9.
84
Alberico Gentili, De legationibus libri ires (1594), translated by Gordon J. Laing (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1924), 11, p. 156. The work appeared for the first time in 1584.
Panizza 1969, p. 481; Donaldson 1988, pp. 89-90. For Gentili in general, see Panizza 1981.
85
Donaldson 1988, p. 93, in general pp. 93—5; Panizza 1969, p. 483.
74 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

ideology5, as Diego Panizza has claimed. There is indeed a long step

from such brief remarks to a thorough usage of Machiavellian repub-
licanism. Although it is commonly assumed that this step was only
taken in the 1640s and especially in the 1650s,86 it had in fact been
taken as early as the 1590s.
If urban communities, such as Exeter or Tewkesbury, offered
favourable circumstances in which humanist and republican vocabu-
lary could be applied, it was Ireland which provided the context for a
thorough usage of Machiavellian republicanism. This was hardly a
mere coincidence. The inherent stability of the political universe
inhabited by Elizabethans and Jacobeans is often alleged to have
impeded the emergence of a full-fledged Machiavellian conception of
politics dominated by the incessant flux of fortune, and that this could
happen only after the complete collapse of the traditional frame of
reference in the Civil War. 8 The unsettled frontier society of Ireland,
however, makes, an important exception to this rule.
Until the 1530s English governance of Ireland was conducted by an
aristocratic delegation of one of Ireland's feudal lords. The Kildare
rebellion of 1534, however, prompted Henry VIII to advance a new
system of Englishmen to serve as governors in Ireland. In 1541 Henry
assumed the new title 'king' of Ireland, and although this decision
followed from the break with Rome, it committed England to a full-scale
conquest of Ireland. No permanent success was achieved and essentially
the same line of policy was continued in the Elizabethan period. When
Sir Henry Sidney arrived in Ireland in 1565 to assume the lord deputy-
ship, a renewed programme of conquest was again taken up. Some
success was attained, but no conclusive settlement was reached, and in
the 1590s England was involved in suppressing a major rebellion.88
The continual attempts to extend the English impact in Ireland and
the equally continual failures provoked a number of those involved to
compose new plans for the conquest as well as its maintenance. Sir
William Herbert wrote a Latin treatise Crqftus, sive de Hibernia liber in
1588/9, and in 1596 Edmund Spenser composed his famous A view of
the present state of Ireland. But the most remarkable of these treatises
86
R a a b 1964, pp. 157,161, 163,168-75,179-81,183,188.
87
For a recent statement to this effect, see Sharpe 1989, pp. 25-8.
88
See Canny 1976; Ellis 1985; Guy 1988, pp. 356-69; Edwards 1961.
89
See especially Quinn 1945; Quinn 1976; Canny 1973; Canny 1976. Earlier printed tracts
include Edward Walshe, 'Conjectures concerning the state of Ireland' (1552), ed. D . B.
Quinn, Irish Historical Studies, 5 (1947), pp. 315—21; Rowland White, 'Discors touching Ireland'
(c. 1569), ed. Nicholas Canny, Irish Historical Studies, 20 (1977), pp. 446-63.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 75

appeared in 1594 when Joseph Barnes, printer to Oxford University,

issued Richard Beacon's modest quarto entitled Solon his follie: or a
poliUqve discourse, touching the reformation of common-weales conquered, declined or
corrupted?0
Herbert's Crqftus is perhaps the most neglected of these treatises. Yet
Brendan Bradshaw has demonstrated that Herbert, writing in human-
ist Latin and looking to humanist moral and political tradition for the
conceptual tools for analysing the Irish problem, offered a comprehen-
sive political programme for reforming the Irish commonwealth. 91
Although Beacon's treatise has not suffered a similar neglect, it has not
been given the attention it deserves. Historians of political thought
have completely overlooked it and it has mostly been studied in the
narrow context of the English conquest of Ireland in the sixteenth
century. But even here no adequate account of its contents and
argument has been offered. Mostly Solon his follie has served as a
background to Edmund Spenser's A view of the present state in Ireland.
This neglect becomes all the more surprising when we recall that
scholars have clearly recognized the general importance of the reform
programmes composed by the English in Ireland. Nicholas Canny has
pointed out that because of the radically different circumstances the
English were 'of necessity forced to advance novel solutions' and they
consequently developed 'clearly-defined radical programme [s] of
reform which would involve the erection of a completely new common-
wealth upon firm foundations'.93 Recently, Sydney Anglo has painstak-
ingly demonstrated Beacon's sources in general and his wide
employment of Machiavelli in particular. Nonetheless, although Anglo
duly recognizes that Beacon aimed at 'the reformation of a common-
Beacon was sometime queen's attorney of the province of Munster in Ireland. Before
embarking for Ireland, Beacon had received the standard education of a gentleman. A native
of Suffolk, he entered St John's College, Cambridge in November 1567, receiving his BA in
1571 and M A in 1575. After leaving Cambridge, he began his legal studies in Gray's Inn in
1577 and was called to the bar some seven years later. T h e patent for his attorneyship in
Munster dates from December 1586 but by 1591 the post h a d been conferred on another
person: DNB; Judson 1947, p p . 165-8. For Beacon's activities in Ireland, see CSPI1586-8,
pp. 427, 440; CSPI 1588-92, p p . 126, 292, 221-2, where his closeness to William Herbert is
attested.
91
Bradshaw 1988, pp. 140—52.
92
Canny 1983 p . 8; Cavanagh 1986; Brady 1986b p . 24; Canny 1988b pp. 207-8; Brady 1988;
Cunningham 1984, p. 9; Bradshaw 1988, pp. 152-4. Jardine 1990 does not mention Beacon at
all. A partial exception is Quinn 1976, pp. 85-6; cf. Canny 1988b, p . 207, who acknowledges
its theoretical nature. Bradshaw's argument (1988, p . 154) that Beacon's treatise exhibits
'radical puritanism' is misleading, to say the least.
93
Canny 1988b, p . 204; Canny 1983, p . 7; Canny 1987, pp. 166-75; Canny 1978; Canny 1988a,
pp. 1-29.
76 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

weal', he concludes, somewhat in line with other scholars, that Tor

Beacon, Ireland is a case not for curative pills, potions and ointments,
but for brutal and extensive amputation'. In focusing almost exclusively
on Beacon's sources, Anglo still fails to offer a comprehensive account
of Beacon's treatise.94
The real importance of Beacon's tract lies beyond the narrow Irish
context. The treatise merits attention because Beacon was perhaps the
first Englishman to make thorough and positive use of Machiavelli's
republicanism of the Discorsi. Although the fact that Beacon never
mentioned Machiavelli's name is perhaps an index of the Florentine's
general reputation in England, the ways in which Beacon was ready
to use the Discorsi drastically alter the accepted view of the reception
of Machiavelli's political ideas in early modern England. Even more
importantly, in Solon his follie Beacon carried on and developed many
central themes of classical republicanism. His analysis of political
corruption and the remedies he suggested for it not only bear a close
resemblance to Machiavelli; they also embody crucial notions of
classical republicanism itself. Richard Beacon in Solon his follie, it is
argued below, is perhaps the most important as well as the most
radical exponent of classical humanist political discourse in England
before the 1650s.
The humanist approach of Solon his follie becomes obvious when we
examine its genre, style and scope. Beacon composed it as a dialogue
between three interlocutors from sixth-century BC Athens, Epimenides,
Pisistratus and Solon. The topic the three Athenians choose to discuss
is the policy of Athens (England) towards its colony Salamina
(Ireland).95 The treatise is based on classical examples provided by
Athens and even more conspicuously, by Rome. Examples taken from
Machiavelli and Guicciardini concerning near contemporary Italian
history are also employed.
According to Beacon, the most important task a ruler could
accomplish was the 'action of reformation'. The amount of praise,
Beacon claimed, which was conferred on Lucius Junius Brutus, the
reformer of Rome, was greater than that attained by her founding
father, Romulus. In Ireland, therefore, the task Beacon reserved for
Elizabeth was similar to the one Brutus had accomplished in Rome.
94
Anglo 1990, pp. 156,161. Cf. Davis 1991, p. 340.
95
Cf. William Herbert, Crqftus, sive de Hibemia liber (1588/9), ed. W. E. Buckley, (London:
Roxburghe Club, 1887), p . 14, where a similar analogy was drawn between R o m e a n d Sicily
and England and Ireland.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 77

'Goe forwarde', Beacon exhorted the queen, 'Brutus, for thy glory in
reforming, is farre greater then the glory of Romulus in building and
instituting of the citie of Rome.' Beacon boldly equated Elizabeth with
the greatest hero of republican Rome, Brutus, who conducted the
reform of the Roman commonwealth by expelling the tyrant, Tarqui-
nius Superbus, from Rome, and instituting the republican form of
government.
The whole treatise is thus preoccupied with one issue: the reformation
of English government in Ireland — 'the sound & universall reformation
of this your Realme of Ireland'.97 Completely in line with other English
writers on Ireland, Beacon's aim was twofold. He wanted, in the first
place, to demonstrate how the conquest of Ireland could be carried out.
More importantly, since he, like most other writers on Irish affairs,
acknowledged that there was something seriously wrong with Ireland, he
regarded his main task to be an explanation of how these problems
could be remedied and the Irish commonwealth reformed.98 This
twofold aim created a certain tension in the book. Although the two
themes overlapped on certain issues, as we shall see, there was an
obvious discrepancy: the ruthless completion of a conquest was hardly
fully compatible with the reformation of a community.
The causes of decline and corruption are discussed several times in
the course of the treatise but they emerge most clearly in the third
book, where Epimenides takes up Solon's request to scrutinize the issue
of decline, and this theme occupies them for the rest of the book. 'A
Declination of a body polliticke,' he defines at the outset of his analysis,
'is nothing els but a fall and departure from his first institution, and
perfection.'99 It can be degeneration 'from a just proportion eyther in
obeyinge or governing the subjecte'. That is to say, the decline can
occur because of the failures of the subjects or those of the govern-
ment. 100 Furthermore, the tendency of decay belongs to the nature of
commonwealths: they are dominated by a cyclical pattern. As Beacon

96
Beacon, Solon hisfollk, sig. I 3 v - 4 r . Cf. White, 'Discors', p . 446.
97
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, sig. itf-f.
8
For the twofold nature of other treatises, see in general Quinn 1947, pp. 303—7. For specific
schemes, see also Edward Walshe, 'Conjectures', p . 316; Edmund Spenser, A view of the present
state of Ireland (1596), ed. W. L. Renwick (Oxford University Press, 1970), p p . 16-17; Herbert,
Crqftus, pp. 16-17; John Davies, A discoverie of the trve causes why Ireland was neuer entirely subdued, nor
brought under obedience of the croume of England, vntill the beginning of his maiesties happie raigne (n.p.
[London], 1612), pp. 4-5; E. C. S., The government of Ireland vnder the honorable, ivst, and wise
gouernour sir John Perrot (London, 1626), sig. d2 r .
99
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 65.
100
Ibid., pp. 96-7.
78 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640
put it, from their very being commonwealths 'receive progression, from
progression they receive continuance, from continuance a perfection,
from their perfection a declination'.101
Some of the causes and occasions of decline were mainly impedi-
ments to accomplishing the complete conquest and subjugation of
Ireland. Solon maintained that there was not a single occasion which
'holde the subject of Salamina, in their disobedience and savage life'
more than 'the difference of lawes, religion, habite, and language'. The
disorder and violence of soldiers could also stir up discontent amongst
the people, which offered opportunities for corruption. 102 Further-
more, certain mismanagements in local government prompted oppor-
tunities for decline. Without the active support of the central
government, the magistrates placed in a conquered territory would
soon face a rebellion.
When Beacon proceeded to treat the more general causes of
corruption, he broadened his perspective and employed the central
themes of the classical republican tradition. As we have seen, the first
way in which corruption could arise was by the people's failure to act
in accordance with the right rules. This amounted to their neglect of
the values and qualities which directed their attention to the main-
tenance of the commonwealth. Three fundamental values kept society
safe: 'the feare and reverence of God', 'the honour and obedience due
unto Princes governours and Magistrates' and 'the love which wee owe
unto our Country'.104 These values entailed 'a just care and regarde of
publike affaires', which was achieved through 'heroicall vertues' in the
defence of the fatherland. On the most general level the corruption of
manners suggested the loss of these values. People were carried away
by the feeling of 'an universall securitie' and they ignored not only their
religious rites but also 'all their former discipline of warres'. Corruption
'breedeth in men a base opinion and estimation of vertues', and they
were ready to replace them with 'pleasures, wantonnesse, vices, and
other such private respectes and regardes'. 105 Corruption was thus
interpreted as the exhaustion of virtues and regard for the common
good. Instead of honouring and promoting them, 'we banish and put
to death men of rare and excellent vertues'. 06
101 Ibid., pp. 69-72.
102
Ibid, pp. 86-91.
103
Ibid, pp. 91-2.
104
Ibid, pp. 50, 52, 66.
105
Ibid., pp. 50-2, 66, 9 8 - 9 . Cf. in general Herbert, Crqftus, pp. 46, 51, 9-10.
106
Beacon, Solonhisfollie,p. 51.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 79
The people lost their former virtue and regard for the good of their
community most easily by certain domestic developments. Beacon
mentioned in passing the danger constituted by 'bitter adversities', the
general idleness of the people and factions.1 7 The most important
cause of the corruption of manners, however, and the one to which
Beacon devoted most of his attention, was the growth of private riches.
A body of people could be 'bewitched with a glistering shew of profit
and gaine', and it would be easy for a tyrant to corrupt the people with
money so that 'they became rebels and traitoures to their countrie'. 108
Beacon's most telling example was the Romans' universal feeling of
security caused by the growth of wealth. It had engendered in them a
neglect of their religious institutions and their military valour just at the
time of most urgent need. Even worse, they had 'jested and made
themselves merry' with those who had given 'them warning thereof.
Their offices as well as 'the voices of election, yea even Justice it selfe'
had been sold 'in open market', a development which had ultimately
enabled 'Caesar with the money of the Gaules to purchase not onely
favour, and offices, but even the libertie of Rome'. 11
The second and perhaps the gravest danger for a commonwealth
was created not by the people but by the government itself, when it
failed to maintain 'a just proportion' in governance, and when it
departed 'from all the partes and right rules of government'.
According to Beacon, misgovernment develops from the imbalance
between the nobility and the people in the share of authority and he
insists, moreover, that there are two chief ways in which misgovern-
ment could manifest itself. First, when 'the nobility is not respected', a
propitious occasion is offered for decline.111 Another, and yet even
more important, manifestation of misgovernment was the absolute
supremacy of the nobility. If 'the nobilitie is in so great measure
advanced,' Beacon argued, '... they become thereby dangerous &
feareful unto the state'. Underlying this was, as Beacon explained, the
inherent ambition of the nobility. 12 The absolute supremacy of the
nobility was so menacing because by having an excessively powerful
role the nobility could hold 'as it were a soveraigne commandement
over the commonalty' and not only claim their pieces of land, but
107
Ibid, pp. 51,98.
108
Ibid., pp. 98-9,51.
109
Ibid., p. 66.
110
Ibid., p. 50.
111
Ibid., p. 75, cf. p. 67.
112
Ibid., p. 97.
80 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

also give them laws. Epimenides could, therefore, conclude that

'nothing giveth greater occasion of declining then the oppression of
the commonalty'.113
The most striking example of misgovernment, and the one which
appears almost as a leitmotif of the whole treatise, is the govern-
ment of Tarquinius Superbus. The corruption of his government
acted as 'a generall distemperature' of the Roman commonwealth,
but the outcome of Tarquinius' tyranny was not the fatal decline
and corruption of the Roman commonwealth, because it did not
coincide with the degeneration of the manners of the people. On
the contrary, the Romans were 'constant defendors of their liberties'
as well as 'desirous of reformation', and far from ruining their
commonwealth they reformed the same. Beacon took pains to
explain that 'the forme which Tarquine gave to his ambition, was
easilie' repelled 'by Brutus, and Valerius', since 'the manners of the
people were not then corrupted'. To confirm his point, Beacon
cited positive as well as negative instances from Machiavelli's
Discorsi. In the first place, Marcus Manlius Capitolinus and Spurius
Cassius attempted to advance their 'owne ambition', but again the
populace of Rome was uncorrupted, and their plans failed dismally.
But as soon as misgovernment was linked with the general corrup-
tion of manners, it followed that 'without great resistance it maie
not be quenched'. The ambition of Sulla, Marius as well as Caesar
(whom Beacon added to Machiavelli's examples) concurred with
'the corruption of manners in the people', and 'the overthrow of
that estate' quickly ensued.115
Beacon's insistence that there were two different kinds of corrup-
tion of commonwealths manifested his adherence to the Machiavel-
lian tradition. Decline could appear as one ad interitum, 'a final
declination' without any means of reformation. But it could also be
declination ad sanitatem. This occurred when a commonwealth was
faced with serious difficulties which could nevertheless be overcome.
Far from regarding these as a calamitous menace to the well-being
of the commonwealth, Beacon insisted that they carried with them a
positive task of highest importance. The 'contending for honours'
between the senate and the people in Rome had not indicated the
decline of civil concord, but on the contrary had given 'occasions of
113
Ibid., pp. 75-77. Cf. Herbert, Crqftus, pp. 42-3.
114
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 97; cf. Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.16.
115
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 97-8; Machiavelli, Discorsi, 111.8.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 81

most happy lawes, and more happy restitution of the declined state
of that polliticke body'.116 Beacon endorsed, to a degree, one of
Machiavelli's most original contributions, that one way to sustain
virtue in a citizenry was through the encouragement of conflict
between different social groups.
Although decline could have positive consequences, Beacon devoted
most of his treatise to explaining how a reformation of corruption
could be accomplished: 'Sith then this generall corruption of manners
doth draw with it so many publicke miseries and calamities, as are
before remembred, we can not, except men be altogither voide of
humanity and reason, but abhorre even the remembraunce of these
lamentable times, and be forthwith kindled with a desire of reforma-
tion.'117 As in the disentanglement of the causes of decline, so in its
reformation a tension is apparent between the completion of the
conquest of Ireland and the reformation of the Irish commonwealth.
Beacon first alluded to this at the very beginning of his treatise. When
Epimenides asked the reason for Pisitratus' arrival in Cyprus (i.e.
Ireland), he answered that it was his intention to 'leade heere a strong
army by the commaundement of the councell of Athens unto Salamina,
for the better repossessing and reforming thereof.118 The first general
rule Beacon laid down was that in effecting a conquest it was best to
adopt extreme courses rather than rely on a mean between two
extremes. His discussion at this point is based on several chapters of the
Discorsi in which Machiavelli had surveyed the ways in which a
conquered or subjugated people should be treated. Beacon pointed out
that there were three major ways of accomplishing the reform of a
conquered community. The first method was to imitate king David and
Lysander and make 'a thorough alteration and chaunge of auncient
lawes, customes, and governement . . . not leaving any shadow or
resemblance in place thereof. The contrary method was to follow
those who, like Sulla, 'reserved onely unto themselves a principalitie
and commaundement' and left the conquered people to enjoy 'their
owne lawes'. The third manner was a mean between these two
extremes, which had been used by the Florentines in their suppression
of the rebellion in Arezzo. They had removed most of their comman-
ders but they had not resumed 'into their handes the landes', nor had

116
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 72; cf. Anglo 1990, pp. 157-8.
117
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 51.
118
Ibid., p. 1; cf. Herbert, Crqflus, p. 17; Spenser, A view, pp. 95-6. For Spenser, see in general
Jardine 1990; Norbrook 1984, pp. 139-52.
82 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

they destroyed 'the principall citie, but [had] preserved the same'.
Beacon utterly condemned this line of policy. 'This meane course', he
remarked, 'hath never as yet beene founde happy and prosperous.' It
followed that they who wanted 'to be prosperous, and make continu-
ance of their state, and governement' must imitate the Romans and
either 'so suppresse and sharpely punish the Latines' that they are not
able to rebel or 'with bounty and goodnes so winne' their affections
that they are not 'willing to rebell'. According to Beacon, the English
policy in Ireland had for a long time been dominated by the mean
course. The only way to complete the conquest was, however, to
abandon that ruinous policy and to embrace either the severe or
lenient means.
The decision between these two extreme courses depended on one's
resources. Beacon confessed that those whose purpose was 'to performe
great actes, and to winne fame and glorie' did best if they chose 'the
counsell of Sylla' and employed the lenient method. This, however,
required 'a mighty power', and those who did not possess great forces
and power but who yet wanted 'to make continuance of their conquest'
ought to 'imitate Lysander' and leave nothing intact. The conclusion
Beacon drew from his discussion was that the best way to consolidate
the conquest of Ireland was to leave nothing unaltered and to construct
everything anew.
The first practical rule of completing the conquest was that the
opportunity for rebellion offered by differences in laws, religion, habits
and language could most easily be prevented by compelling the natives
to adopt the laws, language, habits as well as religion of the conquerors.
This was proven by the experience of Salamina for, as Solon put it,
those parts of it which had embraced 'an uniformity of lawes, religion,
habite, and language, with the Cittie of Athens, are founde by daily
experience, much more loyal, civil, and obedient' than other parts of
the island. The best way to avoid the occasions of decline arising from
the cultural differences was to suppress the native indigenous
culture.120
To consolidate the conquest, it was also necessary to take hostage
those who could be expected to cause disturbance.12 Furthermore, in
line with other English authors, Beacon argued that colonies were of
119
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 46—9; Machiavelli, Discord, 1.25, 26,11.23.
120
Beacon, Solon his/oUie, pp. 94-5. Gf. Herbert, Crqftus, pp. 38—9, 53, where the same line of
policy was recommended; see also CSPI1586-8, pp. 531.
121
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 102.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 83
great significance in subjugating a conquered territory. Some writers
had maintained that garrisons were more efficient than colonies, but
Beacon did not find their arguments convincing. The maintenance of a
garrison required continual expense and it revived the discontent of the
conquered people. On the other hand, the benefits of colonies were
numerous: they required little or no public charge; 'the matter of
sedition is remooved out5; colonies would persuade the conquered
people 'to embrace the manners, lawes, and governement of the
conquerour'. Beacon was convinced that the only way to pacify Ireland
and remain strong against possible invaders was to build colonies.122
Beacon also agreed with other English writers that to prevent
possible rebellions it was best 'to disarme the people, and not suffer
them at all to be trained or exercised in militarie discipline, especially
where the people be not free, but obedient and tributaries unto us'.
Instead, the conquered people should be employed like 'Heilotes to
laboure, and plough the grounde', and learning and sciences should be
advanced amongst them so that they 'may be drawen from the study
and thoughts of innovation and change'.12
Scarcely less important was to have soldiers to consolidate the
conquest. This could create, however, an occasion for decay in cases
where the soldiers were too oppressive. Since the inherent problems of
the suppressive soldiers were 'want of pay' as well as 'want of other
discipline', the surest way to prevent this opportunity for decline to
arise was to look after these two defects. In the case of sufficient pay,
Epimenides first argued that the exaction of money should not be
forced but should happen by 'the consentes of the subjectes', but he
was soon made to change his mind by Solon's compelling argument
that 'Princes may lawfully commande and exact the same at the hands
of the subject.' The requirement of the people's consent depended on
the nature of the commonwealth. If it had been 'from time to time a
free estate and not subject to other' as Rome, then all kinds of tributes
were 'grievous', and they should not be exacted but in great necessity.
If the commonwealth, however, had 'always lived in servitude', like
122
Ibid., pp. 107-14; Herbert, Crqftus, pp. 36-8; but see CSPI1586-88, pp. 529-30. Cf. Quinn
1945; Quinn, 1976. Well-fortified towns with garrisons were defended by Spenser, A view, pp.
119, 125, in general pp. 119-40; Thomas Blenerhasset, A direction for the plantation in Vlster
(London, 1610), sig. BI V .
123
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 102-3; cf- Herbert, Crqftus, p. 53; CSPI 1588-92, pp. 221-2; Barnaby
Rich, A new description of Ireland (London, 1610), p. i n . See e.g. Quinn 1945, p. 548. Although
Beacon here briefly mentioned the importance of learning, it is still true to say that religion
and education were almost totally absent from his account, in striking contrast, e.g., with
Herbert, Crqftus, pp. 44-5, 47, 48-51. For religion, see Bradshaw 1978.
84 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Salamina, then the people were accustomed to 'all impositions and

tributes', even for 'the maintenaunce of idle and evill disposed persons'.
The conclusion of Epimenides and Solon's discussion was that since the
Irish people had always lived under servitude, they were accustomed to
all kind of taxes imposed upon them, and the money required for the
sustenance of the soldiers in Ireland could be drawn from the local
people without their consent.124
The final method of consolidating the English conquest of Ireland
was to imitate the policy of the Romans in Macedonia and divide the
conquered territory into four administrative units and impose capital
punishment upon those who went from one area to another.125 This
did not, however, help in avoiding the problem of whether it was best
to exclude natives from the offices of the commonwealth or on the
contrary to confer the same on them. This seemed to lead Beacon into
a dilemma. On the one hand, Solon was made to stress that decline
often arose if the natives were secluded from 'bearing of offices or
dignity in the common-weale', since thereby 'they remaine possessed
with a desire to be restored unto the former liberty'. But Epimenides,
on the other hand, pointed out that if the natives were appointed to the
offices and dignities of the commonwealth, 'no lesse occasion is given of
declining', as shown by the recent events in Salamina. The way out of
this dilemma was to grant the people 'offices of profite' and retain the
offices of 'commaundement' in the hands of Athenians. With this
arrangement 'the multitude shall rest pleased, and the state acquitted
of peril and daunger'. 126
For many a commentator Beacon's treatise has served as a represen-
tative example of the advocacy of a ruthless suppression of Ireland, and
it would be pointless to deny that it contains numerous arguments to
this effect. However, the most formidable and momentous task Beacon
set himself to accomplish in writing Solon hisfollie was to explain how
the Irish commonwealth was to be reformed. He did not regard
Ireland, that is, solely as a target for English conquest and imperial
policy; his main task was to demonstrate how a corrupted common-
wealth could be restored to its efflorescence. Solon tells Epimenides
that just as Epimenides lent him his 'faithfull councell, and best advise
for the reformation of the Citie of Athens', in the same manner he now
124
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 85—91. Beacon derived some of his arguments from Matthew
Sutcliffe, The practice, proceedings, and lawes ofarmes (London, 1593), pp. 16-28.
125
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 95-6.
126
Ibid., pp. 93-4; cf. Anglo 1990, p. 160.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 85
moved 'to entreate your most friendly advise for the better reformation
of Salamina3.127 When Beacon pointed out that the best way to
subjugate Ireland was the extreme method of starting everything
afresh, what he clearly had in mind was not only the conquest of
Ireland but also, as he repeatedly said, 'a thorough and absolute
reformation of the whole common-weale'.128
If the corruption of a commonwealth could be equated with the loss
of willingness to promote the common good, the reformation of the
community, in its most elementary form, consisted in reversing this
degeneration. The aim was, as Beacon put it, to maintain 'with the
noble Romaines5 the poverty of the people, to withstand 'with Cicero
and Cato' 'the flatterie and ambition of Caesar' and, most importantly,
to avoid 'safety' and devote all our energies to 'fighting for our Prince
and country'.129
In line with Beacon's general theme and chief aim, the methods of
attaining the proposed goals had distinctively Machiavellian features.
Beacon opened his whole discussion with the particular Machiavellian
definition of reformation as a return to the original state of purity. 'A
Reformation of a declined common-weale,' he defined, 'is nothing els
but a happy restitution unto his first perfection.'130 As with the decay
of a commonwealth, so the reversal of this degeneration was either
partial or universal. The former comprised 'a reformation of particular
mischiefes and inconveniences onely', which called for prompt mea-
sures to be taken. But a much more difficult reformation to complete
was 'an absolute and a thorough reformation of the whole bodye of the
common-weale'.131 Despite the difficulty of its enactment, the latter
provided Beacon with the most important theme of his treatise.
The first general advice of Solon hisfollie concerning the reformation
of corruption is to rely on good laws. To forestall further decay, it was
crucial to establish laws which, whilst efficiently preventing the pursuit
of the private good, at the same time fostered the promotion of the
public one. In altering the laws of a commonwealth, either one
followed Solon and Numa and changed them 'by little and little', or
one imitated the Spartans Agis and Cleomenes and made a rapid and
complete change of laws.13 The solution of establishing new laws,
127
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 3.
128
Ibid., p . 48; cf. in general Herbert, Crojhis, p p . 16-17, 26-7.
129
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 98-100.
130
Ibid., p . 5; cf. Machiavelli, Discorsi, III.I.
131
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 5.
132
Ibid., p . 44; cf. Machiavelli, Discord, 1.9.
86 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

whether gradually or abruptly, was the method of a partial reforma-

tion. But Beacon insisted that it was crucial not merely to establish
good and profitable laws; it was of equal importance to look after their
efficient execution. An entire corruption 'could never have possessed
the mindes' of the Salaminian people if'the exact discipline of law had
in good time beene applied'. A partly degenerated community was not,
as Solon is made to conclude, in need of the change of'the whole state'
and it was best rather to frame the laws to 'the subject and matter' than
to frame the whole society to meet the laws. 133
In defining the general scope of the reformation of partial corrup-
tion, Beacon followed closely the first chapter of the third book of the
Discorsi. He treated it as an essential element of the maintenance of a
commonwealth that ancient laws and customs should be renewed from
time to time and that the violators of these laws should be severely
punished. What Beacon primarily had in mind was that if a common-
wealth was not constantly given fresh life by enforcing its ancient laws,
it sooner rather than later would become completely corrupted; a
commonwealth, that is, needed constant reforming. But it had, of
course, been Machiavelli's final, and most crucial, point that this
restoration should be brought about by 'either good institutions or
good men' rather than by accidents. Again Beacon fully agreed. 'This
reformation made by profitable lawes and discipline thereof was made
'after two sorts': it was brought about either 'accidentally ... by
occasions' or it was provoked 'by lawes limiting the times certaine for
this reformation'. And Beacon firmly maintained that the reform
carried out 'at times certaine' and the one made 'by lawes and statutes
certaine ... is founde more profitable then the other which is made
accidentally'. In substantiating his claims, Beacon employed Machia-
velli's examples — the reformation of Rome after the attack of the
Gauls and the governors of Florence - and quoted from him that 'after
every five years the form of the commonwealth should be restored,
otherwise the discipline of law may not be wel preserved'. 134
The establishment and execution of new laws was an important
means of restoring a completely corrupted commonwealth as well.
Machiavelli furnished Beacon with instances of the significance of new
133
Beacon, Solon his follie, p p . 9, 5 - 6 ; cf. Herbert, Crgftus, p p . 51-2. Spenser argued directly
against Beacon, when he pointed out that 'since we cannot now apply laws fit to the people,
as in the first institution of commonwealths it ought to be, we will apply the people a n d fit
them to the laws', A view, p p . 141—2.
134
Beacon, Sofon hisfollie, p p . 8-9. T h e beginning of the Florentine example appears in Latin as:
'Singulis quinquennijs redintegrare formam reip: oportere.'
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 87
laws in universal reformation. From the opening chapter of the first
book of the Discorsi Beacon learned that the efficacy of the due
execution of profitable laws could be seen in the example of ancient
Egypt, which had for a long time 'prevented this generall corruption of
manners, which either peace, wealth, security, or otherwise the fertility
of place might breed in the hartes of the subjectes'. Similarly, the laws
carefully established by 'Romulus, Numa, and other governoures
which succeeded them' had been so good that neither their long peace,
nor 'the fruitfulnesse of the soile', neither 'the commodities of the sea',
nor 'their daily victories' 'could by the space of a long time and many
ages; corrupt the manners of the people'. 135
In his discussion of laws, Beacon was far less concerned with the
individual laws or their contents than with the more general issues of
their establishment and implementation. It was important 'to remove
all occasion, which may move the people or behoulders, to pittie or
favour offendours'. Furthermore, the seriousness of the situation left
room for disregarding the boundaries of traditional morality. The
leaders of those factions which might oppose the reformation should
'be committed to some safe-gard or prison', and 'in cases of great
extremities' it was commendable to proceed 'against offendors, without
observing the usuall ceremonies of lawe'.136
The key to the successful establishment of the new laws was to be
found in the winning of the goodwill of the people. As Epimenides put
it, because 'the consente of the people, doth give so great furtheraunce
unto this action of reformation, it seemeth a matter verie necessarie,
that everie Magistrate shoulde retaine the arte, skill, and knowledge, of
perswading and inducing the multitude'. 137 Tarquinus Superbus had
lost 'the good-will of the people' as well as that 'of the Senate', because
he had changed 'the auncient lawes & customes', so much so that he
had drawn unto himself 'the authority, as well of the Senate, as also of
the liberty of the people'. He had consequently been easily expelled.
Brutus, on the other hand, had won the goodwill of the people, and it
had therefore been easy for him to complete the reformation of the
135
Ibid., p . 57, see also pp. 19-22, 53, 57-9, 100. Gf. Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.1. T h e only difference
between Machiavelli and Beacon was that while the former listed the greatness of the R o m a n
empire ('la grandezza dello imperio') as o n e of the corruptive factors, the latter saw 'their
long peace and rest which they enjoyned in the governement of N u m a ' as a menace.
136
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 14-17, 22; cf. Herbert, Crqflus, p p . 35, 40.
137
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 26. In contrast with Beacon, Spenser advised that the government of
Ireland should b e left intact. According to him, the prince had the absolute power in Ireland,
A view, p p . 168, 10; cf. p p . 79, 141. See also White, 'Discors', p. 453; E. C. S., The government of
Ireland, sig. C2I"~V who emphasized the importance of parliament.
88 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

Roman commonwealth. The same could also be seen in the Anno salutis
of Florence (1494), when the Medici family had been expelled from the
city. This change of government had been accomplished 'without
daunger and difficultie', because it had been 'effected by the good-will
and consentes of the people'. 138 But a major obstacle to enacting the
new and worthwhile laws arose since there was, as Epimenides
explained, 'the contrarietie of humours and opinions, lodged in the
brests even of the wisest5. These humours were, in practice, associated
with two main categories: 'the poore and the rich'.
There were two main ways to win the goodwill of the people and to
appease the animosity between the rich and the poor. The first method
consisted in the usage of persuasion and rhetoric. Pythagoras had been
'greatlie honoured' because of 'his singular arte and knowledge in
winning the affections of the multitude, and in perswading, and
dissawing the people'. The importance attached to rhetoric seemed to
have obvious links with the active participation of the people in the
political life of their community. It is, however, clear that Beacon's
discussion of persuasion points less at the active role of the people and
more at the methods of manipulating them. The corrupted people
could hardly be expected to act virtuously; they had, Beacon argued in
a distinctively republican passage, to be induced 'even against their
wils' to become 'profitable to the common-weale'. The main aim of
persuasion was to induce the people to accept the new laws imposed on
them and it was to a considerable extent accompanied by deceit and
fraud. A consummate persuader ought to bear in mind that the
multitude was not able to discern the 'true causes' of things, and that
he ought to appeal to particulars or even concoct fables in order to
induce people to follow his will.141
The rhetorician must, moreover, be ready 'to delude either faction
[i.e. the rich and the poor] by faire promises and sweete wordes'.
Another way in which the people could be induced to act as one
wished was to coin new terms for old things and thereby to camouflage
'bitter and unpleasant' things with 'plefasing names'. 42 In a highly
revealing passage Beacon made Solon espouse the idea that 'for the
better justifiyng of this manner of proceeding herein, you shall under-
138
Beacon, Solon his follie, p . 26. For the ''Anno salutis1 of Florence Beacon mistakenly has
MCCCCXLIIII.
139
Ibid., pp. 10-1.
140
Ibid., pp. 27-31.
141
Ibid., pp. 34-7-
Ibid., pp. 31—2,11-12. Cf. Skinner 1990c, p. 26.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 89

stande, that in a publike magistrate, the same is rightlie tearmed

pollicie, but in private persons, the same is not unjustly condemned by
the name of deceite'.14
It was crucial, however, not to appear to be a deceiver. An
accomplished rhetorician ought to imitate Numa and always first
perform himself the things he would suggest to the people. In addition,
Numa had had recourse to religious institutions. The cogency of
Numa's persuasions had been grounded on the fact that he had laid
'before the peoples eies a terrour and feare of their Gods' and had
made them believe that his reformation had divine approval.
The second method of establishing and imposing good and profit-
able laws on the people was to resort to coercion and force. This
method to some extent bridged the gap between the completion of the
conquest of Ireland and the reformation of the Irish commonwealth.145
Beacon emphasized, however, that force could only be used if every
other course of imposing the reformation had failed. He provided two
chief reasons as to why the accomplishment of reformation could prove
so difficult that the need for sheer force might arise. There were always
those who received personal benefit from corruption; 'this occasion of
reformation', Epimenides says, 'is full of difficulties' because 'manie will
still be founde, which shalbe discontented therewith'. Further, the
inherent nature of the multitude was such that it was always inclined to
be 'against such as have authority and commaundement over them'. 146
The final, and perhaps the most fundamental issue of reformation of
a commonwealth by the new laws was the way in which persuasion,
fraud and force were adopted. The problem was, in brief, 'into whose
handes the same is to be given'. For Beacon, the only way to ensure the
success of the reformation was to have a magistrate with wide
discretionary authority, a 'man of rare and excellent vertues, by whose
constancy and integrity, the envy and malice of the enemy may be
quenched'.147 What Beacon clearly had in mind, and what even a brief
look at Roman history tended to confirm, was that the enforcement of
the laws for reforming a community was rarely successful without 'a
Dictator', who must 'have sufficient powre to execute his vertues and
well disposed minde'. 148
143
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 11-12; cf. Anglo 1990, p . 158.
144
B e a c o n , Solon hisfollie, p p . 31-2, 3 7 - 9 .
145
Ibid., p p . 9 - 1 0 , 1 1 ; cf. H e r b e r t , Croftus, p p . 3 5 - 6 .
146
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 3 9 - 4 1 ; cf. Anglo 1990, p p . 158-9.
147
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 4 2 - 3 ; cf. p p . 9-10, 2 2 - 3 , 1 0 0 - 1 .
148
Ibid., p p . 100-1, 2 2 - 3 , 3 9 - 4 0 ; cf. Spenser, A view, p . 169.
go Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

By now it comes as no surprise that Beacon turned to Machia-

velli's Discorsi in order to find corroboration for his claims. Antonio
Giacomini served as an illustration of the importance of appointing
a severe magistrate in times of crisis.149 From Machiavelli one
could also learn that 'Hieronymus Savonarole' had failed dismally
in his intended reformation since he had not possessed 'sufficient
forces' to enforce it, and he had soon become 'oppressed by the
envie of others'. But it was not enough to possess adequate forces;
it was of equal importance to be determined to employ them if
necessity demanded this kind of action. The most telling example
of how ruinous it was not to be prepared to coerce the people into
reformation was the career of 'Peter Soderin5 (Piero Soderini). He
had possessed sufficient forces, by which he could 'well have
overcome the envy and malice of such as were founde to oppose
themselves against him', but he had committed the cardinal error
of showing too much leniency at the moment when the only right
course of action had consisted of more severe means. Following
Machiavelli closely, Beacon emphasized that Piero Soderini had
failed to ruin his opponents because he had 'not in time applie[d]'
force 'but rather [had] contended with benefites and with a just
and honest course of life, to overcome the envie and malice of such
as [had] withstoode his reformation'. Soderini's failure to act
according to the times had not merely resulted in his own
destruction; it had also prompted the overthrow of 'his country and
regiment'.150
An affirmative example was provided by Moses, who to establish the
laws 'which God unto him had delivered', had thought it 'necessarie,
with forces to remove such, as being pricked forwarde with envie, did
oppose themselves against his intended reformation'.151 But the stron-
gest example of the forceful methods of reformation Beacon found
from Machiavelli in the character of Lucius Junius Brutus. The chief
lesson to be learned from Brutus was to act forcefully, mercilessly and
quickly. Beacon was clearly fascinated by Brutus' execution of his own
sons and repeated the story several times in the course of the tract. If
we are to suppress the intemperance of a commonwealth, we must not
merely 'with Valerius deny the embassadoures of Tarquine to speake
unto the people, least by flatterie they be deluded'; we must also be
149
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p. 43; cf. Machiavelli, Discorsi, 111.16.
150
Beacon, SoUm hisfollie, p p . 41-2, 59—60; Machiavelli, Discorsi, 111.3, 9, 30.
151
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p . 41.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 91

ready 'with Brutus . . . to condemne and execute even our owne sonnes,
corrupted by Tarquine'. 152
Although Beacon deemed the establishing and enforcing of good
and profitable laws to be highly important in the reformation of a
corrupted community, and consequently dwelt at length on this issue,
he never thought that such laws alone could reform an entirely
degenerate commonwealth. Epimenides reprimands Solon for having
attempted to change the decadent course of Athens simply by estab-
lishing new laws, when it 'was declined by many and infinite disorders'
and was in need of more rigorous and extreme methods as well as a
more thorough reformation. In Ireland the utter decline prompted by
the general corruption of manners could not be reformed 'by the lawes
against Captainship, against Coyney and Lyvery, or against the
unlawefull custome of supporting and maintaining of rebels or any
other new lawe whatsoever'.153 The methods of the English in their
numerous attempts to reconstitute the Irish commonwealth had so far
been like Solon's attempts to reform Athens. Many ancient customs,
which had originally been granted for the advancement of the public
good, had by now 'turned by a generall corruption in the subject, to
the ruine of themselves and the lande of Salamina'. It was clear that
Ireland was in urgent need of a thorough reformation of her whole
154
society.
How was this entire reform of a commonwealth to be carried out?
As we have seen, Beacon believed that decay could arise either because
the people failed to pursue the common good or because the govern-
ment declined from just rule. When both of these factors occurred at
the same time a most serious corruption ensued. It followed that in the
reform of a universal corruption efficacious remedies should be
prescribed for both of these annoyances. Beacon took a complete and
universal reformation to mean 'nothing els, but a thorough and
absolute mutation and change, of auncient lawes, customes, and
manners of the people, and finally of the common-wealth it selfe, unto
a better forme of govemement'.155
If a universal reformation required a change in the form of govern-
ment, it followed that the partial reformation by the new laws entailed
the right kind of government. It was, in other words, only if a
152
Ibid., p . 100, see also p p . 2, 7-8, 43, 59; Machiavelli, Discorsi 111.3, 9, 30.
153
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 7, 45.
154
Ibid, pp. 20-1.
155
Ibid., p. 19.
92 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

commonwealth was constituted from the outset in the correct way that
its partial decay could be reversed by the force of new laws. In
discussing the proper form of government, Beacon drew heavily on
Machiavelli. Because the original institution of Athens had been
'meerly popular, corrupt, and unperfit', it had proved to be insufficient
to resist 'the tyrannie of such as did aspire unto the principalitie'. The
lawgivers in Athens had indeed established 'many lawes for the
reformation of the insolencie of the noble men, as also to restraine the
libertie of the people', but to no avail: these laws 'could not maintain
the same more than a hundred years'. On the other hand, those
commonwealths which 'have their first institution and foundation
good, though not altogether perfit and complete' could be 'at any time'
restored back to their first perfection if they happened to face any form
of degeneration. Even more importantly, this 'happie estate thereof
may thereby be long continued and augmented', as the Roman
example convincingly demonstrated. The first institution of the Roman
commonwealth was 'so wel laid by Romulus & Numa, as that after by
new laws made for the reformation thereof, as the necessity of that
commonweale did require, the same was rendered long, happy, and
prosperous'. Beacon did not mention liberty and was thus silent about
one of Machiavelli's chief arguments: in spite of the fact that it was set
up as a monarchy, Rome had been fortunate enough to have had as its
founding fathers such prudent kings that they had enacted laws which
had been compatible with liberty. Nevertheless, Beacon entirely agreed
with Machiavelli about the happy result of the Roman commonwealth:
she had proved to be prosperous as well as long-lasting by virtue of the
balanced mixed constitution which she had eventually acquired. The
laws and constitutions which had been founded by the kings had
enabled Rome to attain 'an happy temper and forme of governement,
compounded of three sortes and kindes of governement, namely the
Monarchia, Aristocratia, and Democratia'. 15
The conclusion Beacon drew was to the effect that only those
commonwealths which were organized as mixed states were capable of
being reformed simply by establishing new laws and changing the
corrupted customs of the people. But he also made it clear that
Salamina could not be reformed by new laws alone. Consequently, if
one wanted to reform Ireland, one had to organize her government
156
Ibid., p . 6. T h e e n d of the sentence appears in Latin: ' n o n earn tamen conservare supra
centessimum a n n u m potuerunt'; see also p . 45. Cf. Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.2.
157
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 6-7.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 93

afresh. Beacon divided this topic into four separate issues. He started
by discussing 'the soveraintie and commaundement3. This, he insisted,
was sometimes given 'into the hands of one, sometimes in the handes of
fewe, and sometimes into the handes of all in generalT. In a distinctly
Bodinian manner, Beacon declared that the location of sovereign
power, rather than 'the diversity which sometimes appeareth in the
forme and government thereof, determined the peculiar character of a
commonwealth - whether it was a democracy, aristocracy or mon-
archy. Moreover, he insisted that this definition embraced every single
commonwealth: all of them were constituted after one of these three
forms or their corrupted equivalents. When it came to decide 'which
institution is to be preferred above others', Beacon had little doubt that
a monarchy was 'the most firm and durable'. It was not merely 'freest
from trouble', it was also 'most honourable and glorious'. Although an
aristocracy most easily avoided 'corruption', the same would be
destroyed by the 'envie' and dissention' prevalent amongst the nobles.
But 'least permanent' was 'the popular estate', especially if the whole
commonwealth was 'mere popular, as well in regard of the soveraintie
and commaundement, as of the forme & manner of governement'.158
Having made this preliminary concession, however, Beacon moved
to praise the mixed constitution. The second issue of the discussion was
'the forme of governement', and Beacon gave his unequivocal assent to
the excellence of the mixed state. He firmly believed that a constitution
where a balance existed between the one, the few and the many, was
by far the most perfect form of government. Solon was made to confess
that 'that popular institution, which is equallie tempered, and com-
pounded of the three sortes and formes of governement, after the
maner and institution of Rome' was 'more firme and durable'. It was
'this forme of governement' which gave 'a perfection and continuance'
to all estates mentioned before.159 Romulus had aimed at this ideal
'forme of government in the institution of the common-weale of
Rome'. First, he had reserved for himself'the sole and kingly auctority':
the command of the army and the power to summon the senators for
consultation. 'The person of the Senators' had constituted the aristoc-
racy of the Roman mixed constitution. They had had authority 'to
consulte, and publikely to perswade and disswade the attempts for
wars, and to discusse all other civill causes, as the state of that
common-weale required'. Finally, to perfect the Roman common-
158
Ibid., pp. 6 o - i .
159
Ibid, pp. 61-2.
94 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

wealth, Romulus had added to it a democratic element. 'In the other

partes of his governement', Beacon made Solon expound, 'as in
framing of his lawes and such like,' Romulus had preferred rather 'a
popular liberty, then a Monarchic'.160
Although Epimenides had declared that monarchy was the best form
of 'soveraintie', he fully agreed with Solon that the mixed constitution
was the best 'forme and manner of the institution it selfe5. The chief
benefit of this kind of institution was the 'equall proportion' of power
which was granted to the one, the few and the many. The distribution
of power was made according to 'the dignitie of the one' and 'the
liberty of the other'. In the successful tempering of these elements,
Epimenides summarized, 'all the skill, arte, and pollicie of governement
is wholy contained', so much so that it came 'nearest to the perfection
of nature'. 'This', Solon agreed, 'is the best forme of instituting of
common- weales.'
The idea of the well-tempered mixed constitution raised the further
question of the nature of the balance between the one, the few and the
many. First, although it was sometimes necessary to confer 'authoritie
absolute' on the one, it was of equal importance to set strict limits on
the same. According to Epimenides, 'this authority absolute, without
anie limitation of the power it selfe, or of the time and continuance
thereof, hath sometimes turned to the great prejudice and danger of
such as formerly have graunted the same'. Following closely Machia-
velli, Beacon argued that the disastrous results of granting unrestricted
authority for a long time were most obvious in the appointment of the
Decemviri in Rome. In order to make 'a thorough and absolute
reformation of the common-weale of Rome', the Decemviri had been
granted 'the sole and absolute power of Rome'. No magistrate had
remained who could have watched over the Decemviri; they had become
ambitious and Appius Claudius especially had fallen 'into the thoughtes
of the principality of Rome'. To achieve his aims, Appius Claudius had
strengthened himself 'with friends, & clyents' and had continuously
160
Ibid., p . 62. Cf. Herbert, Croftus, p p . 34-5, 43, where England provided the model for the
Irish government.
161
Beacon, Solon his follie, p p . 62—3. Epimenides relied o n the example of France. Both
interlocutors discounted the fact that the French king's powers in Epimenides' account were
much wider than Romulus' authority in Solon's. Anglo 1990, p . 155, n.40 rightly points out
that, unlike Bodin, Beacon treated France as a mixed state. It should be noted, however, that
at this point Beacon's sharp distinction between 'soveraingty' a n d the form of government
arguably derives from Bodin himself. See J e a n Bodin, The six bookes of a commonweale, translated
by Richard Knolles (London, 1606), p p . 199—200, 755, 785. Cf. e.g. Salmon 1959, p . 22;
Keohane 1980, p . 76.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 95

increased his personal wealth. In this way ca Citizen' had become 'a
fearefull enemy to the state of Rome' and the Romans had found
themselves in a dilemma. On the one hand, they could not have
endured Appius Claudius' 'pride and insolencie' yet, on the other
hand, they had been unable to find a safe way to 'suppresse the same
without their common peril and daunger'. 162
To avoid the peril of the Decemviri, it was safest, Beacon believed, to
pursue the Spartan or Venetian policy. In both commonwealths the
chief magistrates had been watched in two crucial areas. First, they had
appointed 'certaine watchmen, as daily beholders and observers of all
their actions and doings'. Beacon thus endorsed the Machiavellian idea
that those who were given great authority must always be watched, lest
the unlimited power would corrupt them and they would become
tyrants. Secondly, the Spartans and Venetians had set up 'certaine
limits and bondes, not lawfull for them [i.e. kings and doges] to
exceede'. The most important limit, and the only one which Beacon
discussed in detail, was the limit of time. In Rome Caesar's absolute
power to reform Gallia had later been 'so long proroged and
continued' that in the end Caesar had become 'terrible, as well to the
Gaules, as to the Romaines'. By 'making a Dictator perpetuall', the
Romans had ultimately lost 'the libertye of their Citie'. In other words,
'authority' could 'easily corrupt the maners of good subjectes'. The
only efficient remedy for the situation was that 'every good and faithfull
councellour unto the state' followed Cato and resisted 'the proroging of
Caesar his governement, least too late with Pompey they acknowledge
their errour'. 163
The final question concerning the princely aspect of the mixed
constitution Solon and Epimenides addressed themselves to was 'unto
what person may this authority be safely graunted'. The suitable
person had to be 'good and honest'; on the other hand, he must not be
'of great might, power and wealth', because this combination would
facilitate the degeneration of the magistrate. What Beacon mainly had
in mind was that since 'honours change habiyts', it often happened that
even the best fell 'by reason of honours and dignities into a generall
corruption of manners'. 164
How was all this connected with Ireland? Beacon's native examples
of persons with unlimited power were the ninth and tenth earls of
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p . 23; Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.35, 40.
163
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 23—4.
164
Ibid, p. 24.
96 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

Kildare. Because of the combination of his personal standing and

official position Gerald FitzGerald had been able effectively to resist
the English policies. Similarly, his son Thomas had been able to
foment a serious rebellion because of his doubly powerful role.165 In
order to avoid the repetition of a similar situation, Beacon suggested
that absolute authority should be conferred on a person who was not
already of great might, power and wealth, and that his period of
authority was to be strictly limited to one year. In addition, certain
institutions should be established to guard against the actions of the
magistrate. Although Beacon did not specify the nature of these
institutions, the employment of the Spartan and Venetian instances
pointed towards a powerful council.
The second issue of the mixed constitution concerned the balance
between the nobility and the people, the lack of which was, as we have
seen, a chief cause of misgovernment. Beacon believed that, unless the
multitude was protected 'from the oppression of the mighty', the
temper of the commonwealth would be utterly destroyed. The aim
was, in the words of Epimenides, to establish rules 'wherby as well the
dignity of the Nobles, as the liberty of the people, may be preserved
and defended, according to the example of all common-weales well
governed'. The first method for attaining this end was to enact laws. In
Ireland, as Solon pointed out, the laws against 'Coiney and livery' and
against 'Captainship' were rules devised to prevent oppression of the
people. It was clear, however, that 'good lawes are not sufficient to
render a common-weale, happie and prosperous'.166 What was needed
were 'governoures provinciall' to enforce these laws. The chief aim of
these local governors was to see that justice was done, since nothing
induced the common people to embrace authority and government as
efficiently as due enforcement of good laws. This secured to the
common people the possession of 'that which is their owne', and by
enjoying their property 'they have attained the ende of their desires,
and rest for the moste parte contented with the governement'.
It remains to ask whether the local governors should rely more on
the people than on the nobles. Exploiting Machiavelli's discussion of
how a tyrant should retain his power, Beacon insisted that the
governors should always rely on the people. Epimenides pointed out
that 'a Monarchic governed popularlie is then secure and voide of
165
Ibid., p p . 24-5. See Brady 1986a, p p . 41-9, for the problems of the Irish viceroy.
166
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p . 78.
167
Ibid., p p . 79-80; cf. Machiavelli, Discord, 1.45.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 97
perill: for in the multitude or people consisteth the strength and force
of every kingdome'. A local governor succeeded if he emulated Nabis,
a tyrant of Sparta, and 'endevoured wholie the love and favoure of the
people'. If, on the other hand, he imitated Appius Claudius and
neglected 'the favoure of the people', he secured nothing except his
own ruin. Solon completely agreed with Epimenides. 'It must be
confessed', he maintains, 'that in common-weales gained by conquest,
you shall advance your governement more assuredly by the favoure of
the people, then by the might of the nobilitie.'168
Beacon's discussion of the safeguarding of the people was, as is
shown by the employment of the examples of Nabis and Appius
Claudius, closely linked with the completion of the conquest of Ireland.
He wanted to show how the English conquerors could establish their
rule over the Irish. But an implication of his argument was to the effect
that the government should be organized in a way which prevented the
nobles from suppressing the people. If this was accomplished by due
execution of good and worthwhile laws, the difficulty was to decide
what kind of government could best ensure this: 'what number of
judges may suffice herein'.169 It was safest to avoid one judge, since the
nobility corrupts one person most easily. To establish his point, Beacon
draws his argument directly from the chapter of the Discorsi where
Machiavelli showed how difficult it was to formulate laws and institu-
tions to maintain the liberty of the city. But even in the case 'where a
fewe are placed for the rule and government' they could be relatively
easily persuaded to become 'pleasers of the nobility, and contemners of
the people'. Since neither the one nor the few could be trusted, the
only solution left was to imitate 'the Venetians'. The Venetians had
had the council of ten, 'their Decemviri', as well as the college of forty.
But the institution of the greatest importance in Venice, and the one
which made it so imitable, was the great council, which had possessed
the highest authority. Epimenides fully agreed with Solon and con-
curred that 'this must needes be the best forme of governement', not
only since 'many judges are not so easily corrupted as one', but also
because 'many are founde to be of greater strength and integritie to
resist the displeasure of the nobilitie then fewe'. Finally, Epimenides
put forward a familiar argument for the republican form of govern-
ment when he contended that 'many eies discerne more perfectly then
one, and that which escapeth or deceiveth one eie, maie be perceived
168
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p . 81, and p p . 81-4; Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.40.
169
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 78-80.
98 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

and that without errour by many; so many wits judge more soundly
and sincerely then one'. 170
Beacon thus maintained that a chief aim of the government of a
commonwealth was to preserve the liberty of the people. In order to
ensure this, the people must be given a share in government. If they
were not given the opportunity to check the few, they would become
totally oppressed by them. The people, in other words, must be
granted guardianship of their own liberty.
What was Beacon doing with the classical republican tradition
whose vocabulary he was using? To answer this, we must recall that,
according to Beacon, there were two ways in which corruption could
arise within a commonwealth: the decay of the people, or the decay of
the government. In reforming the former, it was essential to impose
strict new laws upon the people. But with a view to enacting this kind
of reform it was necessary that the commonwealth be organized at the
outset as a mixed state. Unless this requirement was fulfilled, the
reformation of the corrupted manners of the people by establishing
good laws could not succeed. Moreover, if the decay of the manners of
the people coincided with the corruption of the government, the
reformation of this universal corruption could not be accomplished
simply by establishing new laws. The government itself also needed to
be reformed. The only way in which the universal reformation of an
entirely corrupted community could be carried out was to reconstitute
its government in accordance with the principles of the mixed constitu-
tion. Beacon asserted, therefore, that if the aim was to accomplish 'the
sound & universall reformation' of Ireland and to organize the Irish
community on a firm foundation, everything had to be constructed
afresh and Ireland established as a mixed state. Furthermore, pains-
taking care had to be exercised to avoid the danger of an overmighty
governor. This was achieved by placing a limit of one year on his
period of authority and by establishing a powerful council to watch
over his actions. Hardly less meticulous care was to be exhibited to
safeguard the people against the ambitious nature of the nobility. What
was needed to curb the excessive ambitions of the nobility was not
merely good laws but above all good institutions capable of enforcing
them. The most efficacious way of keeping the nobility in check was to
maintain a widely based court of appeal.
Although Epimenides and Solon had come to complete agreement
170
Ibid., pp. 80-1; Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.49.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 99
that the mixed constitution was the best form of instituting a common-
wealth, their task was only half-completed. They had heretofore
discussed only two of the four proposed issues. The two remaining
topics concerned 'the forme and manner of the institution it selfe' and
'the severall endes and scopes of this institution'.171 The underlying
assumption was that corruption could come from both within and
without the commonwealth: it could arise from 'the malice and
practises of forreine enemies'.172 In order to check the development of
degeneration, scrupulous care should be taken to organize the foreign
affairs of the community. Moreover, the way of instituting a common-
wealth and the decisions regarding its proper aims were so entangled
with each other that Epimenides and Solon treated them together. The
manner of setting up a commonwealth, in other words, depended on
its chosen end. Again, Beacon's account was essentially Machiavellian
in its character.
Solon defined the range of their discussion when he maintained in a
distinctively Machiavellian vocabulary that there were both common-
wealths which aimed 'at peace' and commonwealths which aimed 'at
honour, as the butte and scope of all their actions'. The importance of
the decision of the goal of the commonwealth was increased by the fact
that the form of institutions of the commonwealth depended on the
decision of its aims. A community should be organized, Beacon
believed, in a wholly different manner when its aims were peace and
longevity than when it strived for glory and empire. Beacon singled out
three institutions which a community must build if it was going to
attain longevity. First, it should imitate Sparta and 'seclude strangers'.
Secondly, again following the Spartan example, it must avoid training
its people in 'militarie discipline'. Furthermore, it was scarcely less
essential to imitate Venice and 'to possesse a place or fort' which was
made invincible by nature as well as by man. Beacon departed from
the traditional account by claiming that Sparta did not arm its
citizens. Despite this dissimilarity, it is scarcely less important to
stress the basically Machiavellian features of Beacon's argument. If a
community aimed at peace and permanency, it was safest neither to
enlarge the population by admitting strangers nor to train the people
in warlike discipline, but on the contrary, to seclude oneself from the
rest of the world by constructing the community as a stronghold.
171
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p . 60.
172
Ibid, p. 52.
173
Ibid., p. 63; Machiavelli, Discord, 1.6.
ioo Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

On the other hand, if a commonwealth aimed at 'honour and glory,

as the butte & scope of their institution5, it must act in the completely
contrary manner. The first general rule of foreign policy was that 'we
are to make preparation for the wars'. The world was a scene of
incessant hostile competition: just as the nobility wanted to suppress the
people, so entire commonwealths were disposed to dominate each
other. The best course of foreign policy therefore required readiness to
fight for the commonwealth. It was the chief task of the people to act as
soldiers, and those who organized a commonwealth must ensure that
the people were 'daily' trained and exercised in 'military discipline'.
Furthermore, it was of equal importance 'to render the common-
wealth populous'. The commonwealth must be ready not only to admit
strangers, but also to have 'many associates & friends'. Following
Machiavelli again, Beacon held that if a state aims at greatness, it is
necessary to form leagues with 'free Citties and estates'. Both Rome
and Switzerland made 'an association with other free Cities and states'
and consequently 'they did every where conquere and commaunde'.
But neither Sparta nor Athens formed any league and they 'did not
long continue their greatnes'. Finally, it was of great significance to be
ready to 'deliver the feble, and weake, from the hands of the
oppressour'. To pursue this kind of policy was to imitate 'the example
of the Romanes'. 74
The crucial question was 'what manner of institution is most
permanent and to be preferred', as Solon put it. Epimenides began
his answer by emphasizing the corruptibility common to all common-
wealths. It was impossible to find a community which was so
constituted that it could ultimately avoid degeneration. The common-
wealth which was constituted to aim at empire fell in the end because
'the continual use and trayning in military discipline' rendered the
'citizens' bold and caused fatal discord. But since every common-
wealth was sooner or later bound to face corruption and ruin, the
attempt to aim at peace and permanence was equally doomed to fail.
A long period of peace would engender 'effeminacie, ease, rest, and
security', which caused strife and mutinies and these brought about
the ultimate destruction of the commonwealth. Nevertheless, although
both kinds of community proved to fall prey to corruption, they
differed in one crucial aspect. Whereas the commonwealth which in
its first institution aimed at peace and permanency left nothing

174
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, pp. 63, 101; Machiavelli, Discord, 11.4.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 101

whatsoever of its memory, the community which pursued empire

vanished away in 'the pride of youth' and consequently left 'the image
of true glory, as a lively picture, to invest a perpetuall memory of a
worthy and excellent Institution'. Solon fully concurred: 'it seemeth
then by that which you have said that the institution of that common-
weale, which aymeth at vertue, honour, and dorie, is to be preferred
before the other, & of princes much more to be desired'. It was
best to avoid the example of Sparta and Venice and instead devote all
our energies to emulating the Roman manner of organizing the
commonwealth.177
But Solon enquired whether 'one selfesame common-weale' could
'ayme at the one and the other'. Epimenides rejected this proposal
outright. First, when necessity compelled those commonwealths which
held peace and longevity as their proper end, and which therefore
excluded strangers, to adopt the pursuit of greatness, they were totally
incapable of adapting themselves to the changed circumstances and
they were in time overcome: 'common-weales which ayme at peace,
having but a slender roote, and foundation, laide for the supporting
thereof... may not long be victorious, and hold themselves upright in
actions of great importance'. Secondly, even if the commonwealth
which strove for peace but which was forced to adopt the opposite line
of policy was fortunate enough to attain an empire, 'for want of proper
forces to defende' the same, it would immediately lose it. Epimenides
arrived at the inescapable conclusion that it was best for common-
wealths to pursue the policy of honour and glory. To adopt the
peaceful policy of longevity suited only 'servile common-weales', which
had always been 'subject to others', as Pisa had at times been to
Florence and Salamina to Athens. 178
What was the point of Beacon's argument? The answer must begin
with Beacon's clear distinction between those commonwealths which
were servile and those which were not. He made it clear that Ireland
should be classified as the former. Ireland had always been a servile
commonwealth since it had been subject to England. It was, therefore,
safest to organize it like a community which aimed at peace. The best
course of policy in Ireland was neither to admit strangers nor to arm the
people. We have seen how Beacon emphasized the idea that to prevent

175
Beacon, Solon hisfollie, p p . 63-4.
176
Ibid., p. 64.
177
Ibid., p. 101.
178
Ibid., p . 64; Machiavelli, Discorsi, 11.3.
102 Classical humanism and republicanism 15J0—1640

possible revolts in Ireland it was safest to disarm the people and deny
them military discipline. England, on the other hand, was not a servile
commonwealth. The Englishman was not a servile subject, on the
contrary, he was a Tree Citizen'. It was best, therefore, to adopt the
policy of aggression, admit strangers, entertain friends and associates
and arm the Englishman as well as train him in military discipline.
This was the only way to guarantee not merely that he could perform his
public duty and safeguard his liberty, but also that his commonwealth
could attain glory and greatness. To organize England internally along
the Roman lines and to see that its external affairs were conducted along
concomitant principles was to ensure, in the first place, that the English
conquest of Ireland was carried out and consolidated. In the second
place, Beacon was convinced that by adopting the policy he was
proposing in Solon hisfollie England could emulate Rome as far as the
scope of the commonwealth was concerned. To render England
populous and to exercise the people in warlike discipline was to promote
the greatness of England. The completion of the conquest of Ireland was
but a means towards this loftier goal.

in

In the earlier parts of this chapter we travelled to the geographical

margins of Elizabethan England. In this third part we return to the
centre of the political nation, not directly but via the marginalized way
of translations of foreign political tracts.
Towards the end of the 1590s two remarkable continental republican
treatises were translated and published in England. As is well known,
Lewes Lewkenor's translation of Gasparo Contarini's De magistratibus et
republica Venetorum (written in the 1520s and first printed in 1543) was
published in 1599. The appearance in 1598 of The counsellor, a transla-
tion of the De Optimo senatore libri dvo (first printed in 1568) by the Pole
Laurentius Grimalius Goslicius (Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki 1530-
1607), has attracted less attention. Contarini and Goslicius were
concerned with explaining and praising the merits of Venice and
Poland respectively, and the English translations of their treatises can
be partly understood as satisfying the intellectual curiosity about these
countries.180 More to the point, Goslicius' and Contarini's tracts taught
179
Ibid., pp. 102-3.
180
O n Poland, see also [George Garew], 'Relation of the state of Polonia' (1598), ed. Garolus H .
Talbot, Elementa ad fontium editiones 13 (Rome, 1965).
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 103
the English an important lesson in aristocratic republican theory. As we
have seen, classical republican themes had emerged in England before
the end of the 1590s in both translations and treatises composed by
Englishmen alike. A further example is Robert Hitchcock's translation
of Francesco Sansovino's collection of maxims, Concetti politici (originally
published in 1578), printed in 1590 with the title The quintesence of wit.
Several of its maxims were not only highly critical of monarchy but
openly advocated republicanism. As Hitchcock rendered Sansovino's
quotation from MachiaveUi, 'all those Contries and Provinces that live
in libertie: make great increase, and proceed much more forward then
those that live in bondage. For that in a free state is found greater state
of people, because mariage amongst them are more free and more
desired of men.'181
But the appearance of Goslicius and Contarini's important repub-
lican treatises, with a strong aristocratic bias, can be said to have
thoroughly familiarized the English with this strand of the humanist
tradition. Nevertheless, although Lewkenor's translation in particular is
well known, it is arguable that its political significance has not been
sufficiently recognized.182 For to see it, and for that matter Goslicius'
treatise, merely as a scholarly enterprise is to gravely misunderstand
them. In order to grasp what the translators might have been doing in
translating these tracts, we should see them, I argue, in their con-
temporary political context. That is to say, we should interpret them
not merely as teaching a lesson about foreign countries but also as
carrying a polemical political point.
Despite Beacon's reform proposals, a major rebellion broke out in
Ireland in 1595. Ireland was not, however, the only major source of
political problems during the 1590s. From 1585 England had been
fighting Spain in a war with which the Irish problem had become
inextricably entangled. It was fought on the open sea, in the Nether-
lands and in northern France and could, at any moment, have reached
England as well. The war led Elizabeth's government to impose heavy
military and economic burdens upon the country and these hardships
caused by large-scale war coincided with general economic distress
prompted by a sequence of poor harvests and severe outbreaks of
plague.183
181
Francesco Sansovino, The quintesence of wit, translated by Robert Hitchcock (London, 1590), fo.
58 V ; see also fos. 89/, 96 r . Machiavelli, Discorsi, 11.2.
182
Fink 1945, pp. 41-5; Pocock 1975b, pp. 321-2, 324-5.
See e.g. Power 1985; Outhwaite 1985; Clark 1977, pp. 221-68.
104 Classical humanism and republicanism ijyo—1640

Because of these internal and external factors, England faced a

number of grave political problems; so much so in fact that the label
'the crisis of the 1590s' has sometimes been applied. The long war
created a shortage of patronage which was exacerbated by the
increasing number of educated gentlemen in search of preferment. As
competition became fiercer, signs of corruption and venality emerged
more obviously.184 Simultaneously, the Elizabethan court faced its
first reed factional struggles. The court had long maintained an
internal cohesion but the demise of figures such as the earl of
Leicester in 1588, Francis Walsingham in 1590 and Christopher
Hatton in 1591 altered the situation somewhat, while the rise of the
earl of Essex meant that his rivalry with the Cecils escalated into a
factional struggle.185
Although these developments aroused dissent, the strongest criti-
cism was directed at the issues of purveyance and monopolies. Some
of the monopolies were genuine copyrights, but a number of them
were exclusive rights to produce and sell certain commodities or
even simply to regulate these processes. Whilst lucrative for courtiers
who received them, they were burdensome to the public, as they
pushed up prices dramatically. Because they rested on a royal
prerogative, monopolies were beyond the jurisdiction of the common
law courts. Although monopolies were not a completely new
phenomenon in the 1590s, their sharp increase provoked widespread
and scathing criticism in the parliaments of 1597 and 1601. In
1601 students taking MA degrees debated 'whether the disorders of
nations should be traced back to the corruption of discipline rather
than to heaven and their sites'.
On top of these economic, political and factional issues came
perhaps the acutest of all the problems of the 1590s - the unsolved
question of succession. Despite the queen's vigorous attempts to
suppress any discussion of the issue, it had from the very beginning
of the reign sporadically surfaced in parliament as well as on the
stage, and several manuscript treatises had been composed to offer
solutions. For obvious reasons, the question became ever more
184
G u y 1988, pp. 391-7; Levy 1986, pp. 102-7.
185
Adams 1984, pp. 68-70; MacCaffery 1961; Hurstfield 1961; Neale 1963, p p . 145-70. F o r a n
interesting discussion of Essex, see J a m e s 1986, pp. 416-65.
186
See in general Neale 1953-7, 11, p p . 352—6, 376-93; Russell 1971, pp. 242—51; G u y 1988, p p .
397-403; from the local point of view, see e.g. Williams 1984.
187
Register, vol. n , pt 1, p. 172.
188
See e.g. Neale 1953-7 J> PP- 8 6 - 9 0 , 101-13,129-64; Axton 1977, pp. n - 4 7 .
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 105
burning during the 1590s. Early in the decade Peter Wentworth
made some vain attempts to kindle discussion but they were quickly
suppressed.189 In 1591 Oxford students presented to the degree of
MA debated the manner of electing the magistrate, but in the
following year they were told to argue that the well-being of a
commonwealth depended on hereditary kingship. The issue of
succession was clandestinely treated on the stage which has been
called, in this context, cthe freest open forum for political specula-
tion'.191 Under the pseudonym R. Doleman, Robert Parsons
published A conference abovt the next svccession to the crowne of Ingland.
Published on the continent in 1594, it argued for a catholic
succession. Basing his arguments on the tradition of natural law,
Parsons claimed that there was no natural form of government but
that every commonwealth decided on its own form, which it could
therefore change as well. Furthermore, he maintained that the
prince could be deposed 'by publique authority of the whole body3,
thus suggesting an amalgamation of succession and election.192
Parsons was almost immediately taken to task in several treatises.
Although Peter Wentworth died in 1597, his tract on succession
was posthumously printed in 1598. Using historical examples and
the idea of the original transfer of power from 'the whole Realme'
to a prince, he pointed out that although it was up to parliament
to assess the validity of the different claims to the throne, it was
not in a position to alter the succession.194 The urgency of the
succession question is graphically illustrated by the fact that
Thomas Wilson began his description of the state of England in
1600 with this issue, offering a detailed account of every candidate's
claim.195
It is against this background that we should interpret the translations
of Goslicius and Contarini's treatises. It is often pointed out that

189
Ncale 1924; Axton 1977, p p . 89-91.
190
Register, vol. 11, pt, 1, p . 172.
191
Axton 1977, p p . 97—130, citation from p . 89.
192
[Robert Parsons], A conference abovt the next svccession to the crowne of Ingland (n.p., 1594), 1, pp. 3 -
13, 33,130. Gf. Collins 1989, p p . 103-8.
193
Axton 1977, pp. 95—7; Thomas Craig, The right of succession to the kingdom of England (London,
1703); John Harington, A tract on the succession to the crown (1602), ed. C. R. Markham (London:
Roxburghe Club, 1880); John Hayward, An answer to thefirstpart of a certaine conference, concerning
svccession (London, 1603), see e.g. sig. A3V.
194
Peter Wentworth, A pithie exhortation to her maiestiefor establishing her svccessor to the crowne (n.p.,
1598), 1, sig. A2 r , p p . 5, 5 0 - 1 , 79-81,117,11, p p . 6, 46-50.
195
Wilson, ' T h e state of England', p p . 2 - 9 .
106 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

histories and plays could carry an ideological point, forming a platform

where delicate issues could be treated in a veiled manner. In a
similar fashion, David Norbrook has recently called attention to the
ideological message that Lewkenor's translation may have carried.197 It
is accordingly my argument in what follows that a more accurate
reading of these translations is achieved if we regard them, in addition
to satisfying an intellectual curiosity, as serving a significant political
point.
Contarini and Goslicius pointed out that, far from discussing
imaginary commonwealths, they both aimed at explaining the success
of their respective commonwealths.198 More importantly, they both
insisted that this success was mainly due to the peculiar manner in
which their commonwealths had been established. Other writers had
commended the Venetian 'marchandise' and 'the greatnesse5 of her
empire, but Contarini recapitulated the myth of Venice and argued
that it was the 'manner & forme of commonwealthes' which enabled
the Venetians to 'enjoy a happie and quiet life'. There had never been
a commonwealth, he went on, 'that may bee paragond with this of
ours, for institutions & lawes prudently degreed'. "
The preeminence of Venice manifested itself first in the fact that
her 'soverainty of government' rested on laws rather than on men. It
was clear, however, that to be effective laws needed 'a certaine
Gardians as Leiftenant', and the question of prime importance was to
whom this guardianship of laws should be given. Contarini pointed
out that it had long been a matter of dispute 'whether it bee better
that one or few have the government of the whole citie, or rather the
whole multitude'.201 In answering this crucial question, Contarini
emphasized that the overarching quality should be 'unity'. This was

196 r j , ^ e m o s t conspicuous examples are J o h n Hayward's, Thefirstpart of the life and raigne of king
Henrie the IIII (London, 1599), sig. A3 r ~4 r ; William Fulbecke's, An historicall collection of the
continuallfactions, tumults, and massacres of the Romans and Italians (London, 1601), sig. Ai r -2 V ; Levy
1987, p p . 1-3, 15-21. Gf. the vehemence with which T h o m a s Bedingfield disapproved of
aristocracy a n d democracy in his preface to his translation of Niccolo Machiavelli, The
Florentine historie (London, 1595), sig. A4 r ~5 r .
197
Norbrook 1984, p . 130.
198
Gasparo Contarini, The commonwealth and government of Venice, translated by Lewes Lewkenor
(London, 1599), p . 7; Laurentius Grimalius [Goslicius], The counsellor: exactly pourtraited in two
bookes, translated by anon. (London, 1598), p . 2. For Goslicius' translation, see Gollancz 1914;
Ghwalewik 1968, p . 22; and especially Baluk-Ulewiczowa 1988, who points out that there is a
manuscript translation of Goslicius' first book, dated before 1585.
Gontarini, The commonwealth of Venice, pp. 1-6.
200
Ibid., pp. 10—12.
201
Ibid., p p . 9, 13.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 107

attained only if, as he was never tired of repeating, there was 'such a
mixture of all estates' as could embrace at the same time ca princely
soveraigntie, a government of the nobilitie & a popular authority' 'so
that the formes of them all seeme to be equally ballanced'. The
democratic element, or 'the forme of a popular state', of the Venetian
commonwealth was represented by the great council from whose
'decrees and lawes aswell the senate as all other magistrates derive
their power and authority'. 203 The aristocratic element, which con-
sisted in the senate, was the strongest: 'The whole manner of the
commonwealths government belongeth to the senate.' 204 Contarini
devoted the second book of his treatise to the third element of the
mixed constitution - the duke. His authority was strictly limited and
he was thus deprived of 'all meanes, whereby he might abuse his
authoritie, or become a tyrant'. The chief issue here and the one to
which Contarini devoted most space was the election of a new prince.
This happened in a most intricate way to ensure that, on the one
hand, the people had a part in it, whilst, on the other hand, the
ultimate decision was taken by the senators. The decision was made
by 'certain several parliaments', as Lewkenor put it. 205
Although Goslicius' avowed aim was to discuss 'the duetie, vertue
and dignitie of a perfect Councellor', he was also concerned with his
own country and thus gave an account of an aristocratic mixed state.
He first pointed out that of the three pure forms of government, 'the
Principalitie and Optimatie\ had much to commend themselves. But he
immediately added that 'some men have thought the moste perfect
commonweale, should be tempered and framed of all of the three
estates'.207 This mixture had already been clearly discernible in 'the
Lacedemonian government', which had been 'compounded of the
nobilitie, (which was the Senators) of the authoritie of one, (which was
the King) and the people (which were the Ephori)'. But the most
remarkable instance of the mixed consitution was, as Polybius had
pointed out, 'the Romane state, because it consisted of the King, the
Nobilitie, and the people; supposing that the king for feare of the
people coulde not become insolente, and the people durste not
disobeye him, in respecte of the Senate'. Cicero had also explained that
2 2
° Ibid., pp. 15, 33-4, 67, 83,146.
*** Ibid., pp. 15-16,18, 21-2.
904.
Ibid., pp. 64-9; cf. in general pp. 64-98, 99.
205
Ibid. pp. 42,51-62.
206
[Goslicius], The counsellor, p. 1.
207
Ibid., p. 18.
108 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

the best commonwealth was a mixture 'of the best, the meane, and the
base people' and that a commonwealth 'attained perfection when it
was governed by a king, a Senate, and consent of the people'.20 The
same preference for a mixed state emerged in the second book, where
Goslicius argued more specifically that 'the bodie of our commonweale
consisteth in the conjunction of three estates'.209
Goslicius' discussion of the prince's role was brief, and the translator
had made it even shorter.21 The king must pursue 'the common
commoditie of his subjectes' and 'preserve the rights and liberty of the
people'. Although the translator omitted Goslicius' most crucial passage
in favour of the elective monarchy, the translation still made it clear that
Goslicius took the election of the prince for granted. Confronting an
elected prince and a tyrant, he wrote that 'the election of kinges was in
time paste proper to the moste vertuous people, unto whome the
government of Tyrantes was odious'.211 With regard to the popular
element of the mixed state, 'those people are accounted the beste, which
within a good commonweale doe live with justice and libertye'. The
'consente of the people' was a necessary requirement of good laws. But if
liberty completely dominated, the commonwealth would be governed
'without vertue and reason'.212 It was, therefore, best to aim at liberty as
well as peace and tranquillity. To ensure this, it was safest, Goslicius
held, to rely on the authority of the optimates. An aristocracy and the
senate, the mean between a monarchy and democracy, was thus like 'a
watch-tower'; it provided all the necessary things 'for the state, pre-
venting all seditions, tumultes, and perils that can be attempted' being
able to 'finde the perfection of all things'. It was only 'thorough Counsell
and authoritie of the Senate' that 'the state would be exceedingly
encreased and inforced'.213 The success of an aristocratic mixed state
was most readily seen in the Venetian commonwealth which had
'constantly lived in one forme of government, by the space of a thousand
years, or more', as Goslicius restated the myth of Venice.214
208
Ibid., pp. 1, 8-19, cf. p. 29.
209
I b i d , p. 76.
210
Baluk-Ulewiczowa 1988, pp. 268—71. T h e omissions concerning religion were much longer,
eadem pp. 271—2.
211
[Goslicius], The counsellor, pp. 29, 73-5, 15-16. For the omissions of the translator, see Baluk-
Ulewiczowa 1988, p . 268. Although George Garew vehemently criticized an elected
monarchy, he, nevertheless, provided a detailed account of the Polish princely elections,
'Relation', pp. 40-53,107,130-2,145-6.
212
[Goslicius], The counsellor, p. 16-18, 79-80.
213
Ibid., pp. 29-31.
214
I b i d , p. 18.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 109

Contarini and Goslicius insisted that the mixed constitution should

be firmly supported by a virtuous civic life. Contarini was fully
convinced that it was before everything else the high degree of wisdom,
virtue and patriotism which had made Venice better than Athens,
Sparta and even Rome. 215 The case for the active life emerged even
more clearly in Goslicius' treatise. Pure contemplation was neither
sufficient nor good in itself; it should always be complemented by
action. Citizens should be drawn cto action of governmente', to fulfil
their 'civill duetie'. Goslicius insisted that 'such kinde of contemplation
and Philosophic which concerneth not the profit, not civill affayres of
men, is in trueth unprofitable for the state'. For albeit those philoso-
phers were learned and wise, they 'are utterly unfit for government'.
But the man who takes part in 'the affaires of government . . .
becommeth thereby divine, noble, wise, and provident'. 'We therefore
doe exhorte all wise men to action, and recommend unto them the
commonweale.' The only way to attain the vita activa was to embrace
knowledge and learning, which led to the cardinal virtues of 'Justice,
Temperance, and Fortitude', and consequently made man 'perfect'.217
Underlying Goslicius' concept of civic life was a particular interpreta-
tion of the nature of liberty. For him the citizen's liberty consisted
'chiefly in being capable of offices, to have power to make & correct
lawes, to speake freely in matters that concerne liberty, law or injury,
not to be arrested or imprisoned without order of lawe or authoritie,
nor be unjustly judged, robbed or forced to pay tribute'.
As well as propagating the familiar humanist idea that a virtuous
civic life was tantamount to the efflorescence of the mixed constitution
and thereby the whole commonwealth, Contarini and Goslicius parti-
cularly endorsed an equally traditional assumption about the charac-
teristics of the true citizen. Due to his strongly aristocratic bias,
Contarini explained that 'it was ordayned by our auncestors, that the
common people should not bee admitted into this company of citizens'.
It followed that 'the publike rule' of the Venetian commonwealth was
reserved for 'the nobility of lineage'. This argument was not so much
directed against obscure but virtuous men, as against those whose only
worth consisted in wealth. For Contarini, all who 'were noble by birth,
215
Gontarini, The commonwealth of Venice, pp. 6-8.
216
[Goslicius], The covnsellor, pp. 1, 5—8, 42—3, 59.
217
Ibid., pp. 12—14. Goslicius also argued that a good citizen did not have to be a good man
since he only needed to be 'politique, diligent, and stout' 'in service of the state', although he
could otherwise be 'injust, intemperate, and cowardly', p. 37.
218
Ibid., pp. 79-80.
no Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

or ennobled by vertue, or well deserving of the commonwealth, did in

the beginning obtain this right of government'. And he was most
careful to stress that 'the chiefest honors' should be conferred on those
who 'do excell the rest in vertue'. 219
Despite his equally strong aristocratic bias, Goslicius endorsed even
more vigorously the humanist notion that virtue alone was the
mainstay of nobility. Although he stipulated that counsellors ought to
descend 'from stocke or house of nobilitie or gentrie', he immediately
added that he did 'not dislike of those that take the badges of honor
from themselves, and make the foundation of their nobilitie upon
their owne vertue'. The simple reason for this was that 'vertue
entreateth both new and ancient men after one fashion'. This had an
immediate bearing upon Goslicius' notion of citizenship. Referring to
Cicero, Goslicius maintained that 'those are named Citizens that live
according to vertue'. Whereas Aristotle had required that a citizen
had 'good parentage, riches, and vertue', Goslicius argued that
'because it seldome happeneth that one man can be owner of them
all', it followed that 'vertue alone doth chalenge . . . power to make
men noble'. Although the membership of 'civill nobility' was given
even to those who were 'valiant in the warre of their country',
Goslicius followed Cicero in insisting that 'those men whose counsell
in time of peace, governed the commonweale wisely, peaceablie and
happilie, were preferred before them, that eyther defended or
enlarged the same by armes'.220
One of the chief benefits of the mixed constitution and a virtuous
nobility, which both writers singled out, was the particular way in which
these qualities could help the commonwealth to avoid corruption.
Corruption took place as soon as men lost sight of the common good
and began to pursue their private profit. This could be eschewed, as
both Contarini and Goslicius held, first by choosing many magistrates
and second by choosing those who indeed possessed virtue. Contarini
wrote that 'the offices' should be distributed so that 'the preheminence
of publike authoritie might pertaine to many, and not bee engrossed up
among a few' since these would be particularly propitious circumstances
for the growth of corruption. The underlying argument was that
'nothing is more proper to a commonwealth, then that the common
authority and power should belong to many'.221 Goslicius assured his
219
Contarini, The commonwealth of Venice, pp. 16-18, 35.
220
[Goslicius], The counsellor, pp. 146-8, 33-37.
221
Contarini, The commonwealth of Venice, pp. 32-3.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics in

readers that 'among other things 'which do preserve the commonweale

& happines therof, there is nothing better then to elect such men for
magistrates, as be induced with greatest wisedome, judgement & vertue'.
Magistracy was above all 'an ornament of vertue' and it should be
'bestowed on the best sorte of men, for their vertue and well deserving of
the state'. Men were ambitious by nature, and if this characteristic was
not bridled, riches and private gain would replace virtue and the public
good with the consequence that the commonwealth would face an
inevitable disaster. It followed, first, that education had to play a pivotal
role in making the citizen virtuous.222 Secondly, and more urgently,
offices should only be distributed on the basis of virtue. As Goslicius
maintained, 'great care therfore must be taken in every commonweale,
that the offices should not be given rather to the rich then the vertuous
men, and that those may be punished, that seeke with money to oppresse
vertue'. 223
The suggestion that these translations were carrying a political
message can be criticized from two different angles. First, it is possible
to maintain that the English, whose way of thinking was dominated by
the concept of a hierarchical body politic, were unable to comprehend
a republican universe of active beings. One could also object that the
issues which the English found in Contarini and Goslicius were not so
much incomprehensible as largely irrelevant to their own context and
that they were sources of general 'political wisdom' rather than of
'controversial argument'.224
There are a number of ways of answering this criticism. We have
already seen that Englishmen were fully capable of translating repub-
lican works, and of employing republican notions in order to put
forward polemical arguments. The relevance of Contarini' and Gosli-
cius' treatises is further attested by the fact that a number of similar
issues was treated and endorsed at the same time in numerous other
tracts.
First, the idea of a virtuous true nobility was widely embraced.
Admittedly, the earl of Essex may have seen himself as a 'man of
arms' bound by the rules of chivalry and may have emphasized his
lineage, values which gained currency in such writings as The booke of

222
[Goslicius], The counsellor, pp. 43-59.
223
Ibid., pp. 59—61, 66,102; in general pp. 59—68.
224
Cf. Pocock 1975b, p. 350; Sharpe 1989, p. 18. See Salmon 1959, p. 22, for the ways in which
Bodin was perhaps seen as 'an encyclopaedia of political wisdom' rather than 'a source of
controversial argument'.
H2 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

S. Albans republished in 1595.225 But it would be highly misleading to

conclude that these conceptions dominated. There is little doubt that
the old Roman and humanist idea of virtue as the sole constituent of
true nobility acquired great popularity. As one author put it, 'true
Nobility consisteth not of great patrimonies and rich possessions, but
of godlie & vertuous actions'.22 This was of course the question to
which Giovanni Nenna had devoted his tract Nennio, published in
English in 1595, reprinted in 1600, and dedicated to the earl of
Essex. Nenna pointed out in no uncertain terms that 'this nobility of
bloud is not onelie cause of pride, and ignorance, but of unsufferable
evil, and inevitable losse'. The only way to become noble was 'to
follow vertue and to flie vice'. In his preface to the reader, the
translator, William Jones, agreed with Nenna, and not only argued
against Aristotle but castigated, in a most forthright manner, those
who were 'caried away with fabulous pedigrees'.22
Moreover, the mixed constitution and the republican form of
government were commended in other treatises of the 1590s. In his
encyclopaedia Of the interchangeable course, or variety of things in the whole
world published in English in 1594, Louis Le Roy wrote that 'there are
more excellent personages found in common weales, then in kingdoms;
in the which vertue is honoured, and in kingdomes suppressed'. The
best form of government was the mixed constitution found most
conspicuously in ancient Rome. The only contemporary common-
wealths which came near to ancient Rome in this respect were
aristocratic Venice and democratic Switzerland. Although Venice was
not the greatest empire to be found in history, it was the most durable
and most conducive to 'good, and happy life'.228
The Venetian government was also eulogized by John Smythe in his
225
Anon., The gentlemans academie: or, the booke of S. Albans ... reduced into a better method, by G.
M[arkham] (London, 1595), especially fos. 43™; for Essex, see J a m e s 1986, pp. 416-65.
226
Bartholomew Chappell, The garden of prudence (London, 1595), sig. EI V . Cf. also e.g. Richard
Crompton, The mansion of magnanimitie (London, 1599), sig. A4V, who quoted Sallust; Charles
Gibbon, The praise ofa good name (London, 1594), pp. 20-1, 23; James Perrott, Thefirstpart of the
consideration of humane condition (Oxford, 1600), pp. 29-32; Thomas Floyd, The picture ofaperfU
common wealth (London, 1600), p. 113; Robert Ashley, Of honour, ed. Virgil B. Heltzel (San
Marino: Huntington Library, 1947), pp. 69-70, 34, 37.
27
Giovanni Nenna, Nennio: or a treatise of nobility, translated by William Jones (n.p. [London],
1595), fos. 8or, 87r. sig. A3v-4r.
Louis Le Roy, Of the interchangeable course: or variety of things in the whole world, translated by
Robert Ashley (London, 1594), fos. 14^, 79 r -8i v , i6 v, I2iv. It is worthwhile to note that
Aristotle's Politics was for the first time translated into English from Le Roy's French version
in 1598. The translation also included Le Roy's humanistic commentary, Aristotle, Politiqves,
or discourse ofgovernment, translated by I. D. (London, 1598). For some suggestive remarks, see
Tuck 1979, p. 44.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 113

tract on warfare. According to him, many 'politike States-men' claimed

that it was dangerous to arm the people, since this would give them a
possibility of rebelling. Smythe argued that it was not the arming of the
people but the nature of the government of the community that could
give rise to revolts and rebellions. The advice not to arm the people
was thus offered so that 'princes and governors should the more safely
without any danger of mutiny tyrannize, and exact at their own
pleasures upon their subjects'. A corollary of Smythe's argument was
that a 'puissant Militia5 was the only safeguard against a foreign
conqueror, a possible rebellion and a tyrant alike.229 But since it was
mainly the 'lack of justice dulie and equallie ministred' which led to
uprisings, it was of utmost importance that justice was duly adminis-
tered. A case in point was 'the notable Cittie and state of Venice' as
well as 'the Cantonnes and confederate people of Suitzerland', after
they had established 'a civill and popular State'. Not a single rebellion
had occurred in either Venice or Switzerland since their governments
had maintained justice and equality so meticulously.
In his own tract, Of honour, written towards the end of the reign,
Robert Ashley, the translator of Le Roy's work, put forward an even
stronger argument for the intimate link between the beneficial nature
of a virtuous true nobility and a republican government. Focusing his
attention on the question of who was capable of achieving honour,
Ashley noted that there were three distinct groups of people. The first
group contained those who were 'so heavie and dull spirited that they
little differ from brute beastes', while those who were 'so pregnant and
high minded that they despise all humane matters, and count them too
base for them to deale with' formed the second group. The third group
consisted of those who were also 'very desirous of great thinges' but
who were at the same time 'moderate in their desires'. The men of the
second group were so desirous of fame and honour that rather than
needing any incentives for honour, they, in fact, 'had more need of a
brydle to restraine them from their over hote pursuit'. But by and
large, the consequences of an energetic pursuit of and a bitter contest
for honour were favourable. They advanced rather than hindered the
common good: honour was 'a great spurr unto vertue'.231 In some
countries the intensity of the quest for honour was further enhanced by
'their institucion and custome'. This was most obvious 'amongst the
229
J o h n Smythe, Instructions, obseruations, and orders mylitaru (London, 1595), sigs. l 3 v - 4 r , H l 2 v - 3 r .
230
Smythe, Instructions, p p . 214-15.
231
Ashley, Of honour, p . 4 0 .
114 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Romanes and the Grecians' where 'the founders' of the common-

wealths had looked to it that 'their Cittizens' could channel their 'great
spirite' to 'great accions'.232
The difference between 'dull spirited' and 'high minded' people had
momentous consequences for the organization of the commonwealth's
government. The 'dull spirited' were most easily 'brought under the
yoke of Tyrantes' since they inherently admired tyrants. Even those
who were 'desirous of great thinges' but were 'moderate in their
desires' were eventually 'brought into bondage' as soon as their
'feirsenes' was suppressed. Only the most 'high minded' people were
capable of avoiding the bridle of tyranny. They were 'of more witt and
accomplishment' and they were 'obedient to none but such a one as
ruleth by lawes and institutions and governeth justly, and moderately'.
To illustrate his point, Ashley argued that whereas amongst the
Persians not a single conspiracy against their most tyrannical and cruel
princes had occurred, many of the Greek and Roman princes had been
'banished and slaine bicause they [had] ruled somewhat too severely'.
But it was peculiar to all 'polished nations' that they 'co[u]ld not
indure a proud and arrogant dominion'.233 Thus the commonwealth
of a 'high minded' and 'polished' people had two definite advantages.
First, the high-mindedness of the people maximized the advancement
of the common good. Since utmost care was taken to confer the highest
honours upon the most virtuous citizens, the high-minded people were
always most careful to embrace virtues and to put them into action. In
Ashley's words, they watched 'night and day that they may seeke to
give better Councell to the state then others'.234 Secondly, their
commonwealth had a government which ruled according to the laws
since the high-minded people always kept a watch on their superiors
and would not hesitate to rebel should the government degenerate.
Finally, in order to appreciate the claim that Contarini's and
Goslicius' translations had a political point, we have to turn to the
translations themselves. The anonymity of Goslicius' translator and his
several omissions bear witness to the controversial nature of the view
put forward in the treatise. But the tract defies a more accurate
232
Ibid., pp. 48-9.
233
Ibid., pp. 49-50. Cf. e.g. Leonard Wright, A display ojduty deckt with sage sayings, pithy sentences,
and proper similes (1589) (London, 1616), fos. 4™. According to Wright, although Englishmen
were 'bound by law', they were 'free by nature'. This meant, first, that they were 'more apt to
yeeld obedience and dutie, for love of vertue then feare of punishment' and secondly, that
they were 'more easily governed by friendlie curtesie, then forcible cruelty'.
234
Ashley, Of honour, p. 50.
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 115

interpretation of the translator's intentions since there is no preface,

dedication or any other comment by the translator. Nevertheless,
Goslicius' discussion of the constitutional arrangements prevalent in his
own day is of considerable interest. He found traces of the mixed
constitution in every commonwealth including France and Spain,
although in France the king 'ruleth at his owne discretion' and in Spain
the prince had 'authority soveraigne'.235
As we have seen, a more genuine representative of the mixed
constitution was Poland, where the 'liberty' of the people was 'so great,
as the king, without advise of his councel & their authority doth not
any thing, neither can the councel determine without the allowance of
the King, and consent of the people'. It was mainly by virtue of these
principles of the mixed consitution that in Poland laws were exception-
ally forceful and people lived 'in great liberty, beeing perswaded that to
live according to lawe, is indeed perfect freedome'. According to
Goslicius, the same perfect form of the mixed constitution was at work
in two other commonwealths. 'The Venetian state', he argued,
'seemeth framed after the same fashion' as Poland. It comes as no
surprise, therefore, that there was not a single commonwealth compar-
able to Venice in quietness and antiquity. Furthermore, an essentially
similar set of principles could be detected in England, where, in
Goslicius' words, the embodiment of the mixed constitution was seen in
'one common Councell: which in their language is called Parliament',
where the king was joined with 'the Nobility and popular order'.
England was thus ranked amongst the mixed states of Poland and
Venice rather than amongst the monarchies of France and Spain. 236
Lewkenor's translation is a different matter. It contains a dedica-
tion to the countess of Warwick, prefatory verses and a lengthy
preface to the reader. A commendation of Venice was central both
to some of the verses and to Lewkenor's preface. Edmund Spenser
described Venice as the successor of the eastern and western
empires, whilst another poet wrote: 'Venice invincible, the Adria-
tique wonder'.237 According to Lewkenor, travellers 'would inforce
their speech to the highest of all admiration' as soon as they began
to talk about Venice. They asserted that it was by far the 'most
infinitely remarkable, that they had seen in the whole course of their
travels'. And Lewkenor himself fully concurred: 'whithersoever you
235
[Goslicius], The counsellor, p. 26.
236
Ibid., pp. 26-8. Cf. [Carew], 'Relation', p. 62.
237
Contarini, The commonwealth of Venice, sig. *3 V , *4 r . Cf. Fink 1945, p. 43.
Ii6 Classical humanism and republicanism i570-1640

turne your eyes, they shall not encounter any thing but obiectes of
admiration'.2 8 He was ready to admit his own gullibility regarding
'the report of rare and unusuall accidentes', but he considered it far
less serious than the outright contempt for new and strange things so
typical amongst his contemporaries. Lewkenor wanted, in other
words, to dispel suspicions about the use of instances which at first
glance seemed to be foreign and irrelevant to the English context,
but which on second thoughts turned out to be highly apposite. He
criticized, as he put it, those 'who presentlie doe condemne for false
fryvolous & impossible whatsoever is not within the narrow lymits of
their own capacitie included'.239
The admirable nature of Venice consisted partly in its longevity
and partly in its empire. It seemed as if it was in league 'with the
heavenly powers' since for '13 hundred yeares', it had been 'an estate
so perpetually flourishing & unblemished'. It was admired 'for power
and glorie', for its 'infinit affluence of glorie, and unmeasurable
mightinesse of power'.240 But the chief reason why Venice should be
honoured was the peculiar way in which it was organized, and which
ultimately accounted for its greatness and longevity. Spenser firmly
believed that Venice 'farre' exceeded all the other commonwealths 'in
policie of right'.241
There were three features in particular which Lewkenor found
highly commendable in the Venetian commonwealth. The first was
its ability to hold corruption at bay. If 'no ambitious force' could
destroy Venice from without, neither could internal division jeopar-
dize its well-being since 'all corrupt means to aspire are curbd' in
Venice.242 There were more than 3,000 citizens who took part in its
political life - not as soldiers, as Lewkenor took some pains to point
out, but as 'unweaponed men in gownes' - giving 'direction & law
to many mightie and warlike armies'. Nonetheless, Venice had not
encountered the perennial problem of factions and overambitious
citizens which was traditionally claimed to be inseparable from as
well as fatal to aristocratic commonwealths. None of her citizens had
been induced to 'aspire to any greater appellation of honour, or
higher tytle of dignitie then to be called a Gentleman of Venice'.

238
Gontarini, The commonwealth of Venice, sig. Ai v -2 r , A2V.
239
Ibid., sig. *4 V .
240
Ibid., sigs. A 3 r , *4r-
241
Ibid., sig. *3V.
242
Ibid., sig. V -
 Classical republicanism in Elizabethan politics 117
The Venetians' love of their country was so profound and deep that
they were content to serve it with all their energy. 243
The preeminence of the Venetian commonwealth also emerged in
the election of its magistrates. Venice had avoided internal discord
since, in the words of one poet, her magistrates were 'elected' on the
basis of 'vertues'. Lewkenor completely concurred. Not only did the
Venetians diligently maintain justice 'pure and uncorrupted'; 'their
encouragements to vertue' were hardly less 'infinite'. This encourage-
ment was a consequence of the peculiar way in which 'offices &
dignities' were distributed, a way which 'utterly overreacheth the
subtilitie of all ambitious practises'. Lewkenor was careful to emphasize
that the principles of a truly virtuous nobility had been realized in
Venice. All the 'offices and dignitie' were conferred on people whom
'the whole assembly' regarded as 'men of greatest wisedome, vertue
and integritie of life'.245
The final feature of which Lewkenor strongly approved was the
Venetian form of government. Lewkenor insisted that 'the Venetian
prince' represented 'a most excellent Monarchic'. He possessed 'all
exterior ornamentas of royall dignitie' but his authority was 'wholy
subjected to the lawes'. The Venetian 'Councell of Pregati or Senators'
embodied 'Aristocraticall government'. This senate, Lewkenor faith-
fully acknowledged, possessed 'all supreame power' but was totally
unable to 'tyrannize, or to pervert their Country lawes'. The final
feature of the Venetian form of government was 'their great Councell,
consisting at the least of 3000. Gentlemen, whereupon the highest
strength and mightinesse of the estate absolutely relyeth'. This 'great
Councell', which had not caused any 'tumult' or 'confusion', was 'a
most rare and matchlesse president of a Democrasie or popular estate'.
For Lewkenor, accordingly, Venice was the embodiment of the mixed
246
constitution.
Lewkenor thus revealed the excellence of the Venetian common-
wealth and its government, but perhaps the most astonishing character-
istic of his preface is the forthrightness with which he suggested that
Venice was a touchstone for the governments of other commonwealths.
As a result, to give a picture of the Venetian government was to
'deliver unto other a cleare and exact knowledge' of the different forms
243
Ibid, sig. A3 r .
244
Ibid., sig. * 4 r -
245
Ibid., sig. A 2 V .
246
Ibid., sig. A2r-V
n8 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640
of government so that all could comprehend 'the fruite of all whatso-
ever other governments throughout the world that are of any fame or
excellency'. Surely it would not be too much to say that one of the
points Lewkenor had in mind when he translated Contarini's treatise,
and criticized those who refused to see the relevance of a foreign
example, was that the English might have something to learn from the
Venetian experience.

247
Ibid., Sig. A2F.
 CHAPTER 3

Civic life and the mixed constitution in

Jacobean political thought

Jacobean political thought has often been studied from the viewpoint
of a polarity of opinions between the king and his parliaments. James,
together with his Anglican clerics and his lawyers, invoked royal
absolutism, whilst the House of Commons attempted to oppose
royalist claims by arguments based on their view of the nature and
contents of the ancient constitution or, more generally, on theories of
contract. This is the focal point of the older - or cWhig' interpreta-
tion. But it is also that of recent studies whether written against, or in
defence of, the older account.2 It is not the aim of this chapter to
deny the obvious truth that perhaps the majority of early-seventeenth-
century English political discourse centred upon the disagreements
between the king and his parliaments and upon the debates on the
nature of the ancient constitution. But what I do wish to argue is that
the narrow concentration upon these issues, displayed by most
scholars, tends to yield an over-restricted picture of the range of
Jacobean political thought. It is, in other words, worth our while to
take a fresh look at the political writings of the first two decades of the
seventeenth century. Although the bulk of political discourse was
conducted in juristic parlance - variously absolutist, contractarian or
legal in character - it is argued below that the opposing tradition,
which emphasized the virtuous citizen's active life, was also present
during this period.
The advocates of royal absolutism often directed their arguments
against contractarians - both Calvinist and catholic alike, as exempli-
fied by Bartholomew Parsons, the incumbent of Ludgershall, Wiltshire,
1
E.g. Allen 1938; Judson 1949.
2
Smith 1973; Eccleshall 1978; Weston and Greenberg 1982; Sommerville 1986; Christiansson

"9
120 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

in his assize sermon at Sarum in Wiltshire in March 1615. Excoriating

Robert Bellarmine, David Pareus as well as the author of the Vindicae
contra tyrannos, Parsons argued that 'all Magistracie & civil power on
earth hath his originall & authority immediatly from the most high,
whose dominion is an everlasting dominion, and whose kingdome is
from generation to generation: there is no power but of God5.3 From
assumptions like this it followed that the king, in participating in divine
grace, was the chief actor in the commonwealth. According to John
Buckeridge, man received 'the good of Peace, Protection, Justice,
Religion and the like' from the temporal government. Since God had
placed government solely in the sovereign's hands, the temporal goods
of peace and justice were completely dependent on the monarch. 4
Preaching in Reading in 1619, William Dickinson proclaimed that
'onely the King is the Foundation; and as it were the Selfe-praexistence
and axis of the common-wealth, upon whose wel-being and good
Lawes the whole state of things, and the good and ill of his Subjects
and Cittizens relie'.5
From the strong royalist claims it also followed that the subject's
active role was severely circumscribed. It was argued not only that the
divinely ordained authority must not under any circumstances be
actively resisted, but also that it was best for the subject to concentrate
on his own private life. The only way in which he could attempt to
participate in the public sphere was through acting in the contempla-
tive domain. He should, that is, pray for a good prince.6 According to
George Meriton, the contemplative life of 'Priesthood' far outclassed
the active life of'a Mayor of a Towne or Citty, or a Justice of Peace in

Bartholomew Parsons, The magistrates charter examined: or his duty and dignity opened: in a sermon
preached at an assises, held at Sarum in the county of Wiltes, on the ninth day of March, last past, 16 14
(London, 1616), p . 4. See also e.g. William Wilkes, Obedience or ecclesiasticall union (London,
1606), pp. 49, 56-60, 63-4; John Dunster, Caesars penny: or a sermon of obedience . . . preached at St
Maries in Oxford at the assies the 24 ofluly 1610 (Oxford, 1610), sig. A2 v -3 r , pp. 17—18; Christopher
White, A sermon preached in Christ-church in Oxford, the 12. day of May 1622 (London, 1622), pp. 4,
17-21.
Buckeridge, A sermon preached at Hampton Court before the kings maiestie, on Tuesday the 23 of
September, anno 1606 (London, 1606) sig. A3 r ; Robert Anton, The philosophers satyrs (London,
1616), sig. 0 2 ^ .
William Dickinson, The kings right, briefely set downe in a sermon preached before the reuerend iudges at
the assizes held in Reading for the county of Berks. Iune 28. i6ig (London, 1619), sig. C4V; cf. Judson
1949, pp. 192-3, 213-14.
E.g. Robert Home, The Christian gouernour, in the common-wealth, and priuate families (London,
1614), sig. C4V~5V; cf. E. Njesbit], Caesars dialogue: or a familiar communication containing the first
institution of a subiect, in allegiance to his soueraigne (London, 1601), sig. A5V, pp. 4, 90-118; George
Webbe, The practice ofquietnes: or a direction how to Hue quietly (London, 1608), pp. 155-6.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 121

the Countrey5. Likewise, Samuel Garey maintained that since it should

be the people's desire 'to live a quiet and peaceable life', they ought to
confine themselves to otium and 'like dutifull members pray for the
prosperity of the supreame head'. 8 Isaac Bargrave preached early in
Charles's reign that 'obedience' was 'the chiefest of the morall vertues'. 9
This belief recurred throughout the royalist sermons and pamphlets
although rarely with as much conviction and clarity as in William
Willymat's treatise, A loyal svbiects looking-glasse. In 1603 Willymat had
published an adaptation of James Fs Basilikon down, entitled A princes
lookingglasse, and, encouraged by the favourable reception, published the
companion volume in 1604. Discussing how subjects must abstain 'from
taking in hand or intermeddling with any part of the Magistrates office',
Willymat emphasized that it did not belong to them to engage
themselves in the public life of their community. 'Private subiects' were
'to be ruled and governed'; they had 'no publicke charge nor office to
attend upon'. They had nothing but 'only each of them his owne private
busines according as his owne place, function, and calling requireth'. It
followed, in the first place, that the subject was not entitled to resort to
self-help; 'all taking up of revenge for a mans owne proper injurie is here
forbidden'. But his passive obedience further entailed abstaining from
any public action whatsoever. Following closely Pierre de La Primau-
daye's description of the obedience of the subject, Willymat declared
that 'all private persons' should exhibit 'moderation' 'in publique
affaires, namely that they may not of their owne motion without any
calling busie themselves in publike affaires, nor intermeddle in the
government'. It was simply prohibited for them to attempt 'any publike
thing'. Since the subject was totally devoid of the necessary qualities for
taking part in the public life of the community, he ought to refrain from
seeking 'to doe any good in the common-weale'. 10
7
George Meriton, A sermon of nobilitie: preached at White-hall, before the king in February 1606
(London, 1607), sig. E2r~v, E3r; cf. Todd 1987, p. 222. See also Edward Forset, A comparative
discourse of the bodies natural andpolitique (London, 1606), pp. 45-6.
8
Samuel Garey, Great Brittans little calendar: or, triple diarie (London, 1618), p. 6.
9
Isaac Bargrave, A sermon preached before king Charles, March 2j. 1627: being the anniuersary of his
maiesties inauguration (London, 1627), p p . 5—6.
10
William Willymat, A loyal subiects looking-glasse, or a good subiects direction (London, 1604), pp. 47-9,
58-9; La Primaudaye, The French academie, translated by T. B[owes?] (London, 1586), p. 609; cf.
e.g. Robert Pricke, The doctrine of superioritie, and ofsubiection (London, 1609), sig. DIV. When the
subject's active role was used to substantiate absolutists' claims, it was argued, as by Henry
Howard, earl of Northampton, in 1610, that the subject's active role consisted in giving
pecuniary help, PP1610,1, pp. 257-85, see especially pp. 263-70; cf. e.g. PP1610,11, p. 17. See also
Charles Gibbon, The order ofequalitie: contriued and diuulged as a generall directoriefor common sessements
(Cambridge, 1604), pp. 13,31. For a similar argument in Italy, see Nederman 1993, pp. 512—13.
122 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

Contractarian and legal accounts were invoked in the House of

Commons to oppose the ascendancy of absolutist interpretation, but
both of these traditions defined the subject's role in essentially negative
terms. In the natural law tradition, the chief way of speaking about the
subject was to define him as possessing liberty, or right in property. A
similar assumption underlay arguments based on the ancient constitu-
tion. The common law secured both the king's prerogative and the
subject's liberty. In Jacobean England these two arguments often
appeared together as in George More's traditional advice-book for
Prince Henry in 1611. In the time-honoured manner, More entreated
the young heir to embrace all the princely virtues like justice,
constancy, liberality, learning, religious feeling and clemency and to
avoid the opposite vices. The prince should also win and maintain his
subjects' love by averting from 'Matchevils principle', according to
which, 'the subjects must be made poore by continuall subsidies,
exactions, and impositions, [so] that the people may be alwaies kept
under as slaves, & feare the Prince'.11
More's case of resisting the exaction of subsidies and impositions
rested not only on principles of prudence but also on more
theoretical underpinning. Enquiring into the inception of political
society, he pointed out that a kingdom was established 'by the
people'. He embraced the contractarian view that sovereignty had
originally resided in the people, and by their consent and choice
authority had been conferred on the king. This original contract
imposed strict limits upon the royal authority, for the king could
neither change the laws of the commonwealth nor take his subjects'
property without their expressed consent. 'And as the head of the
Physicall body', More taught the would-be king, 'cannot change the
reynes and sinewes thereof, nor deny the members of their proper
strength & necessary nurriture: no more can a king (who is head of
the politicke body) alter or change the laws of that body, or take
from the people their goods or substance against their wils.' More
coupled this analysis with a more insular interpretation of the
ancient constitution. When 'Brute' had arrived 'in this Hand with his
Trojans', he had erected 'regall and politicke government' which
had been kept inviolate ever since. Although More confessed that
'wee have had many changes', most recently the coming of the
Normans, 'yet in the time of all these Nations, & during their

11
George More, Principlesforyong princes: collected out ofsundry authors (London, 1611), fo. 69/.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 123
raignes, the kingdome was for the most part governed in this same
manner that it is now'.12
In More's vision, the authority of the king was thus clearly limited. It
was confined by the original contract as well as the immemorial custom
which defined England as having 'regall and politicke government5.
But in so far as the subject was concerned, his role was not one of an
active citizen; the original contract and the ancient custom simply
secured his absolute property in his goods and land. When the issue of
impositions surfaced in Jacobean parliaments, it was essentially these
arguments to which the king's opponents resorted. The liberty of the
subject tended to be equated with his right in property which was
safeguarded by the ancient constitution. This line of reasoning emerges
clearly in Nicholas Fuller's speech in opposition to the king's right of
impositions in parliament in June 1610. He constructed his account as
an argument Tor the freedom of the subject'. The pivotal point was
that 'the laws of England are the most high inheritance of the land' and
they defined as well as directed both the king and his subjects. The law
preserved subjects' 'right and liberty' 'in their lands and goods' and in
'lawful and free trades'.13
To conceal the fundamental disagreements between absolutists and
their opponents, these arguments were often presented in the 'rhetoric
of reconciliation': there was an intimate link between the king's
authority and the people's liberty defined by a balanced constitution.14
This vocabulary was used by the defenders of the king's claims. 'The
King's Sovereignty and the Liberty of Parliament', Francis Bacon told
a committee of the House of Commons in 1610 in a highly revealing
passage, 'are as the two elements and principles of this estate; which
though the one be more active the other more passive, yet they do not
cross or destroy the one the other, but they strengthen and maintain
the one the other ... And herein it is our happiness that we may make
the same judgement of the King which Tacitus made of Nerva. Diuus
Nerva res olim dissociabiles miscuit, Imperiam et Libertatem. Nerva did temper
things that before were thought incompatible or insociable, Sovereignty

12
More, Principles for yong princes, fos. i r -2 v . Cf. e.g. Richard Middleton, The carde and compasse of
life: containing many passages, jitfor these times (London, 1613), pp. 62, 231, 235-6. Middleton wrote
that the prince ought 'to governe and defend the Common-wealth, according to the prescript
of the Lawes: therefore is infinite power not to be ascribed to him'.
13
PP1610, 11, p. 152. Gf. the interesting discussion of the concept of liberty in Thomas Palmer,
An essay of the meanes how to make our trauailes, intoforraine countries, the more profitable and honourable
(London, 1606), pp. 69—70,117—18.
14
Sommerville 1986, pp. 134-7; cf. e.g. Hirst 1981; Hirst 1985, p. 124.
124 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

and liberty.' 15 The same vocabulary played hardly less important a

role in the arguments of anti-absolutists. Exactly the same quotation
from Tacitus was employed a few weeks later by Thomas Hedley in his
argument against the king's authority of impositions.16

11

Although these modes of thought have customarily been seen as having

eclipsed all other patterns of political discourse, some aspects of the
Machiavellian vocabulary are generally acknowledged to be found in
the court. The court, as Pocock has aptly reminded us, was a world of
particularity to which every courtier reacted by employing his parti-
cular talents - his virtues.1 These accounts of the courtier's life have
often been seen as a new development in the humanist tradition, where
Cicero was replaced by Tacitus as the chief Roman author. This
Tacitean interpretation accepted to a certain extent the king's authority
as natural, but depicted at the same time the courtly universe as a
restless and dangerous world. Although Tacitus' scathing criticism of
Roman emperors could yield support to the cause of republicanism, he
was most often interpreted as a Machiavellian exponent of reason of
state. This interpretation linked Tacitus with scepticism and specifically
with a particular kind of stoicism - often, though not entirely
accurately, labelled as neostoicism. Tacitus, moreover, came to be
linked with Seneca, the outcome of which was an ethic of fortitude and
endurance.18
There is little doubt that this mode of thought also gained a strong
foothold in England. Tacitus' Histories (translated by Henry Savile)
were first printed in English in 1591 and reprinted in 1598,19 when the
first edition of his Annals (translated by Richard Greneway) was also
issued (reprinted 1604, 1612, 1622, 1640). Tacitus' terse prose style
became, as is well known, a model for those who were critical of the
15
Bacon in parliament 19 May 1610, in Letters, iv, p. 177. Cf. PP1610, 11, p. 98. The Tacitus
quotation appeared already in Bacon's Advancement of learning (1605), in Works, in, p. 303; see
also Bacon in parliament 7 July 1610, in Letters, iv, p. 202. Tacitus, Agricola, 3.
16
PP1610,11, p. 191; cf. e.g. John Davies, Le primer report des cases & matters en ley resohes & adiudges
en Us courts del roy en Ireland (Dublin, 1615) sig. *2V.
17
Pocock 1975b, pp. 350-1.
18
See e.g. Burke 1969; Tuck 1989, p. 65. There is a vast literature devoted to the rise of
Tacitean themes in the European context. For particularly lucid analyses, see Salmon 1980;
Tuck 1993. For an interesting discussion of'pragmatic humanism', see Grafton andjardine
1986, pp. 161—200.
19
See Womersley 1991; Smuts 1994, especially pp. 30, 40.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 125
Ciceronian style.20 More important was his currency in his own field;
the growing popularity of 'politic history5 with its concern with causes
and motives has often been ascribed to the impact of Tacitus' historical
writings.21 Perhaps the most important aspects of 'Tacitism' were,
however, those of politics and ethics.22 The popularity of Tacitus gave
rise to a distinct genre of political writing - commentaries or essays
written around one sentence or passage from Tacitus. 23 Isaac Bargrave
claimed in 1624 that 'Tacitus' has become politicians' 'Bible' and that
there were 'more Commenters upon him than upon Saint Paul'. 24
Alongside Tacitus, a number of the continental moral and political
treatises of this tradition were translated into English. Justus Iipsius'
Two bookes of constancie and Sixe bookes of politickes appeared in 1594;
Guillaume Du Vair's stoic The moral philosophie of the stoicks and A bvckler
against adversitie were issued in 1598 and 1622 respectively; Michel de
Montaigne's Essayes were printed in 1603; Pierre Charron's Ofwisdome
appeared some time before 1612. Perhaps the most important of these
translations, Thomas Lodge's English version of Seneca's prose works
was published in 1614 (reprinted 1620), and has recently been described
as 'a monument to the Jacobean Neostoic cult'. 25
Tacitus was employed, in the first place, to point out that the
Ciceronian ideal was lofty yet forlorn and that although the consolida-
tion of Octavian's authority had been grounded on the exploitation of
deceit, dissimulation and trickery, it had, nevertheless, been the only
real choice in the corrupt world. Philip Sidney had already noted that
Tacitus excelled 'in the pithy opening the venome of wickednes', and
Gabriel Harvey thought it to be Tiberius' 'brave quality and most
suttle property' that he 'altogither fayned to do that, which he meant
not to do: and not to do that which in deade he meant to do'. 26 Joseph
Wybarne explained in The new age of old names (published in 1609) ^ e
means which Augustus had used to keep 'the Senate in a perpetuall
honourable bondage'. He had 'appointed triumphall ornaments for
victorious Senators, still reserving the triumph it selfe, for himselfe, and
20
E.g. Burke 1966; Burke 1969, pp. 151-3.
21
Levy 1967, pp. 237—85; Levy 1987; Goldberg 1955; Burke 1966; Burke 1969, p p . 153-5. ^ e e
e.g. Tacitus, The annales, translated by Richard Greneway (London, 1598), sig. ^[2r.
22
See Salmon 1989; Tenney 1941; Bradford 1983; Schellhase 1976, pp. 157-68.
23
Burke 1969, p. 162; Burke 1991, pp. 484—90.
24
Isaac Bargrave, A sermon against selfe policy (London, 1624), P- 3 2 -
25
Salmon 1989, p. 199.
26
Philip Sidney to Robert Sidney, 18 October 1580, in Philip Sidney, Complete Works, 4 vols., ed.
Albert Feuillerat (Cambridge University Press, 1922—6), in, p . 132. Gabriel Harvey, Marginalia,
ed. G. C. Moore Smith (Stratford: Shakespeare Head Press, 1913), p . 143.
126 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

his successors; and so [had] played with the Romanes, as vermine doe
with poultry, sucking the best blood, and leaving the refuse for all
commers'. Wybarne believed that Tiberius had learned 'his plot-forme
from Augustus'. Their common method had been that 'the name be as
little changed as may bee, though the thing bee altered'.27
This theme was developed in an anonymous treatise, Horae subseciuae,
published in 1620 and now thought to have been written partly by
William Cavendish and partly by his tutor, Thomas Hobbes.28 The
discussion occurs in a lengthy 'Discourse upon the beginnning of
Tacitus', attributed to Hobbes. After a brief introduction, where the
'accidentall' nature of 'the first forme of government in any State' was
emphasized and the earlier constitutional history of Rome briefly
rehearsed, the author explained how the constitutional development of
Rome after the expulsion of the kings had been totally unsteady. The
people 'grew perplexed at every inconvenience, and shifted from one
forme of government to another, and so to another, and then to the
first againe; like a man in a fewer'. The chief reason for this wavering
situation had been the rivalry between the commons and the nobles:
'For on whomsoever the commons conferred the supreme authority,
the Senate and Nobility still gained in all suites and offices to be
preferred before them, which was the cause of most of the seditions
and alterations of the State.' The Roman people had soon realized that
although it had been necessary to trust the defence of their liberty to
someone, at the same time the power had corrupted those in authority,
and they had quickly turned against the people and their liberty. 'But
indeed the thing they most feared, was, that they saw those who
possessed the power for the present, would not give it over, but sought
to make it personall, and perpetuate it to themselves.' The Romans
were faced with a dilemma for they 'were jealous of their liberty, and
knewe not in whose hands to trust it, and were often at the point to lose
if.29
Instead of explicating the means whereby corruption might be
staved off by limiting the power of those in authority, the author simply
27
Joseph Wybarne, The new age of old names (London, 1609), p p . 15-17, 78. Wybarne was also
disposed to endorse scepticism, pp. 10-11.
28
Reynolds a n d Hilton 1993; see also Malcolm 1981. For a n account of the arguments of the
Horae subseciuae, see Saxonhouse 1981. Other English examples of the commentary-style
include Robert Dallington, Aphorismes civill and militarie: amplified with authorities, and exemplified
with historie, out of the first quarterne ofFr Guicciardine (London, 1613). Thomas Gainsford wrote a
similar treatise, which remained in manuscript, see Salmon 1989, p . 217.
29
Anon., Horae subseciuae: observations and discourses (London, 1620), p p . 229—34. Cf. Henry Wright,
Thefirstpart of the disquisition oftrvth concerning political affaires (London, 1616), pp. 45-6.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 127

explained how the constitutional situation in Rome had ultimately led

to the consolidation of Octavian's authority. Although Octavian had
taken 'upon him the Monarchy by force', he had so settled it that he
had afterwards possessed it quietly and 'the State could never recover
liberty5. The occasion for Octavian had been offered by civil wars,
for they commonly exposed ca State to the prey of ambitious men'.
Finally, the author gave considerable space to a detailed explanation of
the ways in which Octavian had safeguarded his acquisition by care-
fully employing various methods of dissimulation.31
This kind of analysis could serve to explain the ultimate necessity
for monarchical rule. But Tacitus' writing was a double-edged sword,
as attested by James's aversion to 'Tacitism'. 32 A chief way in which
Tacitus was used in English political and moral discourse was,
however, to link him with Seneca and to lay a particular emphasis on
the values of scepticism, private prudence and withdrawal. 33 An
apposite example is provided by Fulke Greville who asserted in his
Treatise of monarchy that monarchy was the best form of government:
the king's authority guaranteed the public good, and even if a king
would degenerate into a tyrant, the people must not resist him. But
scholars have detected more equivocal aspects from the work: a
nostalgia for a golden age before monarchy had been established; a
belief that the king was no longer enforcing eternal laws but, like a
tyrant, practising a statecraft.34 And yet, as David Norbrook has also
emphasized, 'all of Greville's writings come down on the side of
obedience and resignation'. Greville contrasted 'those active times and
the narrow salves of this effeminate age'. Since the decline of every
state was inevitable,

Soe may grave and great men of estate,

In such despaired tymes, retire away,
And yeild the sterne of government to fate.35

Anon., Horae subseciuae, pp. 234—5.

Ibid., pp. 237-42, 249-83. See also e.g. William Cornwallis, Discourses vpon Seneca the tragedian
(London, 1601), sig. AIV, A4r, A5V, A6r~v.
Bradford 1983; see in general Pocock 1985a, p. 292.
Salmon 1989, especially p. 224. In what follows, I am particularly indebted to this account.
See Smuts 1994; Monsarrat 1984, pp. 81-125; Norbrook 1984, pp. 171-4, 182-3; Tuck 1989,
p. 65.
Pocock 1975b, pp. 352-3; Norbrook 1984, pp. 160-70.
Greville, A dedication, in The prose works, p. 7; Treatise of monarchy, stanza 108, lines 1-3, in The
remains, p. 62.
128 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

England managed to avoid a civil war,36 but the political world of the
early seventeenth century offered ample opportunities to describe it in
terms of flattery and servility, hypocrisy and dissimulation. The court in
particular was denounced as a place of vices and corruption. According
to Francis Bacon, the court abounded with men whose 'Art5 made 'a
flourishing estate ruinous & distressed' but who could at the same time
'fiddell very cunningly' and gain 'both satisfaction with their Masters,
and admiration with the vulgar'.37 The court was regarded as completely
devoid of virtues. 'The Courtier', Thomas Gainsford defined, 'that is all
for shew and complement, is the onely professor of humanitie, master of
curtesie, vaine promiser, idle protester, servant of folly, and scholler of
deceit.' Nobody should be so foolish as to trust a courtier, for, in a word,
'he neither performeth, what hee commonly sweares, nor remembers in
absence, what hee hath formerly protested: so that his oaths and words
are like smoake and aire: and his deeds and actions meerly shadowes, and
farre from substance'.38 According to Henry Wright, the court was a
place where 'all credit, countenance, honors, and authority' were 'for
the most part slippery, and not to be trusted unto'. 39
The analysis of corruption was often based on the history of imperial
Rome. Tacitus' excellence, Richard Brathwait wrote, derived from the
fact that he offered 'a dilated compendiary of many declined States,
disunited Provinces' and he showed 'the vices of the time, where it was
dangerous to be Vertuous, and where Innocence tasted the sharpest
censure'. He taught 'men in high estates how to moderate their
Greatnesse', but 'others of inferior ranke' could gather from him that it
was worthwhile 'rather to live retired, then to purchase eminence in
place by servile meanes'.40 Describing the flattery, dissimulation and
corruption of his age, Anthony Stafford made extensive use of Seneca

J o h n Hitchcock discussed rebellion and civil war in A sanctuary for honest men: or an abstract of
human wisdome (London, 1617), pp. 120-3, arguing that there were two options open for private
persons: 'if they bee men of publike charge and credit they ought to joyn themselves to the
better part', but 'if they be private men of a lower degree the best way is to retire themselves
to some peaceable and secure place'.
37
Bacon, Essaies (1612), in Works, v i , p. 587. See also William Govell, Polimanteia: or, the meanes
laivjull and vnlawjull, to ivdge of the fall of a common-wealth (Cambridge, 1595), sigs. 03 r , D4V, SI V ;
Cornwallis, Discourses, sig. B4 r ~5 v .
38
(Thomas Gainsford], The rich cabinet furnished with uarietie of excellent discriptions (London, 1616),
fos. i8 v -ig r , in general fos. i8 v -2i r . Cf. e.g. Robert Dallington, Aphorismes, p p . 104-5, 2 2 4i
T h o m a s Churchyard, A pleasant discourse of court and wars (London, 1596), sig. A3V~4V.
39
Wright, Thefirstpart, pp. 19-20.
40
Richard Brathwait, The schollers medley: or an intermixt discourse vpon historicall and poeticall relations
(London, 1614), p p . 10, 13-14; idem, A svruey of history: or, a nursery for gentry (London, 1638),
pp. 38, 50-1; cf. in general idem, Essaies uponfivesenses (London, 1620); idem, The golden fleece
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 129

and Tacitus. In England 'more is acted' than 'MachiavelT ever

invented, for chee was the Theorick: these men for the Practique5.
According to Stafford, Tacitus' saying that Vertues . . . are rewarded
with certaine destruction' was particularly true in his own age.41
One course of reaction to this analysis was to attempt to accommo-
date behaviour to meet the circumstances. This idea was adopted in a
treatise, Ars avlica or the courtiers arte, written by Lorenzo Ducci and
rendered into English by Edmund Blount in 1607. The courtier served
'his Lord', but this was but a means to the ulterior and 'more principall'
goal of'his owne profit'. When he proceeded to offer a detailed account
of Ars avlica, Ducci drew much of his material from Tacitus, 'an excellent
Master of Courtiers'.42 A similar attempt was made by Francis Bacon in
the Advancement of learning where he developed a discipline, the 'architec-
ture of fortune', which formed a part of civil knowledge. Its chief
doctrine was 'to teach men how to raise and make their fortune'.43
According to Isaac Bargrave, all the 'Maximes of State' in Tacitus'
commentaries were 'squared by the master-rule of Selfe-Interest'.44
Another typical Tacitean reaction to the issues of corruption was the
one of retirement. Both Iipsius and Du Vair taught that too strong an
affection for the patria was dangerous; one must simply endure the
times of troubles, remain steadfast in the face of abrupt changes of
fortune and keep aloof from public life. Gabriel Harvey placed a
(London, 1611). Gf. Robert Johnson, Essaies: or rather imperfect offers (London, 1607), sigs. c 8 v -
D4V. It is, however, worth pointing out that despite his admiration for Tacitus, Brathwait held
Iivy and Sallust in scarcely less high esteem; for livy, see A survey of history, pp. 347-51, for
Sallust, see The schollers medley, pp. 15-16, and especially p. 94.
41
Anthony Stafford, Staffords Mobe: or his age of team (London, 1611), especially pp. 5-19, 21-3,
106,184-5, I 9 I -
42
Leonardo Ducci, Ars avlica or the courtiers arte, translated by [Edmund Blount] (London, 1607),
pp. 1-2, 9-10, 15-17, 33; cf. sig. A8r~v; Wright, Thefirstpart, pp. 19—21, 51-2, 32-3; cf. Remigio
Nannini, Civill considerations vpon many and svndrie histories, translated from French by W.
T[raheron] (London, 1601); Francesco Sansovino, The quintesence of wit, translated by Robert
Hitchcock (London, 1590); Eustache Du Refuge, A treatise of the court: or instructions for courtiers,
translated by J o h n Reynolds (London, 1622).
43
Bacon, Advancement oflearning, in Works, in, pp. 447-73, Essaies (1612), in Works, vi, pp. 574-5,550,
549; idem, Essayes, pp. 33, 36,42, and especially pp. 122-4. Cf. Cochrane 1958. See Burke 1969,
pp. 156-62, for the Tacitean leanings of this kind of enterprise. For Bacon's admiration for
Tacitus, see Temporispartus masculus, in Works, in, p. 538. Cf. Benjamin 1965; Dean 1941, pp. 172—
3; Croll 1971; Berry 1971. See also D[aniel] TJuvill], The dove and the serpent (London, 1614),
especially pp. 16,22. For a different interpretation, see Warhaft 1971, pp. 52-3.
44
Bargrave, A sermon against selfepolicy, pp. 32—3.
45
Justus Iipsius, Two bookes ofconstancie (1594), translated byJ o h n Stradling, ed. Rudolf Kirk (New
Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1939), pp. 89—98; Guillaume D u Vair, A bvckler against
adversitie: or a treatise ofconstancie, translated by Andrew Court (London, 1622), pp. 19—20, 25, 32;
idem, The moral philosophie of the stoicks, translated by T[homas] J[ames] (London, 1598), pp.
127-9. See ^ s o e.g. van Gelderen 1990, p. 208; Oestreich 1982, p. 29; Burke 1991, pp. 491-7.
130 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

strong emphasis on the active life, but he also called patience 'an
excellent quality' and named 'Constancy' as 'the honorablist Vertue of
all Vertues'. Robert Dallington explained that everyone ought to be
carefully prepared for sudden change. 'But the resolved man,' he
wrote, 'is ever the same, in the period of both fortunes'.46 In his
translation of Seneca, Thomas Lodge advised his reader that he could
find in the volume, 'how much thou hast lost in life in begetting vanities
and nourishing them, in applauding follies, and intending them'. From
this the reader was supposed to infer that 'no time is better spent' than
that spent in studying 'how to live, and how to die weF. Seneca taught
that 'to be truely vertuous is to be happy, to subdue passion is to be
truely a man ... to live well is to be vertuous, and to die well is the way
to eternitie'.47 Having condemned 'the Jesuites positions', as well as the
doctrine held by 'Buchanan and the fayned Junius Brutus' that a tyrant
could be resisted, Christopher White emphasized: 'There is no defen-
sive resistance allowed, unlesse thy defence be such, (as livie only allots
to subiects)... the buckler of patience.' 48
A similar conclusion was drawn from Tacitus' Annals in 'A discourse
upon the beginning of Tacitus' of the Horae subseciuae, attributed to
Hobbes. Whilst virtues of 'deepe wisedome and great, and extra-
ordinary valour' had flourished in republican Rome and generally 'in a
free State', the virtue which had acquired prominence in imperial
Rome and which had always been 'the greatest vertue' of 'the subject
of a Monarch' was 'obedience'. Showing the point of contact of royal
absolutism and the Tacitean tradition, the author argued that a
prince's subject did not need to possess those virtues which were vital
for 'the Art of commanding'. He ought to either lead the life of
retirement or apply himself to 'the Art of service', where 'obsequious-
nesse' was the chief virtue.
Since the contemporary world was conceived as a place full of
decay, deceit and flattery, it was empty of active virtue and the best one
could do was to express serene admiration for the great achievements
of former ages whilst concentrating oneself on more passive qualities.
'Rise, Sidney, rise:' wrote Anthony Stafford a quarter of a century after
46
Harvey, Marginalia, p . 157; Dallington Aphorisms, p p . 115, 64-5, 137-8, 172; Johnson, Essaies,
sigs. Bi r -4 V , G4 r , G6 V .
47
The workes of Lucius Annaevs Seneca, both morrall and naturall, translated by Thomas Lodge
(London, 1614), sig. [xxi1""^. Cf. William Cornwallis, Essayes (1606-10), ed. D o n Cameron
Allen (Baltimore: J o h n Hopkins University Press, 1946), pp. 167-73.
48
White, A sermon, p . 29.
49
Anon., Horae subseciuae, pp. 305-17.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 131
Philip Sidney's death, 'thou Englands eternall honour, revive, and
leade the revolting spirits of thy countrey-men, against the soules basest
foe, Ignorance.'5 But as to his own times, Stafford advocated the
contemplative life: the qualities of fortitude, steadfastness and resolu-
tion - the extreme suppression of emotions - were the chief character-
istics of virtue. In his treatise, Stqffbrds heauenly dogge - a biography of
Diogenes - he promised to treat 'a strange, inimitable man, who had
nothing, yet never knew adversity'. 'The cruell effects of Fortunes
malice' had not made Diogenes 'change his minde, nor his counte-
nance.'51 Stafford combined this stoicism with academic scepticism.
Because of his 'wandring ambitious spirit', man had sought to know
more with the contrary result that he had come cto know lesse'. 'All
that miserable man now knowes,' Stafford declared, 'is, that hee
knowes nothing.'52 Diogenes' qualities made him the epitome of
Stafford's ideal man. 'Vertue', Stafford explained, 'never tooke a
deeper root in any mind, then in that of Diogenes.' But this was not the
virtue of the active life; rather it was that of a private life, providing
proof 'to abide the battery of Fortune'. Stafford was careful to point
out that Diogenes was 'no Statist', nor even a citizen of any town 'but
of the world', and he therefore excluded prudence and justice from his
discussion, focusing his attention on such virtues as temperance,
modesty and patience.53 When Sir John Holies feared that his patron's
(Robert Carr, earl of Somerset) fall could jeopardise his own safety, he
complained that 'too late I find ... Tacitus his opinion confirmed, that
safety dwelleth not in doing well or ill, but in doing nothing'.
The case for the life of retirement was also explored by Thomas
Gainsford, Owen Felltham and Joseph Hall. 'The safest way to live
under tyrants', Gainsford argued, 'is to do nothing, because of
nothing no man is to yield an account.' 55 Felltham, likewise, pointed
out that 'retirednesse is more safe then businesse'.56 Perhaps the
fullest account of the vita contemplativa was offered by 'the English
50
Stafford, Stqffords Mobe, pp. 112-7.
51
Anthony Stafford, Stqffbrds heauenly dogge: or the life, and death of that great cynicke Diogenes (London,
1615), sig. A5™.
Ibid., pp. 2—4, 22.
53
Ibid., pp. 20, 26-31, 55. See in general Anon., The treasure of tranquillity: or a manvall ofmorall
discourses, tending to the tranquillity ofminde, translated by James Maxwell (London, 1611).
54
Cited in Smuts 1994, p. 35.
55
Cited in Salmon 1989, pp. 218-19, see in general pp. 217-19.
56
Owen Felltham, Resohes diiane, morall, politicall (London, [1623]), pp. 218-19. See also Anon., A
twofold treatise, the one deciphering the worth of speculation, and of a retired life. The other containing a
discoverie of youth and old age (Oxford, 1612), sig. A2V—3 r, A4 v -5 r , A6 r , AIO V .
132 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Seneca5 - Joseph Hall. In his numerous writings he placed strong

emphasis on the stoic values of forbearance and constancy; every
passion ought to be suppressed, death should not be feared.57 The
chief moral to be learned from these values was that the only way to
avoid the excess of perturbations was to live 'as a looker on5. It
belonged to the accomplishments of the wise man to seek 'his
quietnesse in secrecy5 and 'to hide himselfe in retirednesse5. He
ought to confine himself 'in the circle of his owne affaires5. A man
could be called happy, when he 'knows the world, and cares not for
it5, when he 'lives quietly at home, out of the noise of the world5. It
was an obvious sign of 'the inconstancy and lazinesse of the minde5
to be employed 'in some publike affaires5.58 The private life had two
obvious advantages. First, it enabled man to devote himself to 'the
gaine of knowledge in the deepe mysteries of Nature5. But more
importantly, it gave him freedom 'from the common cares, from the
infection of common evils5. Whether it was a question of interna-
tional politics - 'whether the Spaniard gaine or save by his peace [in
the Netherlands] ... whether Venice have won or lost by her late
jarres5 — or one of the court intrigues — 'who is envied, and who
pitied at Court5 - none of these purposeless problems dared to enter
'into the philosophicall Cell5.59
These issues form a central theme in Ben Jonson5s first Roman play,
Sejanus (1603). Jonson depicted imperial Rome as a place of total
corruption. Sejanus and his clients 'corrupt the times5 with their 'filthier
flatteries5, argued Sabinus, whilst Arruntius pointed out that the decay
was prompted by the corrosion of the morality of the Romans: rather
than pursuing the good of their commonwealth, men attempted to
advance their own careers. When Silius was accused in the senate, he
declared that his only crime was his moral character; he found himself
'Too honest for the times5.
Corruption manifested itself most clearly at the imperial court.
Those who wanted to make rapid advancement at court had to give
short shrift to issues of morality and instead be ready to do whatever
was necessary for achieving their goal. They should

E.g. Joseph Hall, Characters of verities and vices (1608), in The works of Joseph Hall (London, 1647),
pp. 155, 158. For Hall's cognomen, see Monsarrat 1984, pp. 98-100.
Hall, Characters of vertves and vices, pp. 155, 157-8. 163; Heaven vpon earth (1606), in Works,
pp. 66-7.
Hall, Epistles in six decads, in Works, pp. 270-1.
Sejanus, in. 168.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 133
Laugh, when their patron laughs; sweat when he sweats;
Be hot, and cold with him; change every mood,
Habit and garb, as often as he varies.

The effectiveness of these methods was most convincingly demon-

strated by Macro who declared that 'The way to rise, is to obey, and
please' and who therefore ultimately displaced Sejanus as Tiberius'
chief favourite . 61
Silius, Sabinus and Arruntius, three Roman nobles who expressed
their disgust for the Tiberian world of corruption, servility and tyranny,
contrasted this period with the healthy commonwealth of previous
ages. Silius argued that although he and his contemporaries had been
born 'Free, equal lords of the triumphed world', they had since become
'the slaves to one man's lusts'.62 Whereas heretofore every dignity,
including consulship, had been conferred by 'Rome's general suffrage',
in Tiberius' reign they were all for sale. According to Arruntius, all
the republican heroes such as Cato, Brutus and Cassius ('the last of all
that race') had simply 'fled the light'. 64 Arruntius could do nothing but
concur with Lepidius' claim that

the times are sore,

When virtue cannot safely be advanced;
Nor vice reproved.65

Unsurprisingly, Sejanus wanted to destroy the historian Cordus since

by praising 'the old liberty', he 'doth tax the present state'. 66
Despite the contrast between Tiberian corruption and the healthy
republican past, Sejanus is pessimistic because those who despised
Tiberius' reign found the reformation of the commonwealth impos-
sible. If a man was not ready for the unscrupulous advancement of his
career, the only option left for him was the life of retirement. When
Latiaris argued that old liberty could be revived by 'active valour',
Sabinus retorted that 'A good man should, and must / Sit rather down
with loss, than rise unjust.'67 The virtuous senators, lamented Arrun-
tius, had become 'the good-dull-noble lookers-on'.68 The active values
61
Ibid., 1.33-5,111.735.
62
Ibid, 1.60, 63.
63
Ibid, 1.223.
64
Ibid, 1.97, 104.
65
Ibid, 111.481-3.
66
Ibid, 11.312, 308.
67
Ibid, iv.157,165-6.
68
Ibid, 111.16.
134 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

of a 'good patriot5 had been replaced by the passive values of

preservation and survival:
Arts, Arruntius?
None, but the plain and passive fortitude,
To suffer, and be silent; never stretch
These arms against the torrent; live at home,
With my own thoughts, and innocence about me,
Not tempting the wolves'jaws: and these are my arts.69

It is hardly surprising that Sejanus got Jonson into trouble with the
authorities.70
Pardy the challenge of absolutist vocabulary but mainly the ascen-
dancy of these Tacitean aspects has led some scholars to see the turn of
the century as a decisive point in humanist political discourse. 'By the
end of the [sixteenth] century', we are told, 'the dominance of Cicero
was over5, and the older humanism had comprehensively been replaced
by 'a wholly new kind of humanism5, with Tacitus playing the central
role. The chief ingredients of this new moral oudook were ethical
scepticism, the stoic attempt to enter into a state of apathy, as well as
the principles of self-interest and self-preservation.71 As far as England
is concerned, there is litde doubt that after surfacing in the 1590s this
kind of vocabulary acquired popularity in Jacobean court circles and
that many an author, as we have briefly indicated above, was
preoccupied with these themes. It is clear, however, that neither the
growth of royal absolutism, nor the legal accounts of the freedoms of
the Englishman, invoked to meet the challenge of absolutists, nor even
Tacitean pessimism and its related insistence on the merits of the
contemplative and private life, could completely outweigh traditional
Ciceronian humanism and its urging of the merits of the active life. But
rather than seeing these new emphases, somewhat misleadingly, as the
antithesis of classical Ciceronian humanism, such emphases should be
interpreted as a part of the humanist political vocabulary. New genres
as well as new features - reason of state, dissimulation, scepticism and
the neostoic idea of self-preservation - were introduced into humanist
political parlance, but these novelties could hardly be said to have

Ibid., iv.293-8. Cf. Maus 1984, p. 36.

Maus 1984, pp. 36-7. For an admirable analysis of these themes in Sejanus, see now Worden

Tuck 1993, chapters 2 and 3; Tuck 1990, pp. 63—5, Tuck 1989, pp. 6-11; cf. Tuck 1987, pp.
108-19; Tuck 1983; Levy 1986; Baldwin 1944 11, pp. 589-90.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 135

completely undermined the older values of the active life, true nobility
and cardinal virtues.72
Tacitus was not the only Roman historian whose works were
published in English at the turn of the century. Philemon Holland's
translation of livy appeared in 1600 and of Plutarch's Morals in 1603.
Sallust's The conspiracy of Catiline and The Jugurthine war were issued in
1608. Many of the Tacitean treatises contained numerous traditional
elements of Ciceronian humanism. It was 'civil life' attained by virtues
which formed Lipsius' chief aim in the Sixe bookes of politickes. The
same values of the virtuous active life permeated Du Vair's A bvckler
against adversitie, so much so that, according to the translator, Andrew
Court, Vertue' was 'the maine pillars of civill life and humane
societie'.74 On the other hand, Gabriel Harvey, who is often regarded
as a prime example of new pragmatic humanism and who admired
Tacitus, also admired livy and especially Cicero, endorsing, as we
have seen, some of the central values of Ciceronian humanism. But he
also extolled Cicero's letters to Atticus for their value in politics as well
as in 'everyday life'.75 Moreover, as we shall see, many of the English
authors who developed Tacitean themes were ready to endorse the
central convictions of classical Ciceronian humanism. To the extent
that some scholars have demonstrated the appeal of Tacitean tenden-
cies among court circles, their works have made a valuable contribution
to our knowledge about the depth and width of the neostoic moral
outlook in early-seventeenth-century England and an important recon-
struction of a proper intellectual context for some of the great
seventeenth-century contributions to political theory. But to the extent
that they have regarded this neostoic and Tacitean movement as
entirely superseding the old Ciceronian humanism, hence failing to
detect the continuity of Ciceronian values, they have oversimplified the
issue. As a matter of fact, it can be argued that some of the early-

72
It should be pointed out that Peter Miller has recently shown that the role of Cicero's moral
and political writings in shaping the new vocabulary of reason of state was more prominent
than the dominant account allows. Cicero was used alongside Tacitus as an authority for the
extreme measures that the preservation of the community demanded. It was above all
Cicero's ambiguous discussion of the honestum and utile which provided respectable support for
an argument that the pursuit of the public good justified overstepping the bounds of law.
Miller 1994, chapter 1, especially p p . 21—8, 50—1, 57-9.
73
Justus Lipsius, Sixe bookes of politickes or civil doctrine, translated by William Jones (London, 1594),
e.g. p . 1; see also van Gelderen 1990, pp. 206-10; Grafton and Jardine 1986, pp. 197-9.
74
D u Vair, A bvckler against adversitie, p. 115.
75
Gabriel Harvey, Marginalia, p p . 122, 133-4. For Harvey's admiration for Tacitus a n d livy, see
Stern 1979, p . 151.
136 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

seventeenth-century moral and political treatises in England are best

interpreted as classical humanist responses to the absolutists' claims as
well as to the challenge of the sceptics and pessimists. In order to fully
appreciate not only the extent of the challenge issued by the advocates
of the private life and the sceptics, but also the nature of the attempts
to meet this challenge, we can do worse than to begin with those
authors who were quite outspoken in their criticism.

in

In 1619, an anonymous tract entitled The court of the most illvstrious and
most magnificent James, thefirstwas published. The author, CA. D. B.', was
a foreigner residing at the English court76 and was preoccupied with
presenting rules for the conduct of a courtier. He had, he told his
readers, resolved 'to divulge and set forth unto publike view, somewhat
concerning the life of a Courtier'. This involved explaining how a
determined courtier could 'wisely and warily' sail 'the deepe of this
difficult and turbulent Sea', how he could escape 'Scylla and Charibdis'
and how he could avoid being 'dasht against the wrath and indignation
of [his] Prince'.77
A successful advancement of one's career in the court demanded
several indispensable qualities, and the author offered detailed rules for
a courtier about his apparel, conduct, behaviour and various activities
useful to him.78 Even more careful attention was paid to the courtier's
behaviour towards his master. The basic rule was that the king's word
was the courtier's law. He should know how to 'carry himselfe in the
change and alteration of a King or Kingdome', and if he 'hath
inconsiderately displeased his Prince'. Above all, he must never
commence anything which is against the king's taste and always know
how to please the king.79 Furthermore, the courtier should always bear
in mind the true nature of the court - that 'Courts are never empty of
fained friendship'. The courtier's basic course must be to look for 'his
owne well-fare in due time' since, as the author put it, 'every man is the
cause of his owne misery'. °
To illustrate his point, the author called attention to the 'most sage
76
A. D . B., The court of the most illvstrious and most magnificent James, the first; Jang of Great Britaine,
France, and Ireland: &c (London, 1619), sig. jtof.
77
Ibid., p p . 1, 4.
78
Ibid., p p . 5 5 - 6 , 110-16.
79
Ibid., p p . 60—1, 6 5 - 6 , 68—9, 97-^99.
80
Ibid., p p . 67,146,153-4, 99-100,103-4,105.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 137
Philosopher, and sweet Oratour' who had laid down that 'vertue
consists not in words, but in workes'. Although the author could use a
Ciceronian maxim to define the courtier's art, he was more prone to
appeal to the authority of another Roman author - Tacitus. Life at
court was not merely or even chiefly ca soft, delicate, easie, or calme'
life, but was full of dissimulations, infirmities and calamities; every-
where 'full many thornes and thistles doe privily grow up.' 81 In order
to describe this darker side of the courtier's pursuits, the author
resorted to the Roman historian and claimed that 'wicked and ungodly
Courtiers' purchase for themselves 'great power and authority' 'by
pretending and counterfeiting the contrary of what they intend'. These
courtiers use 'Sejanus as their best tutor and Schoole-maister'. In
addition to the rules of dissimulation, Tacitus provided the courtier
with the most useful advice of 'Obsequious pliantnesse'. 'By how much
the more readie a man is in obsequiousnesse, by so much the sooner
shall he be raised to Dignitie and Noblenesse.'
The author dwelt at length on the issues of the architecture of
fortune, but it is arguable that his chief polemic lay elsewhere. He
pointed out that he had not undertaken the project on his own
initiative but had 'urgently [been] solicited thereunto, by the vehement
perswasions of some worthy personages, who themselves have observed
divers Pamphlets' which had severely castigated the court. The purpose
of the tract was mainly to counter those who had offered wholesale
criticism of the court. The author scorned 'the perverse petulancie of
many Poets, which laid so many odious aspersions upon Courts, as if
no vertue had in them any residence'. Because of this belief, these
critics retired 'themselves to a certaine unprofitable contemplation,
wherein they studie to barke and snarle at the honourable labours and
indevours of others, being in themselves absolutely immeritorious'; they
held nothing 'more happie, or more blessed then a priuate kind of life,
moderated and decorated with the Golden meane and mediocritie'. It
was chiefly Seneca, the author believed, who taught 'the tranquillitie
and sweete securitie of a Countrey-mans private life'.
The author, in other words, directed his arguments against the
exponents of the vita contemplativa. The opinions of those who espoused
this mode of life had no effect on those who were inclined 'to square
their lives and actions, by the rule of true vertue and piety'. Rather
than convincing their adversaries, the representatives of the vita
81
Ibid., p. 10, see also pp. 10-11.
82
Ibid., pp. 91-3, 83; see also pp. 100-1.
138 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

contemplativa merely revealed their own insufficiency and incapability of

taking 'high action and employment'.83 It was not the author's purpose
'to discourse of the infelicities or . . . the Gay-greivances of a Courtiers
life'. Neither did he propose 'to write of the immunities and commod-
ities of the contrarie to this, a private life'. These ends had been
accomplished by several other authors. On the contrary, his aim was to
offer a defence of the vita activa.
He confessed that 'some Courtiers are too immoderately and
ambitiously prone, to hunt after honour, preferment, rule and riches,
and . . . to pleasure and voluptuousnesse'. The inherent malignancy of
courtly circles rendered it possible to argue that in fact the retirement
of the private life was the most unhazardous way of living. If an
aspiring courtier was not prepared 'to endure many evils, inconve-
niences, and mis-fortunes', it was safest for him to 'forsake the Court,
and betake himselfe to a retired and private life'.84 But it was a foolish
mistake to conclude that the whole court and the whole mode of the
active life should be condemned. Every way of living - public as well as
private - was subject to corruption, and the course of every single life
was determined by 'vice or vertue'. The author proposed, therefore, to
describe 'certaine rules and precepts of a Courtly and Politicall life'. 85
The chief aim of a courtier was to be ranked 'amongst the most
eminent and illustrious', to be 'esteemed truly noble'. 86 The only way
to attain this goal was to remain active; the courtier should always be
'in continuall action'. He should, that is, avoid living 'without employ-
ment', since 'this is the meanes to acquire and get a noble name,
renowne, and reputation'.87 Far from yielding to the temptations of the
vita contemplativa, a courtier ought to strive for the public good through
the vita activa. Although 'many men, of no meane rancke and qualitie,
doe learnedly magnifie, and with much wit dignifie a solitary and
private life', the author contended that 'they erre exceedingly, and are
in my judgement marveilously mis-taken, which are of opinion, that a
private life is in it selfe happie and blessed'. When he turned to the
substance of his own argument, he appealed to the authority of Cicero.
Following the example of'divine Plato', 'the most eloquent Orator and
excellent Philosopher hath left in writing, in the first Booke of his

83
Ibid., p. 3, sig. 4 3 v - 4 r , pp. 13-16.
84
Ibid., sig. Ai v -2 r , p. 13; see also pp. 13-16.
85
Ibid., sig. Ai r - 2 V , M r -
86
Ibid., p. 144.
87
Ibid., pp. 40-1.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 139
Offices that "We are not borne onely to our selves, but our Parents,
Gountrye, and Friends, doe challenge unto them a part in our being'".
It followed that everyone must avoid 'a private, obscure, and solitary
life', because this mode of life was utterly unprofitable, consisting of
'nothing at all beneficiall to the Common-wealth, whereinto, and
whereunto they were borne and brought up'. To summarize his whole
argument, the anonymous author evoked the authority of Sallust
according to whom 'it is a very noble and worthy thing, to doe good to
the Common-weale'.88
A somewhat more theoretical attempt of a similar nature was made by
Francis Bacon. While the anonymous author of The court of James tried to
repudiate those who called the court in question, Bacon had a more
philosophical target in mind. He could admire Tacitus and devote a
considerable part of his presentation of civil knowledge to the 'architec-
ture of fortune', but he never thought that this was the only, let alone the
worthiest, pursuit. Embarking on his doctrine of the architecture of
fortune in the Advancement of learning, Bacon felt it necessary to justify his
undertaking. He admitted that the architecture of fortune was but 'an
inferior work' since 'no man's fortune can be an end worthy of his being'.
It often happens that 'the worthiest men do abandon their fortune
willingly for better respects'. The pursuit of one's own fortune should be
but 'an organ of virtue and merit'. 89 Bacon presented an essentially
similar argument in the second edition of his Essayes, published in 1612.
He wrote of the possible discrepancy between the common good and the
architecture of fortune since 'extreme lovers of their Countrey, or
Masters, were never fortunate'. But personal fortune should never
become the chief end of a man's pursuits. Men who were 'great lovers of
themselves,' Bacon argued, 'waste the publike'. 'The referring of all to a
mans selfe' was 'a desperate evill'.90 'The affecting of the Weale of men'
Bacon took to be 'the greatest' of all virtues. The only way to justify the
architecture of fortune was to take it as an efficacious means of enhancing
the public good. 'But power to doe good,' he explained in his essay 'Of
great place', 'is the true & lawfull end of aspiring. For good thoughts,
(though God accept them) yet towards men are little better then good
dreams: except they be put in Act; and that cannot be without power and
place; as the vantage & commanding ground.' 91 Bacon turned Ducci's

88
Ibid., pp. 18-19.
89
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, 111, p. 456.
90
Bacon, Essaies (1612), in Works, vi, pp. 574, 561-2.
91
Ibid., pp. 545, 550.
140 Classical humanism and republicanism 1370-164.0

argument upside down: the pursuit of the architecture of fortune was but
a means to the more valuable aim of the good of the commonwealth.
In assessing the role of moral and civil philosophy, Bacon put
forward a fully fledged Ciceronian account of the birth of civil society.
Using 'persuasion and eloquence', philosophy had induced men to
embrace 'the love of virtue and equity and peace', taught them 'to
assemble and unite and take upon them the yoke of laws and submit to
authority', and provided them, in short, with the wherewithal to build
homes, till the soil and found cities.92 When he discussed the questions
of ethics in the Advancement of learning, his analysis was grounded on the
same tradition. He began by taking pains to demonstrate what kinds of
standpoint he wanted to refute. Following the general scheme of the
treatise, he first examined the deficiencies of contemporary moral
philosophy. On the one hand, he expressed his criticism towards 'the
subtilty of disputations' in scholastic moral philosophy and, on the
other, towards 'the eloquence of discourses' of humanists concerned
only with the elegant language. The basic weakness of the prevailing
moral philosophy was that it had offered 'good and fair exemplars and
copies, carrying the draughts and portraitures of good, virtue, duty,
felicity'. Since the purpose was, however, 'not to write at leisure that
which men may read at leisure' but quite on the contrary 'to instruct
and suborn action and active life', it was crucial, instead of simply
describing virtue and duty in subtle disputations or in elegant style, to
explain 'how to attain these excellent marks'. Bacon thus aligned
himself with the general Ciceronian humanist assumption that the
main aim of ethics was to teach how virtue might be acquired. A firm
commitment to the values of the vita activa underlay his exposition of
moral philosophy, the central part of which was directed precisely
against the advocates of the contemplative life.
Following this scheme, Bacon divided ethics into two halves. The
first part dealt with 'the exemplar or platform of good', explaining the
meanings of the terms involved, whilst the other dealt with 'the
regiment or culture of the mind' explaining how to train men in
attaining the marks of ethics. Bacon devoted much space to the issues
surrounding this second question, both because of its importance and

92
Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, p. 648, translation p. 722; cf. Advancement of learning, in
Works, in, p . 302.
93
Gf. Bacon's assessment of humanism and scholasticism, Advancement of learning, in Works, i n ,
pp. 282—7.
94
Ibid., pp. 418-19.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 141
because it had not been treated properly,95 but he never thought that
even the problems of the nature of moral good had been totally settled.
Previous writers, he wrote, had excellently handled 'the forms of Virtue
and Duty'. They had no less skilfully described 'the Degrees and
Comparative Nature of Good' in their 'comparisons between a con-
templative and an active life, in the distinction between virtue with
reluctation and virtue secured, in their encounters between honesty
and profit, in their balancing of virtue with virtue, and the like'.
Nevertheless, they had not provided an exhaustive account of the
nature of the good, and it was Bacon's aim, therefore, to offer some
particular rules for completing this part of ethics.
There was in everything, he began, 'a double nature of good: the
one, as every thing is a total or substantive in itself; the other, as it is a
part or member of a greater body'. It was beyond doubt that the latter
was to be preferred, since 'the public ought to be much more precious
than the conservation of life and being'. Once this issue was settled,
Bacon firmly believed, 'most of the controversies wherein Moral
Philosophy is conversant' could be easily determined. Once we
admitted that virtue consisted of 'the actions and exercises whereof do
chiefly embrace and concern society' and that 'in this theatre of man's
life it is reserved only for God and Angels to be lookers on', we could
readily see which school of moral philosophy was to preferred. 'The
question touching the preferment of the contemplative or active life'
could be decided. 6
Bacon first directed his argument - perhaps typically for a Cicero-
nian humanist - 'against Aristotle' who had erroneously maintained
that the contemplative way of living was the most valuable and who
had substantiated his claims with arguments which were all 'private,
and respecting the pleasure and dignity of a man's self. Having
dismissed the Aristotelian standpoint, Bacon turned his attention to
other schools of moral philosophy, which opposed the idea of the active
life. He identified his own point of view with the one represented by
'Zeno and Socrates and their schools and successions . . . who placed
felicity in virtue simply or attended' and, according to whom, 'the
actions and exercises' of virtues 'do chiefly embrace and concern
society'. Bacon employed this as an index by which he measured
various ethical schools. He dismissed, to begin with, 'the Cyrenaics and
Epicureans' who placed felicity 'in pleasure, and made virtue, (as it is
95
Ibid., pp. 432-44.
96
Ibid., pp. 419-21.
142 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

used in some comedies of errors, wherein the mistress and the maid
change habits) to be but as a servant'. Next, he dismissed 'the reformed
school of the Epicureans' who, according to Bacon, regarded 'serenity of
mind and freedom from perturbation' as true felicity. He further refuted
the viewpoint ascribed to Herillus (in 1623 n e added, significantly,
Pyrrho) and to contemporary Anabaptists according to which happy life
consisted of'extinguishment of the disputes of the mind, making no fixed
nature of good and evil, esteeming things according to the clearness of
the desires, or the reluctation'. This subjective ethics, calling the validity
of objective ethical commitments into question, led 'to private repose
and contentment' rather than to the good of the community.97
The position Bacon adopted also enabled him to censure 'the
philosophy of Epictetus' which taught that 'felicity must be placed in
those things which are in our power, lest we be liable to fortune and
disturbance'. For Bacon, it was foolish to claim that obtaining 'all that
we can wish to ourselves in our proper fortune' rendered us happier
than even failing 'in good and virtuous ends for the public' - let alone
succeeding in promoting the common good. True felicity consisted
rather of'the conscience of good intentions, howsoever succeeding' than
of 'all the provision which can be made for security and repose'. It was
much more valuable to fail in lofty attempts to enhance the good of
one's commonwealth than to succeed in pursuit of one's own private
good. Moreover, Bacon regarded his general argument to be convincing
enough to refute the doctrine that man's chief preoccupation must be
the pursuit of the kind of life where even the causes of perturbations
could be avoided. This ethical standpoint, which had grown 'general
about the time of Epictetus', received nothing short of ridicule from
Bacon. Neither 'health of mind' nor bodily health were proper goals in
themselves for man's life. They were but means to an end. They were
external qualities which enabled men to 'refer themselves to duties of
society'. Finally, Bacon employed his argument to condemn in general
'the tenderness and want of application in some of the most ancient and
reverend philosophers and philosophical men, that did retire too easily
from civil business, for avoiding of indignities and perturbations'.98
We are not, of course, concerned in the present context with the
accuracy of Bacon's descriptions of various schools of philosophy or
with his identifications of particular philosophers. But in order to
grasp what Bacon was doing in his argument, it is of great importance
97
Ibid., pp. 420-3; De augmentis, in Works, 1, p. 719, translation v, p. 9.
98
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, pp. 423-4.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 143

to ask what points of view he criticized and repudiated in the course

of his argument. It is clear, in the first place, that it was his aim to
refute the Aristotelian concept of the importance of the intellectual
virtues and the contemplative mode of life which was linked to them.
But he had other and more specific targets in mind. He wanted
vehemently to condemn the idea that in order to avoid toil and
perturbations one ought to retire from 'civil business'. He wanted,
that is, to challenge the contention that the contemplative life was
preferable because it enabled a man to avoid perturbation and to
reach a state of apathy. One should instead, Bacon announced,
endure perturbations in order to become a profitable member of
one's community. It was an obvious index of self-love, Bacon argued
in the De sapientia veterum (1609) that a man wanted to avoid appearing
'in public' or engaging 'in civil business' (in rebus civilibus) and to live a
'solitary and private' life." The only means to stave off corruption
was to 'row against the stream and inclination of time' by 'industry,
virtue, and policy'.100 'The care of the commonwealth' was 'a kind of
common property which like the air and the water belongs to every-
body.' Partly because his 'birth and education had seasoned' him 'in
business of state' and partly because he thought 'that a man's own
country has some special claims upon him', Bacon had applied
himself'to acquire the arts of civil life'.
Another ethical stand which came under fierce attack was the
sceptical view (which Bacon attributed to Herillus and to Anabaptists)
that one should refrain from making any ethical commitments. For
Bacon, the exponents of this view measured things 'according to the
motions of the spirit and the constancy or wavering of belief. Finally,
and most importantly, Bacon repudiated the idea closely connected
with the previous two notions that one's own self-preservation was the
most crucial ethical value. Although bodily and mental health were
important values, they were but means towards the higher end of
serving the public good. One of the most often repeated ethical
maxims in Bacon's whole corpus is that a man must always be ready to
sacrifice himself for the good of the commonwealth. 102 Persuading his
99
Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, p. 633, translation, p . 705; Essayes, p . 317.
100
Bacon, Certain considerations touching the better pacification and edification of the Church of England
(1603), in Letters, in, p. 105.
101
Bacon, ' O f the interpretation of nature' (1603?), in Letters, in, p p . 8 4 - 5 .
102
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, 111, pp. 420-1; Maxims of the law (1596), in Works, v n ,
pp. 343, 345; 'A view of the differences in question betwixt the King's bench and the Council
in the Marches' (1607), in Letters, 111, p. 379.
144 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

listeners in parliament, Bacon once identified himself with De-

mosthenes and requested MPs, when giving their votes, to 'raise their
thoughts, and lay aside those considerations which their private
vocations and degrees mought minister and present unto them, and . . .
take upon them cogitations and minds agreeable to the dignity and
honour of the estate'. Tor certainly,' he developed the argument, 'Mr
Speaker, if a man shall be only or chiefly sensible of those respects
which his particular vocation and degree shall suggest and infuse into
him, and not enter into true and worthy considerations of estate, he
shall never be able aright to give counsel or take counsel in this
matter.' 103
In his account of ethics, Bacon grouped together all the distinct
ethical outlooks which he wanted to condemn under the generative
idea of the vita contemplativa. This tactical move, which carried with it a
certain degree of plausibility, enabled Bacon to use one single argu-
ment against all of these diverse outlooks. It was the vita activa tradition
which furnished him with an efficacious argument as a means of
repudiating all of these views. Identifying his own point of view with
Zeno's stoic school and using as his axiom the maxim that good is
preferable when the thing which is good is rather 'a part or member of
a greater body' than 'a total or substantive in itself, Bacon could refute
those who upheld self-preservation, scepticism and apathy as the most
desirable ethical values. Although the fact that Bacon was called 'our
English Tully' is accounted for mainly by his eloquence and his elegant
prose style, the cognomen could also have been attributed to him for
his preference for the vita activa.
Bacon's keen awareness of the problems of corruption and his
interest in Tacitus and Iipsius did not prompt him to abandon the
traditional Ciceronian notion of the vita activa. On the contrary, he
employed this Ciceronian ideal to repudiate not only the traditional
Aristotelian argument in favour of the vita contemplativa, but also and in
particular those who maintained that rather than being an active
participant in the public life of his community a man, and especially a
philosopher, ought to retire himself from civil business, seek 'serenity of
103
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, 111, p. 308.
Stephen Jerome, Englands ivbilee: or Inlands wyes io-paean, for king Charles his welcome (Dublin,
1625), p. 32. See in general Penrose 1934, pp. 2—3.
105
Another example is Daniel Tuvill's Essaies politicise, and morall (London, 1608), which is heavily
indebted to Bacon as well as to Tacitus. See also the popular Anon., 'The genealogie of
vertue', in The anathomie ofsinne, briefefy discovering the braunches thereof"(London, 1603), sigs. cf-
D I V , E2 r " v .
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 145

mind and freedom from perturbation3 and refrain from any moral
commitments. Bacon countered the sceptic and neostoic challenge with
a strong restatement of the virtuous vita activa. The considerable
prominence given to the architecture of fortune in Bacon's presentation
of civil knowledge was not indexical of its equal importance. The
reason, rather, is to be ascertained in the nature and purpose of the
Advancement of learning. Bacon intended to offer rules as to how to
proceed and develop those branches of learning which previously had
been deficiently presented or even overlooked altogether. Whereas the
architecture of fortune had been much practised, 'it hath not been
reduced to writing'. But the citizen's duty or, as Bacon put it, 'the
common Duty of every man, as a man or member of a state', was
'extant and well laboured' and he could refrain from repeating these
instructions.
If Bacon could discuss the architecture of fortune whilst embracing
the conventional Ciceronian ethics of the vita activa, the same was
equally true of Fulke Greville and Ben Jonson. Having suggested that
'great men of estate' should seek comfort from retirement, Greville
quickly changed his priorities and stressed the crucial importance of the
active life: 'Yet whoe are free, must labour and desire.' He claimed that
the king's 'best help indeed is happy choice / Of underministers in
every kinde', as the example of Alexander Severus demonstrated. 107
Later in the Treatise of monarchy Greville went still further, arguing that
'All arts preferred by odds of practicke use, / The meere contemplative
scorn'd as abuse.' It was only by educating the people in those arts
'wherof both warr and peace finde use' that 'greate estates' could be
maintained 'in reputation'. 108 It should occasion little surprise that,
despite his decided preference for monarchy, Greville contrasted
between the slaves of tyrants and 'free Citizens' of well-governed
commonwealths.
In Ben Jonson's Catiline (1611) corruption occurred when people
placed their private good before the common good. As Curius revealed
the aims of the conspiracy to Fulvia: 'By public ruin, private spirits
must rise.' The virtue of frugality was replaced by the prevalence of
excessive wealth, and

106
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, m, pp. 455-6, 428.
107
Greville, Treatise of monarchy, stanzas n o , 125, 126, in Remains, p p . 62, 66.
Ibid., stanzas 4 8 4 - 9 0 , citations from 484, 489, in Remains, p p . 156-8.
109
Ibid., stanza 511, in Remains, p . 163.
110
Catiline, 11.362.
146 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Decrees are bought, and laws are sold,

Honours and offices for gold;
The people's voices, and the free
Tongues in the Senate, bribed be.111
Unlike in Sejanus, however, the solution to corruption was sought
neither from the architecture of fortune nor from a life of retirement
but from a relentless pursuit of the common good. Cicero praised
Fulvia for 'doing office to the public weal' rather than promoting
'private friendship'. And he exhorted Curius to imitate her since our
country cis our common mother, and doth challenge / The prime part
of us'. 112
Although in those parts of the Horae subseciuae which have recently
been ascribed to Thomas Hobbes, the merits of obedience and
obsequiousness loomed large, the main emphasis in those parts which
are thought to have been composed by William Cavendish was firmly
placed on the time-honoured values of the active life. like Bacon,
Cavendish wrote that contemporary moral philosophy failed to teach a
man how to make himself'either wise or vertuous'. On the contrary, it
presented nothing but disputes of 'wisedome and vertue' and defini-
tions as well as distinctions of their nature. The writers of these futile
treatises 'onely Syllogize of them, as if they thought it were, Summum
Bonum, to define Summum Bonum; or Wisedome, Valour, and
Vertue, to know what those notions meant' whereas man desired 'to
learne the Art how to governe himselfe in the passages of this life'.113
The topic was further pursued in a long essay 'Of a country life',
which was strikingly similar to the anonymous Cyuile and vncyuile life
(1579). Country life was defined as 'such an habitation as implies a
retirednes from the presse, busines, and imployment either of city or
court'. Although this kind of life contained numerous advantages, it
also had its drawbacks. One of the most serious was that 'a totall
sequestration in the Country, doth not onely hinder' the country
gentleman 'of that preferment, and honor which in all likelihood he
may arrive too, but robs the State and Common-wealth where he lives,
of an able, and fit minister to doe it service'. It comes as no surprise,
therefore, that the country gentleman's 'life must not be wholly
111
Ibid., 1.579-82.
112
Ibid., in.302-3, 366-7. See Maus 1984, pp. 128-30.
113
Anon., Horae subsecivae, pp. 196-8. The fact that the treatise contains two somewhat
contradictory lines of argument fits the recent view that it was written by two different
authors. See also John Ford, A line of life: pointing at the immortalide of a vertuous name ([London],
1620), pp. 19-20.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 147
reserved to his owne quiet and particular pleasures; but in that place
whereunto he is called, and destined to live, to apply himselfe, and
service, for the common and publik good'. The underlying assumption
was that man's highest duty was to serve his community. It was utterly
condemnable that a man, who knew his abilities, 'voluntarily' con-
cealed and hid them. 'No man is, or ought to be so absolutely master of
himselfe', the author declared, 'as to take the liberty of electing that
course of life, which onely his owne will, and inclination, governes.'
Instead, he ought to 'direct himselfe in that way' which enabled him to
put his abilities at the disposal of his country, since 'wee are not borne
for our selves ... but to serve the publike'. It was 'one principall end of
a mans being in this world, to be serviceable in one kinde or other, to
that Kingdome, or Commonwealth where he lives'. 114 Even in that
part of the book which has been attributed to Hobbes a sharp contrast
was presented between the 'easefull life' and that of 'an active spirit',
who continuously laboured 'in production of good effects'. But the
point was not elaborated simply because the whole argument 'is so well
knowne'.115
The humanist ideal of the virtuous public life, so lengthily set out in
these treatises, occurred also in educational manuals. James Cleland
highlighted in his Propaideia the idea that the chief aim of the extensive
education of a young nobleman was to prepare him for an active
life.116 William Martyn composed a treatise of instructions for his son
studying at Oxford with a view to teaching him the idea that the only
way for a man 'to bee compleat' was to embrace virtues and thereby to
become 'a profitable member in the Common-weale'. The underlying
assumption was that 'virtue consisteth in action, and ... the meditation
thereof without practise, is as an unstringed instrument, whereon no
man plaieth'. 'It is not enough', Martyn added, 'to boast of the name of
vertue, without vertuous deeds and actions, for without them, the
name of vertue is fitly compared to a shadow without substance.' 117
The same view was endorsed by Richard Brathwait in The schollers
medley. He could extol Tacitus, but once again this did not persuade
him to abandon the conventional idea that the main area, where
history provided useful lessons, was the public life. The chief measure

114
Anon., Horae subseciuae, pp. 138, 141,165—6,169—70; cf. pp. 3-4.
115
Ibid., pp. 335-6.
James Cleland, Propaideia: or the institution of a young noble man (Oxford, 1607), pp. 5-6, 50, 69,
119-23,135-7.
William Martyn, Youths instruction (London, 1612), sig. A3V, pp. 18,19.
148 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

for the excellence of a piece of historical writing was the amount of

benefit it could yield to one's country. Brathwait strongly asserted that
'no man [could] be an experienc't Statist, that was not initiated in the
reading of Histories' which would yield 'the aptest and exquisitest
directions that can attend man, either in publique or private affaires, at
home or abroad'. The contents of the lessons of history were not
merely the corruption which could be gathered from Tacitus; a
'Senatour' could also learn from historical accounts 'the very natures'
of laws and justice. Moreover, history told 'the actions of good men
with an Emphasis, to sollicite the Reader to the affection'.1 8 History
revealed 'such Lawes, Orders, and Precepts, as well Morall as Divine'
which could profit and benefit 'their present estate'.119
Essentially this same line of thought was developed in numerous
moral treatises. John Brinsley, who defended Ciceronian style in his
Lvdvs literarivs in 1612, came to the fore in 1616 with a translation of the
first book of Cicero's De qfficiis. The translation was made 'for the good
of Schools' and it was intended to be used with the Lvdvs literarivs. It was
a volume in three columns, one of which contained Cicero's text in
Latin, another Brinsley's translation and the third his comments.
Brinsley admonished the reader first to read his comments for under-
standing 'the matter contained in each Chapter' and only then to
proceed to Cicero's text. Resorting to the authority of Erasmus,
Brinsley pointed out that Cicero chiefly followed 'the Stoiks ... because
these have determined the very best of the end of goodnes, whereunto
al Duties are referred'.120
In his comments Brinsley did not significantly elaborate on Cicero's
arguments; by and large, they were faithful abbreviations of Cicero's
conceptions. But Brinsley had no difficulties in ascertaining Cicero's
main stance. Beside Cicero's decided preference for the active life
(1.21.70) Brinsley commented that 'the life of those who apply them-
selves to government, for the good of the commonwealth, or to achive
great maters: for the same, is more profitable to mankinde, and also
more fit for attayining fame and honour'.121 And when Cicero put
forward his celebrated statement that learning should not draw men
118
Brathwait, The schollers medley, p. 6.
119
Ibid., p p . 35, 6-7, 89—116, 1-2, 80, 32, 74. See Fussner 1962, p p . 166-8. In similar vein,
Brathwait argued that learning and knowledge of nature was not valuable since it did not
conduce 'to the profite of the Repub:', p. 47.
120
Cicero, Thefirstbook qfTullies Offices, translated by J o h n Brinsley (London, 1616), p . 2, cf. p . 14.
T h e translation was reprinted in 1631.
121
Ibid., pp. 145-6.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 149

away from the active life (1.16.19), Brinsley explained the content of this
passage to his readers by insisting that by 'studies wee suffer not our
selves to bee drawne away from more necessarie imployments'. This
was so, because 'all the praise of vertue consisteth in action or
performing Duties, from which yet there may be intermissions and
returning to studie'.122
Anthony Nixon defined duty as 'the end whereunto Vertue tendeth'.
Since everything had been created for man, it followed that man
himself was created 'for the benefite of man'. It was, therefore, contrary
to man's happiness to live 'to him selfe'. Nixon admonished his readers
to ponder over this carefully in order to draw the proper conclusion
that everybody should dispose 'his actions to the end and purpose of
every good worke'.123 According to Henry Crosse, 'every day offereth
a new occasion to doo good, and therefore no one houre ought to slip
away without some profitable thing done'. When Crosse explained his
reasoning at this point, he repeated the familiar conviction that man
was not 'borne onely for himselfe; but as Plato saith, for our friends,
parents, countrey, and such common duties, which are the finall endes
of every mans labour'. 124
One of the principal forms of human weaknesses was, according to
John Hitchcock, 'the nice kind of life that some men addict themselues
unto'. He characterized this manner of living as one where people
'mue up themselves at home, and never see the face of a publike
assembly, but live as it were in a well or a bottle'. To lead this kind of
life made people utterly 'unfit to be employed for the common wealth,
because they see nothing clerely, but a far off and through a hole and
vnderstand onely by tradition and report'. 125 Having established this in
the first chapter of his treatise - dealing with the 'Theoretike part of
Wisdome' - Hitchcock devoted the second chapter to the 'Practicke
part of Wisdome'. The justification for such a rationale was not hard to
find. As he explained, 'a man is not therefore honest or virtuous,
because he knowes what is virtuous or honest, but because he doth the
things that are so; Virtutis omnis in hoc laus est, the praise of virtue consists

122
Ibid., P . 44.
123
Anthony Nixon, The dignitie of man, both in the perfections of his sovle and bodie (London, 1612), p. 4.
124
Henry Crosse, Vertues common-wealth: or the high-way to honour (London, 1603), sig. R3 r ; see in
general sig. G4v-Hir, R2v~3r, R4r, S3r. In Walzer's account Crosse's ideas could 'safely be
labelled puritanical', Walzer 1965, pp. 207-10. See also D[aniel] Tfuvill], Essayes, morall and
theologicall (London, 1609), pp. 4-6, 23-4; T[uvill], The dove, pp. 39-40, which drew chiefly on
Bacon's Advancement of learning.
125
J o h n Hitchcock, A sanctuaryfor honest men, p p . 34-5, cf. p p . 45-7.
150 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

in the action'.126 But Hitchcock coupled this analysis with the stoic
notion that man should 'exempt & free' himself 'both outwardly from
popular & multitudinary errors & opinions, and inwardly from
passions'. This was accomplished by 'praecaution or praemeditation
whereby a man flyeth or extinguisheth whatsoever might kindle or
enflame his passions'. This armoured him 'to beare without passion or
distemper whatsoever happeneth'.127
Similarly, John Ford linked his strong stoicism with the principles of
the vita activa.128 On the one hand, he was inclined to confess that 'the
toyle in common affaires, is but trash and bondage, compared to the
sweete repose of the minde, and the goodly Contemplation of a mans
peace with Himselfe'. But, on the other, this belief did not amount to
an endorsement of the life of total withdrawal. Rather, it prompted
Ford to combine the virtuous public service with inward, stoic resolu-
tion.129 A man must attempt to be 'a good Man', one who voluntarily
promoted the common good. He must always have 'an eie, to the
North Starre of Vertue: without which, men cannot but suffer ship-
wrack'.130 Those people, he argued, whose aim was simply to live were
mostly preoccupied with the fear of death, since 'such men that so live,
when they dye, both dye finally & dye all'. But those people who
endeavoured to 'live well', live with the expectation of death, since
'when they dye, [they] dye to live, and live for ever'. The underlying
assumption here was, of course, that by living well a man won honour
and glory and when he died his death acted as 'a passage to glorie'.131
There was yet another reason why the public life was preferable to the
contemplative one: virtue materialized in action alone; 'action is the
Crowne of Vertue'. 'To be vertuous', Ford invoked, 'without the
testimonie of imployment, is as a rich Minerall in the heart of the
Earth, un-useful because unknowne.'132
If these theorists portrayed an essentially traditional picture of the
public life, they adopted a similar perspective towards the means to
accomplish the same. It was assumed that men could engage them-
126
Ibid., pp. 5 0 - 1 .
127
Ibid., pp. 52-3. See also Anon., Of affectation: a morall discourse, of some delight, and of much vsefor
these times (London, 1607), P- *45- Cf. however, A sanctuary for honest men, p p . 58—9, a n d
especially p. 4, where Hitchcock condemned 'Stoicall austerity'.
128
For Ford's stoicism, see Monsarrat 1984, pp. 236-52.
129
Ford, A line of life, pp. 120-1.
130
Ibid., pp. 117-27.
\V2 ^ i d . , pp. 2-4,17-19.
Ibid., pp. 4-6, 9; see also Edward Topsell, The house-holder: or, perfect man:preached in three sermons
lately at Hartfield in Svssex (n.p., 1609), pp. 72—3.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 151
selves in the public life by their moral qualities - virtues. It was only,
that is, by exercising his virtues that a man could hope to discharge his
duty and promote the common good. This was, as we have already
seen, Bacon's view and the one put forward in The court of James. Those
who had had good education and who were, therefore, 'generous,
liberall, and free-hearted' readily understood that 'true glory, reputa-
tion, and renowne consisteth in Vertue, which also is especially
illustrated and made famous by worthie and meritorious actions and
imployments in a Common-wealth'.
The same analysis of the connection between the vita activa and
virtue also permeated the educational and moral treatises; they
repeated the Ciceronian slogan that the glory of virtue consisted in
action. And since negotium constituted the ultimate aim, the discussion
centred around moral virtues, as in Henry Crosse's Vertves common-
wealth. At the beginning of his treatise Crosse reminded his readers of
the importance of Christian virtues and explained that one should
never be content to rest on moral virtues. They but fashioned 'the
outward man to civill obedience, making that the end which are but
motives to the end'. Having made this concession, however, he moved
to discuss the moral virtues, and devoted the entire treatise to this
theme. 134
There was wide agreement that it was only by possessing the four
cardinal virtues that a man could fulfil his civic mode of life and
effectively enhance the common good. This was the opinion of Henry
Crosse and John Hitchcock, as well as Anthony Nixon. 'But to
prosecute my intent', expounded Crosse, thereby revealing his acquain-
tance with stoic ideals, 'which is to handle the morall Vertues, and lay
open the parts of humanitie, it wil not be amisse to touch by the way
the foure chiefe and principall Vertues, called cardinall Vertues.' A
little later he pointed out that 'where vertue is wanting in a generall
government, that Common-wealth is wholly overthrowne'. Accord-
ing to Richard Brathwait, the chief lesson man ought to learn from
history was the centrality of virtue. In a good historian, 'vertue never
wants her character, nor vice her reproofe'; the best 'Hystoricall
Relations' were such that they induced men to virtue and deterred

133
A. D . B. The court of James, pp. 18-19.
134
Grosse, Vertves common-wealth, sig. BIV—2 T.
135 Ibid.,
TU:J „:
sigs. B2r-v
r v
, E4 r , cf. C3 r ; Nixon, The dignitie of man, pp. 4 - 6 ; Hitchcock, A sanctuary for honest
men, pp. 8off.
136
Brathwait, The schollers medley, p. 7.
152 Classical humanism and republicanism 15J0—1640

them from vice.136 'Vertue', Brathwait announced, 'hath in her selfe a

soveraigne end, to which all liberall Arts and Sciences (in themselves
truly noble and meriting honour) have their aime and recourse.' He
claimed that history had such a power that 'where a naturall defect and
want of courage was seated', a recourse to history would remedy the
situation. The best example of the usage of history in 'imitation in
vertue' was to be found in ancient Rome. All of their 'worthy
Patritians' had been most careful in their emulation of their prede-
cessors, so much so that their own deeds had become most worthy
examples to later generations.139
In the fifth book of Propaideia, Cleland discussed the young noble-
man's 'Dutie' in his 'Civil conversation', beginning his account with the
cardinal virtues and stressing above all prudence and justice.140
William Martyn was thoroughly convinced that a man's outward parts
were of no use 'if the inward parts and mind bee not adorned, with
such splendent virtues, and with such Gentleman-like qualities'. The
possession of four cardinal virtues could make a man 'a profitable
member in the Common-weale'. But with a view to becoming a
profitable member, it did not suffice 'that a man doth know much, and
can doe well, by meanes of that knowledge'. He only became a
profitable member of the commonwealth by turning 'into action such
effects as his virtues and his knowledge have enabled him to performe'.
Unless a man put his virtues into practice by virtuous actions, he could
be compared 'to a rare and perfect Diamond, which beeing unpol-
lished, serveth for no use'. He was like a ship 'loaden with Silkes, with
Spices, and with Gold' which sank and was, therefore, 'of no value or
esteeme'. It was the central claim of Martyn's instructions to his son
that a man must first attempt to possess virtues, and then exercise them
in his actions with a view to enhancing the public good of his
commonwealth. 'I wish and doe advise you', Martyn admonished his
son, 'to imploy some times, not onely to reade this discourse often, but
also with diligence to meditate, and publikelie to exercise those virtues,
and those qualities, which heerein are deservedlie praised, and com-
mended.' The virtuous man should never be content with himself until
he had done 'the best, and the most good that he is able'. He must not

137
Ibid, pp. 81-2.
138
Ibid., p . 5.
139
Ibid., p p . 9-10, see also, pp. 15-16, 75.
140
Cleland, Propaideia, p p . 163-247, especially pp. 163, 167-8,198.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 153

cease 'from any toile, if thereby he may profit others, either particularly
to themselves, or generally for the good of many, and of the common
weale'. Martyn was never tired of repeating that 'it is not enough to
boast of the name of vertue, without vertuous deeds and actions, for
without them, the name of vertue is fitly compared to a shadow
without substance'. Philosophers had offered various definitions of
virtue but they all agreed 'that virtue consisteth in action, and that the
meditation thereof without practise, is as an unstringed instrument,
whereon no man plaieth'. 141
Although the issues of the virtuous active life already had a
conspicuous place in these moral and educational treatises, the extent
to which the Jacobean theorists were prepared to go towards the
assumptions of republican 'civic' humanists is most perceptible in two
more openly political treatises. Rather than taking so much issue with
the advocates of the vita contemplativa, the authors of these treatises
simply assumed the context of the active life. In 1606 Barnabe Barnes
published a long treatise entitled, interestingly enough, Fovre boohs of
offices. In writing the treatise, Barnes was engaged in an attempt to set
out the necessary qualities for the active members of the common-
wealth. In his preface to the reader, Barnes pointed out that the book
was intended to explicate 'certaine speciall qualities and principles . . .
for generall governement, and the choise both of civill and martiall
ministers in every Commonwealth'. He was, that is, writing an
advice-book for nobles, counsellors and magistrates. But Barnes in-
tended his treatise for a broader readership. He explained on the title-
page that the book was directed to help 'privat persons for the speciall
service of all good Princes and Policies'. It was thus Barnes's ultimate
aim to treat the issues of the people's participation in the active life of
the commonwealth.
Barnes divided his treatise into four books each of which explained
in detail one indispensable quality and the area of activity closest to
that quality. The division was based on the four cardinal virtues and
each one of them governed a particular appointment (temperance -
treasurer, prudence - counsellor, justice - judge, courage - soldier).
Perhaps the most important was 'civile prudence' which 'doth (as it
were) prescribe unto citizens their actions'. By and large, however, a
consummate member of the commonwealth was expected to master

Martyn, Youths instructions, sig. A3 v ~4 r , pp. 18-19.

142
Barnabe Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices: enabling priix private persons for the speciall sendee of all good princes
and policies (London, 1606), sig. A3 r , p . 1. For Barnes, see Eccles 1933.
154 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

all of them, as becomes clear in Barnes's definition of 'citizen'. 'I

deeme him worthie to bee reputed a good Commonwealths man,' he
stated, 'that being garnished with civile vertues (as with justice and
fortitude, which are in themselves moderated with prudence and
temperance) can as well in forraine places, and in the warres, as in
domesticall and civile affaires, performe the parts of a noble citizen
and countreyman.'143 An accomplished member of his common-
wealth, 'a good Commonwealths man' or a 'countreyman' was thus
regarded as 'a noble citizen'. He possessed 'civile vertues' by means of
which he participated actively in the political life of his community. It
was the citizen's prime duty to advance the common good of the
whole community; but he was also expected to risk 'his life and
substance in difficult seasons for the preservation and safegard of his
country'.144
This scale of values was even more vigorously embraced by the
anonymous author of the curious, Ramist-style tract, Organon reipvblicae.
It was first printed in Latin in 1605, and although the author's name
does not appear on the title-page, the dedication to the king is signed
by I. R. The tract was translated almost immediately into English by
Edmund Sadler and was published within the year. Sadler wrote that
he translated the tract because he regarded its content as important not
only for men's private but also, and especially, for their public life. Its
material was such that he thought it a pity if it were 'lockt from those
which want the perfection of that Language, and yet would be glad
from such a methodicall Picture of words, both to forme their dutie to
the State, as also to manage their private interests'.145 The tract was
not so much a 'proper' book as a plan for one. Only very occasionally
did it form more continuous prose; mostly it was a conglomeration of
short notes arranged under several headings. It is perfectly true as the
author stated towards the end of the tract: 'this my Epitome'.146
As the subtitle of the English translation implied, the main purpose
of the tract was to offer a set of rules for conducting 'the course of a
Common-wealth'. In pursuing this topic, the author saw the people as
active members of their community, as members contributing their
143
Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p. 87.
144
Ibid., pp. 87-8.
145
[1. R . ] , Organon reipvblicae (London, 1605); P- RJ> Organon reipvblicae: or the north starre qfpollicie, by
which the course of a common-wealth may be directed(London, 1605), sig. A3V. See sig. E4r for Ramus.
T h e translation is hereafter referred to as The north starre. I n the translation the dedication to
J a m e s is removed a n d is replaced by one to Sir Julius Caesar.
146
[I. R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. D3V: 'haec m e a Epitome'; The north starre, sig. E4 r .
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 155

own special abilities towards the common good. The commonwealth

was interpreted, that is, as a community of active beings and attention
was focused on their role rather than on that of the prince. Although
the original edition was dedicated to James, a central theme of the tract
was to explain the citizen's public role in the commonwealth. 'Wee
ought to contend at all times, not with privie grudges and hatreds, but
whether of all can best deserve of the 'Prince and Countrey, and doe
most good for it.'147
The author's point of departure was the fact that far from being
guided by divine eternal laws, the world of politics was rather an
uncertain business. A commonwealth resembled closely 'the fraile
nature and unconstant minde of men'. Therefore, they were 'variably
tosled hither and thither' and sometimes 'advanced from small to
great' and yet sometimes 'throwen downe from their greatnesse into
divers perils of things'. In addition to these fluctuating courses of
commonwealths, even their normal course was full of 'innumerable
perills'. In order to avert these perils, it was vital, in the first place, to
claim God's protection and help. But equally indispensable was the
ability to use one's own talents. With a view to facing the challenge of
the perils caused by the fluctuations of time, a commonwealth had to
employ the abilities of its own members. It was of decisive importance
to invent 'the best pollicies' (optima consilid) for avoiding all these fatal
dangers. What was required above all was 'an excellent sharpnesse of
the wit, and an admirable quicknesse, and wisedome'. 148 The author's
purpose was to explain what means needed to be designed so that this
aim could be achieved.
The first general conclusion the author drew was that 'the best
pollicies' could only be produced through a constant display of virtues.
'There is no treasure more commodious to a Prince and Common-
wealth,' he announced, than 'vertues, wisedome, fidelitie, and
valour.'149 He was in complete agreement with the widespread belief
that it was only by embracing the four cardinal virtues that the
dangers could be averted; the people could advance the public good

147
p . R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. Di r : 'Certare oportet, omni tempore, non privatis simultatibus
& odijs; sed vter o m n i u m melius d e principe & patria mereri, & plura in earn beneficia
conferre possit.' Cf. sig. B2 r : 'Cavendum, n e rerum privatarum respectus, publicis rebus
noceant, & officiant.' The north starre, sig. EI V , cf. c i v .
148
[I. R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. Bi r , 'Excellens etiam ingenij solertia, & in consilijs optimis
inveniendis celeritas & sapientia admiranda requiruntur.' The north starre, sig. B3V.
149
(1. R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. Bi r : 'Nullus Thesaurus principi & Reip. vtilior, q u a m
Consiliarij, virtute, prudentia, fide, & fortitudine, praestantes.' The north starre, sig. B3 V.
156 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

only by adopting these virtues. A substantive part of the tract was

consequently devoted to presenting them.150 The reason for calling
them 'cardinal' virtues was that 'as the doore is turned upon the
hinge [cardo], so on these, mans life is turned and ruled'. But these
virtues, the author insisted, had two other names. They were some-
times called 'Humane' by virtue of the fact that they 'are gotten by
mans study', and sometimes 'Consuetudinall', since they were ac-
quired through custom. Most importantly, however, they were called
'Politike' (Politicae) virtues, since 'by these a civill life [vita civilis] is
ordered'.1 l The author of the Organon reipvblicae was employing the
humanist concept of the civic life to describe the proper organization
of the commonwealth.
Anthony Nixon opened The dignitie of man by discussing the four
cardinal virtues and quoted Organon reipvblicae in order to demonstrate
that they were called 'Politique' virtues, because 'by these a civill life is
ordered'.152 Later, when he treated the issues dealing with 'Policie',
Nixon admitted that 'Civill policies are not the workes of man onely,
but proceed from the Providence of God.' This did not, however,
restrain him from quoting the Organon reipvblicae: 'an excellent sharpnes
of the wit, and an admirable quicknes, and Wisdome, are requisite in
inventing the best Policies'. The maintenance of the commonwealth
and its possible success were dependent on the ingenuity and the
virtues of its members. In answer to the question, 'what signifies
Policie?', the author referred to 'the manner of life used by some
politicall person'. A commonwealth, moreover, was said to be cor-
rupted, when 'the increase of private commoditie' was sought. On the
other hand, the commonwealth was healthy, when 'the publique profit
of the Citizens' was duly respected.153
Although the Ciceronian ideal of a virtuous civic life was so strongly
and widely reiterated, there is little doubt that several English writers
were also disposed to come to terms with the new arguments of reason
of state: when the preservation of the common good was at stake, one
150
p . R.], Organon reipvblicae, sigs. B3 r -ci r ; The north starre, sigs. C2 r -Di r .
151
p . R.], Organon reipvblicae, sig. B3r; The north starre, sig. C2V.
Nixon, The dignitie of man, pp. 4-6. As Ennis 1940, pp. 398-400 has pointed out, Nixon's whole
account was heavily indebted to La Primaudaye's The French academie. But he also quoted the
Organon reipvblicae. The opening words of his dedication were taken more or less directly from
the dedication of Edmund Sadler; in his discussion of virtues and laws, Nixon directly quoted
several passages from the Organon reipvblicae; perhaps most importantly he took, as we shall see,
his assessment of the form of government from the same source, The dignitie of man, sig. [A31],
pp. 87,116-20,122—3; ^ ^ nor^1 stow, sigs. A3r, C3V, B2v~4r, ci r , C2v-3r.
153
Nixon, The dignitie of man, pp. 115-19.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 157
should be ready to discard conventional morality. Perhaps the best-
known author to endorse this argument is Francis Bacon. In his
discussion of the architecture of fortune, Bacon could claim that his
precepts were those of 'good arts' as against those of 'evil arts', which
he ascribed to Machiavelli.154 Nevertheless, he agreed with Justus
Iipsius that, while an excessive use of dissimulation was imprudent, it
was prudent to have 'Dissimulation in seasonable use; And a Power to
faigne, if there be no Remedy'.155 The reason was not far to seek. In
places where flattery and baseness loomed large, there was no need for
traditional virtues.156 Princes' courts answered this description, for
those who were 'brought up from their infancy in the courts of kings
and affairs of state scarce ever attain to a deep and sincere honesty of
manners'.157 But it was not merely princes' courts where honesty was
lacking; it was a more general rule in 'state-prudence [prudentia civilis\
... to distrust, and to take the less favourable view of human affairs'.15
In 1614 Bacon told the House of Commons that 'we live not in Plato
his Commonwealth, but in times wherein abuses have got the upper
hand'. 159 It was futile to rely on 'the solemnity and sanctity of the oath
in treaties and compacts of princes', because 'all are too weak for
ambition and interest and the licence of power'. 'There is adopted
therefore', Bacon concluded, 'but one true and proper pledge of faith;
and it is not any celestial divinity. This is Necessity (the great god of the
powerful), and peril of state, and communion of interest.'
Similar arguments were often based on the distinction between a
private person's morality and that of a political community. According
to Robert Dallington, 'necessitie gives a larger latitude, and freer scope
to the manage of great affaires'.1 l Using Tacitus, Cicero and Bacon as
his authorities, Daniel Tuvill fully concurred. 'The law of mens actions',
he began, 'is one, when we respect them only as men; and an other when
wee consider them, as partes of a politike body.' It followed that 'publike
actions, done for the preserving and well-ordering of a State or
common-weale, may seeme sometimes, seeme (I say) to have in them ...
154
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p. 471.
155
Bacon, Essayes, p . 22.
156
Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, p. 728.
157
Bacon, De augmentis, in Works, v , p . 27.
158
Bacon, Novum organum, in Works, iv, p . 91.
159
Bacon in parliament, Letters, v , p . 52.
160
Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, pp. 706-7. See also, John Melton, A sixe-folde politician:
together with a sixe-folde precept ofpolicy (London, 1609), sigs. Qir, pyv-Sr; John Stephens, Essayes
and characters ironicall, and instrvctwe, 2nd impression (London, 1615), pp. 158—9.
161
Dallington, Aphorismes, p. 101.
158 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

some ruder lineaments and traces of unjustice'. A public person must 'so
fashion and conforme his carriage, that the benefit of the publike weale
maybe the onely marke and scope of his endeavours'.162
It is this same line of thought which seems to guide John Hitchcock's
discussion of prudence. Hitchcock, we recall, argued for a virtuous
active life and offered an account of the four cardinal virtues. In
addition, he wanted to distance himself from those who 'may be
without essential honesty and piety'. But when he explored the
cardinal virtue of prudence he gave his unqualified endorsement of the
principles of reason of state. According to Hitchcock, 'in the Justice of a
Prince we must not bee too strict; for (in as much as it is a matter of no
small moment well to governe a State) it is expedient for a Prince
enterchangeably to assume the skinne of the Foxe and the Lion'. It
followed that the prince should 'doe that for the good and safetie of
himselfe and the weale publike which in private persons were vicious
and unlawfull'.164 Hitchcock gave a list of 'eight things expedient in a
Prince, although some question the lawfulnesse'. The list included not
only distrust, dissimulation and secrecy, but also items of more
straightforward advice. A prince must 'clip the wings of anyone that is
like to soare too high in the State'; he should be ready 'in a time of
necessitie and povertie of the State' to 'take by authoritie the wealth of
the richest'; and he ought 'to cancell the lawes or priviledges that are
any way prejudiciall to the authoritie of the Prince'. 65

IV

The meticulous attention paid to the issues of the vita activa and the
closely connected theme of civic virtues was often accompanied by an
equally thorough discussion of another classical republican theme. This
was the question of what constituted true nobility. The persistent
occurrence of this topic is an important index for the continuity of
Ciceronian humanist values. Although its emergence could be seen as
an integral part of humanist political discourse, it is of some importance
to bear in mind that to maintain the humanist idea of true nobility was
not merely to repeat a time-honoured truism; it was also to argue
against those contemporaries who endorsed the contrary view. In
162
T[uvill], The doue, pp. 36-40.
163
Hitchcock, A sanctuaryfor honest men, pp. 4, 54-5.
164
Ibid., pp. 85-6.
165
Ibid., pp. 86-8.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 159

preaching before the king in February 1607, George Meriton employed

all his rhetorical skills to deny the humanist contention with its levelling
claim that true nobility should be based on merits. He was thoroughly
convinced of his opponents. They were stoics, he claimed, 'the old
brokers of parity' as well as their successors, 'the English Switzers of
these our dayes' who put forward the incredible claim that inherited
nobility was 'a meere fiction5. According to their preposterous argu-
ments, Meriton declared, nature 'is an equal parent unto all3 and 'God
made but one Adam, not one of silver to be the father of Nobles, and
another of earth to beget the common sort.' They further made the
unfounded assertion that 'none are barred of their way to vertue, or
hindered of their course to true felicity'. Drawing a close analogy
between men and metals as well as plants, where there was 'great
difference of seeds and branches', Meriton announced that 'it avayleth
much from what stock one descendeth'. It was chiefly lineage which
determined that 'some are noble, some ignoble, some ingenuous, some
base, some quick of apprehension, some dull: some fit to rule, some to
serve'. Since children often carried 'the markes of their fathers, grand-
fathers' and so on, it was reasonable to judge that 'they retaine in their
minds, the propensions, inclinations, and as it were the sparkes of their
auncestors'. The same conclusion was endorsed by the civil lawyer
John Cowell who held that those were 'gentlemen' whose 'bloud and
race doth make [them] noble'. And at the beginning of The compleat
gentleman Henry Peacham defined nobility as not only 'a certaine
eminency, or notice taken of some one above the rest', but also and in
particular 'the Honour of blood in a Race or Linage'.167
Against these arguments many authors asserted that true nobility
consisted in the possession of virtues. Nobility by virtue was affirmed
already by Henry Peacham who added to his definition of inherited
nobility the observation that a man could lose it 'by his vice and
basenesse'. The chief ingredient of nobility was thus not ancestry or
riches but virtue alone. 'Since all Vertue', Peacham argued in a
familiar manner, 'consisteth in Action, and no man is borne for
himselfe,' but on the contrary, to become 'beneficiall and usefull to his
Country', it followed, in the first place, that there was no nobility 'in
contemplation'. True nobility consisted thus of virtuous actions for the
public good, as had occurred in Rome where, since honour had been
166
George Meriton, A sermon qfnobilitie, sigs. B2V, B3 r ~4 r , c i r - 2 v ; cf. however, sigs. C4.V-DII", D4.V.
John Cowell, The interpreter: or booke containing the signification of words (Cambridge, 1607), s - v -
'gentleman'. Henry Peacham, The compleat gentleman (London, 1622), p. 2.
160 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

'highly prized, every one [had] aymed at Nobilitie, and none [had]
refused the most desperate attempts for the good of his Countrey'. But
it also followed that one's lineage and wealth were totally irrelevant in
so far as true nobility was concerned. 'Neither', Peacham wrote, 'are
the truly valorous, or any way vertuous, ashamed of their so meane
Parentage, but rather glorie in themselves that their merit hath
advanced them above so many thousands farre better descended.'168
The same preference for a virtuous true nobility was expressed in
Ben Jonson's Catiline. When Sempronia claimed that 'virtue, where
there is no blood: 'tis vice', Fulvia retorted that 'Twas virtue only, at
first, made all men noble'.169 Cicero emphasized the same point even
more strongly:
I have no urns; no dusty monuments;
No broken images of ancestors,
Wanting an ear or nose; no forged tables
Of long descents, to boast false honours from.
By calling himself 'a new man', Cicero underscored the fact that he
owed his advancement entirely to his own 'virtue'.170 Catiline, as
depicted by Cicero, was the complete opposite: despite his illustrious
background, Catiline failed to live up to his 'excellent gifts of fortune
and of nature'.
An important discussion of nobility is to be found in Thomas Scott
of Canterbury's treatise on civil nobility. Thomas Scott, an important
local politician and MP in Canterbury, is famous for his puritan diary,
and his ideas are mostly accounted for by his godly religion.172 Scott's
A discourse of polletique and civill honour^ written in 1619, is a vehement
critique of the contemporary manner of granting honour and nobility;
'that plague of sellinge and prostituting of honour'. The importance of
the matter was intensified, since 'the confusion of order and honor'
would ultimately lead to 'the confusion and mine of state'.173 There
were two chief ways in which Scott sought to justify his position. On
the one hand, he emphasized the inherited nature of nobility. It was
important, as he succinctly put it, 'not to make any knights ... but of
168
Henry Peacham, The compleat gentleman, pp. 1—5, 9—10; cf. idem, Minerva Britanna: or a garden of
heroical deuises (London, 1612), p. 54.
169
Catiline, 11, 122, 127.
170
Ibid., in, 14-17, 19, 21.
171
Ibid., iv, 120.
172
Clark 1978; Clark 1977, p . 341; Cust 1987, p p . 175-85.
173
Thomas Scott, A discourse of polletique and civill honour in G. D . Scull, Dorothea Scott (Oxford:
Parker & Co, 1883), pp. 156,152. For the suggested dating, see Clark 1978, p. nn.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 161

eminent desert'. In other words, knighthood and nobility was rooted in

one's pedigree, and Scott measured his own importance in the local
community with the help of genealogy.174 'Vertue', he quoted King
James, 'followeth oftest noble bloud, or noble rases.' And it was of
course Aristotle who had taught that there were slaves by nature and
that 'as a man begetts a man, and a beast a beast, soe good Parents do
begett good children, Noble parents, noble children'.17
On the other hand, Scott also criticized current fashions of confer-
ring nobility by appealing to the humanist idea of virtuous true
nobility. As a result, Scott turned at this point to Cicero and Seneca.
Since everyone was descended from Adam, it was wise 'not to trust too
much to our birth'. 176 Nobility derived thus from one's own virtues.
'Nobilitie of birth' was completely insufficient without 'vertue, desert
and abilitie'. Paraphrasing Francis Bacon, Scott argued that 'Condi-
tores, the founders of states and soe of houses, are ever worthie the first
and cheife degree of honor.' The same lesson could be learned from
Cicero who had rather been 'the builder of a newe house' than 'the
uphoulder' of an old one.177
There are two conclusions to be drawn from Scott's account of civil
honour. It is, in the first place, somewhat misleading to attribute all his
ideas to godly religion. Clearly, as far as his idea of true nobility is
concerned, Scott owed an obvious debt to the staple sources of the
humanist tradition. Furthermore, although he emphasized the impor-
tance of birth, his final point was that irrespective of one's descent, true
nobility depended on one's virtues and learning and that it was only
this virtuous nobility which was capable of taking care of the govern-
ment of the local community as well as the commonwealth.
Yet a more unqualified endorsement of the humanist slogan virtus
vera nobilitas emerges in those educational, moral and political treatises
we have examined in this chapter. In teaching Prince Charles, Patrick
Scot quoted the prince's father that 'oftimes vertue foliowes nobilitie of
blood', but only in order to contrast this with the idea of true nobility
derived from Erasmus, Petrarch, Juvenal and Sallust. 'It is', Scot told
the prince, 'a ridiculous and ostentive humour, to glory in the merit of
others vertue; for certainly the splendour of ancestours, is the greatest

174
Scott, A discourse, p . 160; Clark 1978, p. 7.
175
Scott, A discourse, pp. 185-7. For Fulke Greville's similar position, see J a m e s 1986, p p . 404-5.
176
Scott, A discourse, p p . 188-9,188-194 passim.
177
Ibid., p . 192; Bacon, Essayes (1597), in Works, vi, p . 532.
178
See Scott, A discourse, p . 195.
162 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

staine, that can faint degenerating posterity.' Everyone should be able

to say: 'I am the beginner of my nobilitie.' 79 James Cleland began his
treatise with a preface 'describing who are Nobles, and the nature of
Nobilitie'. According to him, men are equal in their birth as well as
death. But 'in the middle course' between birth and death there are
some who 'excell & are more noble then others'. From the very
beginning of mankind those who were called nobles did not inherit
their status but were always chosen and elected. Nobility was thus
completely based on personal virtues. Nobody should ascend higher
'then their owne vertuous actions merited'. It was not 'the great
revenues, faire possessions, pleasant Palaces, manie Lordships and
infinite riches' which made a man noble, but 'the glorious Character of
Vertue'. Cleland felt able to declare that 'Vertue onlie is able to make
thee Noble.' 180 William Martyn argued that he who 'soweth virtue,
shall reape honor'. 'A wise man', he added a little later, 'placeth his
contentment in nothing more, then by the active distribution of his
vertues, to make himselfe the more famous.' Like Patrick Scot, Martyn
extended this idea of meritocracy even to the domain of princes. He
reminded his readers that 'the power of Monarchs, and of Kings, must
be supported by the goodnes of their vertues'. This was so, since he was
'much more generous whom his vertues, then he whom his ancestors
have made noble'. It followed, therefore, as Martyn was willing to
point out, that 'much more is he to be admired, that swayeth a
kingdome by his vertues, then he that ruleth it by the only priviledge of
his enobled and heroicall discent'.181
It was also one of the most commonly held convictions in moral
treatises that nobility was achieved by virtue alone. To prove that
'many moe are made honourable by diligence, then by Birth', one
author pointed to the fact that in raising 'their Common-wealth' the
Romans had 'stoode not upon termes of blood'. In comparison with his
own times the author could lament: 'then Vertues gave Titles, nowe
Titles sell Vertues.'182 According to Anthony Nixon, 'the signes of an
honorable minde' were to avoid 'Honour, Riches, or Dignitie' and
instead to aspire to 'vertue'. In answering the question - 'how must we
ascend to true Honour?' — he resorted to the Roman example of the
179
Patrick Scot, A table-book for princes: containing short remembrances for Ike gouernment ofthemselues and
their empire (London, 1621), p p . 57-62.
180
Cleland, Propaideia, p p . 1—10; Morrice, An apology, sig. B3 r ~ v
181
Martyn, Youths instruction, pp. 18, 19—20. Cf. Richard Brathwait, Times curtaine drawne: or the
anatomie ofvanitie (London, 1621) sig. G3 v ~4 r .
182
Topsell, The house-holder, p p . 90—2.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 163
temples of virtue and honour and concluded that 'it appears that
Vertue is the way to Honour'. 183 Glory, another author explained, was
nothing but 'a shadow of vertue, which doth accompanie even the
unwilling'. Henry Crosse claimed not only that virtue was 'the
spurre of Honour' but also that it was not 'the aboundance of wealth
and great dignitie, that maketh a man truly noble: but the possession of
Vertue'. Although 'that nobilitie is most to be honoured' where virtue
'hath long continued in the house of a Gentleman, without corruption
of bloud', those were 'vere nobiles, truly noble', who 'for Vertues sake
onely are seated in the place of honour'. He who relied on 'his riches,
parentage, office, place, dignitie' in his pursuit of honour was climbing
'a rotten ladder'. 85 The author of The court of James argued strongly
against inherited nobility. Although the glorious deeds of forefathers
should not be buried in oblivion, the author exhorted the would-be
courtier to eschew extolling his 'Pedegree' as well as 'the smoakie
images of his 'Progenitours'. The underlying reason was that 'since all
men had nothing but Dirt and Slime for their first and great Grand-
father', the idea of inherited nobility was utterly pointless. 'Doe not
therefore proudly, and disdainefully', the author advised, 'glory in thy
Grand-fathers, or great Grand-fathers Eminence.' If one wanted to
excel and exceed others in achievement, the only way to accomplish
this was to rely on one's own qualities. 'Let thy nobilities originall and
foundation', the reader was instructed, 'be founded and grounded on
Vertue, whereof assuredly tis farre better to have beene the first Author
and Occasioner, then ... being well begun by others.' 186
Similarly, Joseph Hall characterized the object of his chapter named
'Of the truly-noble' as one who 'stands not upon what he borrowed of
his Ancestours; but thinks he must worke out his owne honor'. 187
Richard Brathwait emphasized the regular occurrence of those who
were born 'of nothing' but yet who 'by some private indowments' for
the good of their country ascended to the pitch of 'highest honours'.
Cicero had been reprimanded for this kind of snobbery, but, as
183
Nixon, The dignitie of man, p . 85. Cf. Brathwait, The schollers medley, pp. 76-7, 82; Ford, A line of
life, p p . 57-9; Felltham, Resolues, p p . 302-4.
184
Anon., Of affectation, p p . 19-22.
185
Crosse, Vertves common-wealth, sigs. C4 r -D2 v , D3 v ~4 r . Gf. e.g. George W e b b e , The path-way to
honor (London, 1612), p p . 12—13, 17-18; [Richard West], Wits ABC: or a centurie of epigrams
(London, n.d. [1608]), sig. B2V.
186
A. D . B., The court of James, p p . 53-4.
187
J o s e p h Hall, Characters of vertves and vices: in two boohs (London 1608), p p . 51-6. Gf. e.g.
[Michael Scott], The philosophers banqvet: newly furnished and deckedforth, 2nd edn (London, 1614),
pp. 107-9; Anton, The philosophers satyrs, pp. 25, 29.
164 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Brathwait pointed out, 'Dependance of Auncestors conferre small or

no glory to us, if our succeding worth shew not a correspondency to
our Prodecessours glory.' The morality of this was, as Brathwait sought
to prove by his examples, that the qualities 'of proper Nobility [were]
not derived from their fathers greatnesse, but from their owne
eminence'. Explaining why he put so much emphasis on virtue, he
pointed out that 'Vertue alone is crowned, Vertue in her selfe is of all
possessed: She it is alone by which man is eternized.' Walter Ralegh
wrote in The historie of the world: 'if honour (according to L. Vives) be a
witnesse of vertue and well-doing: and Nobilitie (after Plutarch) the
continuance of vertue in a race or linage: then are those in whom
vertue is extinguished, but like unto painted and printed papers.'189
Most importantly the same belief appeared in Barnabe Barnes's
Foure bookes of offices as well as in the Organon reipvblicae. In his discussion
of who were the aptest choices for counsellors, Barnes remarked that
they should be elected 'out of the true nobilitie', which under the
prince 'should governe and amplifie the Commonwealth'. Pursuing the
topic further, Barnes defined what he meant by 'true nobilitie'. This
term referred to those who were 'notable amd approoved for their
vertues and honour' while at the same time encountered 'neerely with
the dignities of their blood and families'.190 Having made this conces-
sion, Barnes went on to embrace the most typical humanist concept of
true nobility. He declared: 'Sola namque virtus vera Nobilitas est. For very
Nobilitie is composed of vertue onely.' The adoption of this humanist
slogan enabled Barnes to argue that 'a king may make apt Counsellors
of very meane men (Qui maioribus suis virtute praelucent): Which give more
light of vertue than their ancestors'. If the king followed this rule, his
court would soon become 'a Schoolehouse or Colledge of sapience and
vertue'.191 According to the author of Organon reipvblicae, a common-
wealth did not flourish if good men were obscured and their deeds
'adorned with no praise of due honor', whilst their corrupted com-
patriots were munificently rewarded.192 The well-being of a common-
wealth required, on the contrary, that 'due testimony' was given 'to
188
Brathwait, The schollers medley, p. 82. See also John Davies, Microcosmos: the discovery of the little
world, with the government thereof{Oxford, 1603), pp. 124-8, who also cited Cicero.
189
The historie of the world, I.ix.iv, p. 184.
190
Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p. 28.
191
Ibid., p. 32-3, cf. pp. 65, 72, and p. 115, where Barnes resorted to the central third book of
Francesco Patrizi's De institutione reipublicae. See also Thomas Sutton, Iethroes covnsell to Moses: or
a directionfor magistrates: a sermon preached at St Saviours in Southwarke. March 5.1621 (London, 1631),
pp. 17-18.
p. R.], The north starre, sig. Eir; Organon reipvblicae, sig. C4V.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 165

vertue'. Everyone, that is, should be rewarded in accordance with their

merits. 'Let vertue', the author declared, 'be the chiefest merit for
promotions' and added a little later: 'Let not the more noble, but the
better judgement obtaine the victorie.' 193
It should be emphasized that such central notions of classical
humanism as negotium and vera nobilitas were not necessarily by themselves
incompatible with support for a strong monarchy. Robert Cotton is an
apposite example of those who coupled humanist ideas with a notion of
sovereignty. As we have seen, John Hitchcock argued for the vita activa
at the same time as he insisted that a prince could overstep the boundaries
of law. Many of those who were employed by the king's government saw
themselves as leading an active life. The anonymous treatise, The court of
James, employed humanist arguments to defend the courtier's life.
Francis Bacon's espousal ofnegotium was scarcely directed against James's
government, whose loyal servant he of course was, but rather against the
rise of the new moral outlook of scepticism and self-preservation, which
was, on the other hand, closely linked with the court.
Nevertheless, there is little doubt that the ideas of negotium and
true nobility were used not merely to portray the self-image of the
king's servants or to emphasize the general importance of the
people's active role in the public sphere, but also to launch a more
particular ideological attack on the contemporary political system.
The future republican poet George Wither published his highly
controversial collection of moral poems Abvses stript, and whipt in 1613.
This long work was exceptionally popular (there were four printings
in 1613 and one each in 1614, 1615 and 1617), and it got Wither into
troubles with the authorities who imprisoned him for a while in
1614. In Abvses stript, and whipt Wither impugned the morality of the
contemporary political life with exceptional outspokenness. Dedicating
the work to himself, he noted: 'Some no doubt will mistaste my
plainnes, in that I have so bluntly spoken what I have observed,
without any Poeticall additions or faigned Allegories.' Rather than
using the examples of 'old ages past' or 'wise-mens Sayings' to express
his withering criticism, he was, he said, 'resolv'd to tie my rimes / As
much as may be to the present times'. 196 In one of the epigrams
[I. R.], The north starre, sig. cir~v. 'Sit virtus, ad dignitates, meritum summum.' 'Vincat
sententia non nobilior, sed melior.' Organon reipvblicae, sig. B2r~v.
Shar
lit P e r979> PP- 235-47-
195
Pritchard 1963.
196
George Wither, Abvses stript, and whipt: or satirical essaies, diuided into two bookes (London, 1613),
166 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

written by a friend (Th. C), Wither was contrasted with 'time-pleasers',

for unlike them he 'freely speak5st the truth'. He was thus 'Another
Cato' save 'more daring'.197
Wither's forthrightness was evident both in his description of the
decay and corrosion of the English commonwealth and in his pre-
scribed remedies. He claimed that he had perceived 'The confus'd
actions of this present age'; everything he saw around him 'was ill'. The
'present age' was a scene 'Of Villany, of Lust, and all uncleane / And
loath'd corruption'. The purpose of his book, Wither declared in an
epigram to the earl of Pembroke, at the end of the volume, was to
I QO

reveal 'th'abuses of these wicked Times'. Although there were

several particular areas where corruption arose, Wither was convinced
that it emerged most clearly in two highly crucial ways with disastrous
results. First, it had caused a general tendency to place the private
good before the public one and thus to lead a solitary rather than
active life. According to Wither, some people held 'them wise and
vertuous' who lived in 'A heremitall solitariness', which opinion
proceeded from 'imbecillity' and which resulted in 'Non-ability'. It
comes as no surprise that it was Cicero whose authority Wither found
compelling.
For man (saith Tully) borne to other ends
The for to please himselfe; a part to have,
The common-weale doth look, and parents crave
A part; so doth his friend.199
The other and even more important way in which the decay affected
the whole commonwealth was by corrupting the idea of nobility. There
was already a widespread but repulsive habit of identifying nobility
with wealth and riches.
Yea there be idle theeving Rogues a many,
That have no Vertue, nor will ne're have any;
Yet for their wealth shall highly, be respected,
When honest men their betters, are neglected.200
Equally dangerous was to regard birth and lineage as true qualities of
nobility. 'Noblenesse of Birth' was nothing but 'vaine', unless the family
had retained 'Some noble qualitie'.201
197
Ibid., sig. B5 r , cf. sigs. K2 r , L2 V .
198
Ibid, sigs. c 6 r , x 3 r .
199
Ibid., sig.
200
Ibid., sig. G2 r .
201
Ibid., Sig. G2 r .
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 167
Riches and wealth, birth and pedigree, even a title had nothing to
do with true nobility, which consisted in nothing but virtue. The vulgar
could think that a rich man with a long pedigree and a pompous title
was noble, but 'in a wise-man's eyes' this appeared nothing but obtuse.
Only those who were 'rais'd by Vertue' not merely had 'most
worthinesse' but were also 'most ancient', because their nobility was
obtained by the same means as 'all Great men [had] first obtained
their Fame'. 202

If the arguments presented in Jacobean England about the importance

and desirability of the virtuous public life were essentially classical
humanist in character, this was equally true when we turn to analyse
the ways in which they thought this mode of life could be acquired in
practice. It was widely agreed that this could only happen through an
extensive education in the studia humanitatis. John Ford believed that a
man could hope to attain virtue and thereby act virtuously if he began
the training for this as early as possible,2 3 whilst Thomas Scott of
Canterbury maintained that education was the safest way for men 'to
make good, or improve' their birth. 204 The same idea was extensively
discussed by Henry Crosse, according to whom the means to virtue was
'diligent education & training up youth in discipline'. Education was
nothing less than 'the maine pillar that holdeth up & underprops the
government, without which no Common-wealth could stand & peace-
ably continue'. 205
But the idea that education was necessary for the inculcation of
virtue in people's minds was most extensively explored, of course, in
the educational treatises which can in this respect be seen as a direct
continuity of the earlier, singularly English, tradition of educational
manuals. Cleland pointed out that the institution of youth was a crucial
element in 'a wel governed Common-weale' and included logic and
mathematics in his curriculum, but gave the most prominent place to
'the Grammar, and Humanities'. 20 Henry Peacham lamented how
202
Ibid., sig. P5V. Cf. idem, A satyre, written to the kings most excellent maiestie (1614), in idem, Iwenalia a
collection of those poems (London, 1622), sig. Ee3r~v"
203
Ford, A line of life, pp. 7-8.
204
Scott, A discourse, pp. 193,188, 195.
205
Crosse, Virtues common-wealth, sig. G4r; cf. in general Hitchcock, A sanctuary for honest men, pp. 5,
142-52; Nixon, The dignitie of man, p. 77; Leonard Wright, A display of duty, fos. i r~v.
206
Cleland, Propaideia, pp. 21, 79—85; cf. e.g. p . R.], Organon reipvblicae, sig. D4V.
168 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

parents were ready to invest more money in 'a fellow who can but
teach a Dogge, or reclaime and Hawke' than in 'an honest, learned,
and well qualified man to bring up their children'. He provided an
even more detailed and staggering list of subjects which a young
gentleman should master. The basis of his education rested, however,
on the pillars of rhetoric, history and moral philosophy.207 Thomas
Morrice reiterated that 'good education' advanced and preserved 'true
Nobilitie'. But many parents paid more careful attention to receiving
into their service 'a Cooke, a Falconer, or an Horse-rider' than to
getting a proper 'Schoolmaster' for their children. 'They doe not much
care', he lamented, 'whether hee bee well learned, or hath taken any
degree of Schoole, or is lawfully allowed to teach, or hath any good
methode in teaching, or hath had experience and approbation in the
trayning up of children, and doth understand and speake perfectly
pure English, Latine and Greeke, with the right accent and true
pronunciation thereof
The humanist education also furnished Barnes and the author of the
Organon reipvblicae with the chief way of attaining virtues and thereby the
commonwealth. According to the latter, the four cardinal virtues were
not natural qualities, but were acquired by perseverance alone. A
matter of crucial importance in the maintenance of the commonwealth
was, therefore, to pay sufficient attention to the issues of 'the education
of youth'. 'Good education is called the foundation of wisedome.'209
Questions concerning morality and politics were to be learned from
both holy scriptures and 'Prophane Authors' including Aristotle,
Cicero, Seneca and Tacitus. In learning it was important to perceive
'what wee learne' and to keep 'that which wee learne', but most vital
was to see to it that something was brought forth and framed from our
learning, and this was 'a worke of continuall exercise'.210 History was a
key subject since, 'as Cicero saith', it was 'the mistresse of life, and the
witnesse of times'. The reason why history was most useful training for
the future active members of the commonwealth was ascribed to the
fact that 'the nature of man continueth the same'. 'Onely the persons
and Actors of the Historie,' the author wrote, 'doe succeede new every
age; and the names being changed, the stories are now told as it were
207
Peacham, The compkatgentleman, pp. 30-7, 42—55.
208
Morrice, An apology, sigs. B4r, cy v -8 v .
209 [I. R.], Organon reipuvblicae, sig. c^T; The north starre, sig. D4V; Barnes, Fovre boohs of offices,
pp. 60-2,67.
2 0
p . R.], Organon reipvblicae, sig. A3r~v; The north starre, sig. Bi r -2 r . Cf. piichard West], The schoole
of vertve, the second part: or, theyoung schollers paradice (London, 1619), sig. A5V.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 169

of our selves.' In addition to moral philosophy and history, rhetoric

was an indispensable discipline. The author raised this issue already in
his discussion of learning, pointing out that one should 'speake well3 as
well as 'speake eloquently'. Towards the end of the tract the theme of
rhetoric was pursued further, and the reader was offered an epitome of
things of weight in persuasion and dissuasion.212 This ideal model of
consummate learning was contrasted sharply with the prevalence of
ignorance and idleness in the contemporary ruling class. 'Oh shame!'
the author exclaimed, 'men unwise, and of a grosse braine, Despisers of
learning . . . Do beare the Scepters, rule the people, and governe
Cities.' Far from being interested in learning, these rulers continued to
uphold the traditional customs of nobility; they 'have onely care of
dyeing, Or to feede dogges, horses and hawkes, And to leade a childish
life in continuall sportes'. This degeneration and despicable mode of
life was the chief reason for 'so manie thousand scabbes of errors, so
manie sinkes of follies, so manie thousands of mischievous deeds'. 213
The emphasis on the active life and on education in the studia
humanitatis as a means to it was closely linked with a sharp critique of
futile scholastic learning, with accompanying stress on the utility of
learning. Although Cleland was of the opinion that 'the generalities &
Quodlibets of Schoolemen' were to some extent good, he emphasized
that one must avoid descending 'into their distinctions' instead of 'a
fruitful wombe, for the use and benefit of a mans life'.214 The strongest
case to this effect was presented by Francis Bacon. As we have seen, he
argued that moral philosophy should aim at teaching how to practise
virtue in the active life. In the Advancement of learning Bacon employed all
his rhetorical skills to condemn 'the Schoolmen' and their degenerate
learning which consisted of 'a number of subtile, idle, unwholesome,
and (as I may term them) vermiculate questions'.215
The conviction that the feature of greatest importance in learning
211
[I. R.], Organon reipvblicae, sig. C4r: 'Historia . . . est vitae magistra, testis temporum . . . natura
hominum eadem manet . . . Personae tantum, & Actores Historiae, singulis aetatibus, novi
succedunt; &, mutatis nominibus, quasi de nobis fabulae nunc narrantur.' The north starre, sig.
D4V.
212
[1. R.], Organon reipvblicae, sig. D2 r -3 r ; The north starre, sig. E3r~4r.
213
| 1 . R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. c^v: 'Proh pudor! ignari Sophiae, crassique cerebri, Doctrinae
osores (quibus est sola alea curae, Aut nutrire canes & equos, volueresque rapaces,
Continuisque iocis puerilem ducere vitam) Sceptra tenent, populo praesunt, vrbesque
gubernant. Hinc mille errorum scabies, tot stultitiarum Colluvies: hinc & tot millia
flagitiorum.' The north starre, sigs. D ^ - E T .
214
Cleland, Propaideia, p . 88.
215
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p . 285, cf. p p . 418-19. It should be noted that
Bacon commended 'the colleges of the Jesuits', p p . 276-7.
170 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

was its practical utility has long been identified with Bacon. Only
recently, however, have scholars tended to link this aspect of Bacon's
thinking to the humanist tradition.216 Dedicating the De sapientia veterum
to his alma mater, Bacon announced: 'Certainly I am of opinion that
speculative studies [contemplatives] when transplanted into active life [in
vitam activam] acquire some new grace and vigour, and having more
matter to feed them, strike their roots perhaps deeper, or at least grow
taller and fuller leaved.'217 It is important to bear in mind that there
was nothing exceptional in Bacon's arguments; they were endorsed
equally strenuously by a number of other theorists examined in this
chapter.
James Cleland opened his chapter, entitled 'Howe profitable
learning is, and how hurtful ignorance is unto a Noble man', with a
traditional lamentation over the prevalence of the 'false and fantastical
opinion' that 'ignorance is thought an essential marke of a Noble man'.
Those who professed learning were ridiculed as 'clerks or pedants', and
if a child did not love 'an Hawke and a Dogge', this was taken as a
token of his degeneracy. To oppose these prevailing attitudes, Cleland
placed chief emphasis on the usefulness of learning in the active life. An
ignorant man could perform no public service, he was totally 'unapt for
all dignities, offices or Charges' of the commonwealth. 18 William
Martyn similarly stressed the importance of virtue, but added that it
did not suffice 'that a man be vertuously enclined'. In addition to the
embracement of virtue, 'he must likewise be furnished with learning,
and with wisedome'. The chief benefit of deep learning was said to be
found in its helping to put virtue into action. It was only when a man
was able to combine virtues with learning that he was able 'to make a
profitable dispensation and distribution of his vertues, for the good of
himselfe and of other men'. To summarize his point, Martyn an-
nounced that 'concerning the necessity of being learned, (for the better
practising of religion, and of vertuous actions) you must know, that
without learning, you shall be unprofitable to the common-weale'. A
man could achieve nothing 'excellent' without labour and pain and
'learning being so gotten doth not only make men excellent, but she is
(indeed) the excellency of man'. 219
216
Vickers 1984; cf. Skinner 1978 1, p. 107; Shapiro 1983, p . 18; McNamee 1971. Cf. Cochrane
1976, pp. 1050-2.
217
Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, p. 621, translation, p. 691.
218
Cleland, Propaideia, pp. 134-9; c^- Peacham, The compleatgentleman, pp. 18-21; A. D. B., The court
ofJames, pp. 6-7.
Martyn, Youths instructions, pp. 24, 31, in general pp. 24-33.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 171

The successful statesman's indispensable qualities and the crucial

importance of learning are central themes of Shakespeare's Coriolanus.
It was statesmen or senators who took care of the common good. As
Menenius told the citizens,

The senators of Rome are this good belly,

And you the mutinous members. For examine
Their counsels and their cares, digest things rightly
Touching the wel o'th'common, you shall find
No public benefit which you receive
But it proceeds or comes from them to you.220

Coriolanus' uncompromising disposition and therefore his tragic end

can be explained by his incompleteness as a statesman. He was a man
of valour and true honour, but he can hardly be said to have been a
consummate statesman. The virtue of courage and valour was, in fact,
his only virtue, and warfare his only sphere of action; for him, action
meant warfare. Coriolanus thus completely ignored the civic aspects of
the active life.
The predominance of courage made Coriolanus proud and
insolent, which amounted to intemperate behaviour. It was the
tribunes who most strongly accused Coriolanus of lack of temper-
ance, but even Menenius exhorted him to act 'temperately', which
advice Coriolanus of course failed to follow.221 Moreover, Corio-
lanus did not embrace justice. Although he did not act like a
cunning fox, he was nonetheless prepared to act like a lion. More
importandy, his striving for personal glory led him to the most
serious form of corruption. He put his private honour before the
common good of his country: he was about to invade Rome in
order to exact revenge on the Romans.
Eloquence was an invaluable asset for a statesman; it could turn
even a woman into a senator. When Volumnia used eloquence in
persuading Coriolanus to refrain from attacking Rome, Menenius
hailed her as a true statesman:

This Volumnia
Is worth of consuls, senators, patricians,
A city full: of tribunes such as you,
A sea and land full. You have prayed well today.222
220
Coriolanus, i.i, 146-51.
221
Ibid., in.iii, 28, 67.
222
Ibid., v.iv, 51-4.
172 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

But not only did Coriolanus fail to master the complexities of rhetoric;
for him, idle and empty rhetoric epitomized the useless civic sphere of
negotium. He pointed out that 'when blows have made me stay, I fled
from words'.
I had rather have one scratch my head i'th'sun
When the alarum were struck than idly sit
To hear my nothings monstered.223
Eloquence was simply a sign of base behaviour because it consisted in
nothing but flattery and dissimulation.
Coriolanus' most serious defect and the one on which all his other
shortcomings ultimately hinged was his utter lack of wisdom and
learning. Preferring sword to schoolmaster, he failed to embrace
learning and thereby the essential virtues of negotium. According to
Volumnia, Coriolanus' son was his 'father's son' because he 'had rather
see the swords and hear a drum / than look upon his schoolmaster'.

VI
Having devoted a considerable amount of attention to the issues of the
active life and true nobility, the writers examined in this chapter
confronted the question of how men could expect to lead the active life
and fulfil their truly noble qualities in practice. One way of answering
this question was to project the venerable image of counsellor. This idea
emerges in Bacon's writings, who even asserted that because of the
exceptionally powerful position of learned counsellors, 'the governments
of princes in minority (notwithstanding the infinite disadvantage of that
kind of state) have nevertheless excelled the government of princes of
mature age'. As we have seen, the idea of the counsellor was also
central in Barnes's Fovre bookes of offices and in the Organon reipvblicae. The
purpose of Barnes's book was, as he wrote in the opening pages, to offer
'instructions for noblemen, and sage Counsellors of any Common-
wealth'. If the king was 'absolute in his parts onely', 'the state' could not
be prosperous. This could only be achieved when 'his Senatours' were
furnished with 'dutifull diligence and proportion of vertues'. 226 The
author of Organon reipvblicae claimed that the most necessary thing for a

223
Ibid., 11.ii, 70, 73-5.
224
Ibid., i.iii, 56-7.
225
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p. 270; Essaies (1612), in Works, vi, pp. 553-6.
226
Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, pp. 24-5, sig. A3 r .
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 173

prince or a commonwealth was virtuous counsellors.227 According to

Barnaby Rich, in the time of war 'the common wealth is defended by
Souldiers' and 'in the time of peace it is preserved by Counsaylers'.
'Souldiers and Counsaylers therefore,' he concluded, 'have bin ever
thought most fitte to governe'. It was important to keep in mind, Rich
added, that 'a happy and a blessed common wealth it may bee called
that is governed by the wisedome and vertue of noble personages'. 228
Thomas Morrice expressed a similar outlook when he pointed out that
education and learning advanced 'true Nobilitie', since it enabled men
to become 'wise Councellours' of their commonwealth.
However, not all of these authors confined the sphere of negotium
exclusively to that of counselling, but some were willing to extend it to
the more general governance of the commonwealth. First, it was
pointed out that to take care of the running of the local community was
the duty of true nobility. Thomas Scott of Canterbury stressed that
only those who met these requirements should be appointed as sheriffs,
commissioners of the peace or other local governors. The same also
applied to the governors of towns. Scott's insistence that true nobility
should assume authority brought him close to the idea of an aristoc-
racy. 'It is just and profitable for the Commonwealth', he wrote, 'that
Rustiques follow the Plough, and the flockes, and heards, Mechaniques
theire Trades, and that the noble beare rule. As it was in the Roman
State, and all other flourishing Commonwealths, which noe longer
flourished then they were carefull of this rule of well ruling.
Anthony Cade drew on Cicero when he argued that 'good laws are
perished for want of good men to preserve them in life . . . So the
Roman Common wealth expired (with Tully) not for want of good
Lawes but of good men to keepe life in them.' l
In 'Of a country life' of the Horae subseduae (attributed to William
Cavendish), a true noble's local duties were listed even more meticu-
lously. First, he ought to suppress 'the disordered and unruly life of
those under his authority & command' and prevent 'all bold &
contemptuous behaviour' and 'all seedes of seditions and quarrels'.
227
[I. R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. Bi r : 'Nullus Thesaurus principi & Reip. vtilior, q u a m
Consiliarij, virtute, prudentia, fide, & fortitudine, praesantes.' The north starre, sigs. B3V, D4 V .
228
Barnaby Rich, Opinion diefied: discouering the ingins, traps, and traynes, that are set in this age, whereby to
catch opinion (London, 1613), p. 12. Cf. e.g. Stephens, Essayes and characters ironkall, and instructive,
p. 90.
Morrice, An apology, sig. B/f; cf. Martyn, Youths instruction, pp. 24-6.
230
Scott, A discourse, p. 186.
231
Anthony Cade, A sermon of the nature of conscience (London, 1621), sig. A2V, pp. 9-10, cited in
Peck 1993a, p. 171.
174 Classical humanism and republicanism 15J0—1640

Above all, he must bear in mind in his role of local governor that he
should stand above competing factions and moderate them by 'the
vertue of his authority'. Secondly, it belonged to the duty of a country
gentleman 'not only to prevent il, but to do good'. This was accom-
plished 'in the sollemne and publike meetings, for distribution of
Justice'. Conducting himself on these occasions with 'an excellent
restraint of partialitie and favour' and 'without private ends', a true
gentleman was able to enhance the good of his country and to induce
other men to imitate his example.232
As well as discussing the idea of counselling and the governance of
the local community, some of these theorists felt inclined to accept, at
least to some extent, the more genuinely republican idea that the active
life was not confined to the exclusive coterie of counsellors, but should
instead be extended to a larger body of virtuous men. According to
Cleland, learning was vital for a true noble, since it enabled him 'to sit
in a Kings Privie Councell, to have a voice in the Parliament house, to
undertake an embbasage, or to bee imployed in some other honorable
charge for the publike'.233 John Ford called him 'a publike man' who
was employed 'in affaires for his Countrey, Prince and Common-
wealth', and later, in the definition of the scope of his actions, Ford
emphasized that 'places of Authority in a Commonwealth' should be
disposed to virtuous men who could be called 'Bonus Ciuis\ or 'a good
Statist'.234 Similarly, since parliamentary participation was considered
as a service for the common good, MPs could be conceived as political
actors. 35
The essay 'Of a country life' in the Horae subseciuae asserted that
the locality was not an adequate arena of activity for the country
gentleman. A retired country life was not sufficient for a gentleman
since this made him unable to gather the experience of public life
available only in the city and at court. Although learning acquired
by extensive reading was important for a gentleman, it was not
adequate since the world, especially as it stood presently, was so
variable. Knowledge based merely on books could not, therefore,
guide a man safely through the ever-changing landscape. Practical
experience was indispensable for a gentleman in the managing of his
own affairs. But more importantly, practical experience made a
232
Anon., Horae subseciuae, pp. 141-5, see also pp. 147-8.
233
Cleland, Propaideia, pp. 135-7, 1 44~6, 51; Wright, A display ofdvty, fos. 4 r ~5 r .
234
Ford, A line of life, p p . 52-4.
233
Sacks 1992, pp. 91-3.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 175
gentleman capable of performing his duty towards the common-
wealth. It enabled him to act as a 'minister' or statesman. 236 In his
apology for schoolmasters, Morrice maintained that the acquisition
of 'vertuous Learning' made men 'worthy Governours of their
Countrey'. He summarized his whole argument by invoking the
authority of Thomas Elyot to the effect that those who were not
learned could not act as 'politique Statesmen, or wise Councellours,
or discreet Governours'.23
The idea that the vita activa should not be confined to the
exclusive group of counsellors, but must include as wide a body of
virtuous citizens as possible, was most clearly set out in Barnes's
Fovre bookes of offices and in the anonymous Organon reipvblicae. We
have already noted how Barnes maintained that 'a good Common-
wealths man' displayed his 'civile vertues' and acted as 'a noble
citizen'. The chief way in which this could materialize was when
citizens took care of the government of the community. 'Their
whole care and studie', Barnes wrote, should 'bee bent to maintaine
the reputation of that Common-wealth, where they governe under
their prince.' 238
A striking feature of the argument presented in the Organon
reipvblicae was the serious curtailment of the role of the prince. The
original edition was dedicated to James and the author paid lip
service to the king with a dedicatory remark: 'to whom this kind of
small work could rather be offered than to him who presides over the
highest government of the commonwealth'.239 Nonetheless, in the
tract the king's power or his indispensable qualities and characteristics
were hardly mentioned at all. As a result, the chief responsibility for
the maintenance of the commonwealth did not lie with the king but
on the contrary with a larger body of citizens. As we have seen, the
tract emphasized negotium and discussed the four cardinal virtues
implying that they should be possessed by the whole body of the
people. 'The Law, equitie, execution of Lawes, the dexteritie of the
Magistrates,' the author listed as the true sinews of the common-
wealth, 'are the patrimony of a Common-wealth.' 240 It is possible to
catch an echo of the republican priority of liberty. Although the laws
236
Anon., Horae subseciuae, pp. 163-71.
237
Morrice, An apology, sigs. B3 r -4 r , B?, C6 V .
238
Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p. 88, cf. pp. 28, 57.
239
Organon reipvblicae, sig. A2r: 'Cui enim potius offerentur istiusmodi opuscula, quam ei qui
Reipublicae summo gubernaculo praesidet.'
240
[I. R.], The north starre, sig. c i v .
176 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

had to restrict excessive liberty, at the same time they had to secure
'moderate liberty5 which was 'profitable for every one, and for the
Common-wealth' ,241
But the republican nature of the arguments of the Organon
reipvblicae emerged most clearly when the author discussed how to
ensure that the people could perform their public duty. He quoted
Cicero to the effect that when 'Judges and magistrates doe well and
justly execute their offices ... there it must needes be, that the same
Common wealth do florish, and flow with all good things'. In this
commonwealth the people applauded and praised 'the excellent
beautie of vertue shining in their superiours', and so attempted to
follow their example.242 To ensure that this state of affairs continued
and that magistrates executed their offices, certain strategies had to
be assumed. First, as we have already seen, promotion should be
based on virtues and personal merits. Secondly, care should be taken
that 'there be successive Magistrates'. If this was not taken seriously
and the same magistrates stayed long in power, the continuous
exercise of power would corrupt them. The calamitous results of
such practice could be seen in the Roman triumvirates. By having a
continuous succession of magistrates, it was possible to avoid the
situation where they might become 'proud with continuall govern-
ment'. The rotation of magistrates helped in preventing their own
decline, but it also ensured that the 'hope of advancement' would
'comfort' as many as possible.243
Finally, the rotation of magistrates served to promote the health of
the commonwealth by ensuring that the most virtuous members of the
commonwealth became magistrates. 'Where there bee fewe which
desire offices,' the author contended, 'there the common wealth is in
danger.' Severe competition for office, in other words, ensured that
magistrates were men of true virtue. 'Let no estate of men', he added,
'bee deprived of hope to attaine anie preheminence.' The competition
for office was itself maintained by the system where everyone had a
chance to be promoted. The underlying assumption was that a system
241
Ibid., sig. B4 r -ci v , BI V -2 V ; cf. Wright, Thefirstpart, pp. 46-50.
242
[I. R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. B2V: 'Vbi iudices & magistratus suis officijs, p r o sua imperiique
dignitate, egregie & iuste perfunguntur, earn R e m p . facile florere, omnibusque bonis affluere
necesse est; populo applaudente & collaudante excellentem virtutis pulchritudinem, in
superioribus.' The north starre, sig. c i v .
243
p . R . ] , Organon reipvblicae, sig. A4V; The north starre, sig. B3 r . Contrast this with Charles Gibbon's
definition of equality - 'one to Rule and the rest to obey is the onely square of equalitie', The
order qfeqvalitie, p. 5.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 177

of magistracy based on meritocracy would provoke contest amongst

men, so much so that everyone pursued virtue and the whole
commonwealth would in effect benefit from this competition by having
the most virtuous magistrates. 'By rewards & honors,' the author
remarked, 'excellent wittes are stirred up with a more earnest vehe-
mency of minde, to the study of vertue.' 244
In Ben Jonson's Catiline the republican answer to corruption was
developed in some detail. In Act 1 the chorus lamented the corruption
of the commonwealth but in Act 11 it explained the way in which this
decay could be reformed. The good of the commonwealth hinged on
the election of new consuls. Those who had voice in the election should
make a free and worthy choice,
Excluding such as would invade
The commonwealth.

They should pay attention to the candidates' 'faith' and 'conscience'

rather than to their 'face' and 'fame'. Good consuls had all the central
virtues - wisdom, fortitude and justice - and they counted 'life, state,
glory, all they gain' as 'the republic's, not their own'. They simply
imitated the great heroes of the republic - Brutus, Decii, Scipios - and
they proved to be 'truly magistrates' and 'make happy states'. 245

VII
So far in this chapter we have examined two closely related, central
concepts of humanist political thought - the active life and true nobility
- and how they could be promoted and how jeopardized. Although
English writers of the early seventeenth century mainly drew - the
common classical sources apart — on the northern humanist tradition as
well as on its forerunner, the Italian literature of advice-books for
princes, the contrasting tradition of republican humanism also had a
discernible impact at the time. This is clear enough from the occasional
exertions of this literature in discussions of the active life and true
244
[I. R . ] } Organon reipvblicae, sig. C4V: 'Vbi pauci candidati, status in periculo.' 'Nulli hominum
ordini, praecludatur, ad quamcunq; dignitatem . . . spes.' 'Praemijs & titulis, splendida
ingenia, ad virtutis studium, accriori animi impetu, concitantur.' The north starre, sig. Ei r . T h e
same idea was endorsed e.g. by Nixon, The dignitw of man, p p . 81-3; Wright, Thefirstpart, p p .
61-3; Hitchcock, A sanctuary for honest men, p. 16; Crosse, Vertves common-wealth, sig i4 v ; Joseph
Wybarne, The new age of old names, p p . 55-6; and most strongly by Anon., Horae subseciuae, p p .
11-30: ' T o desire precedence above others in respect of ones service, or merit is a good
emulation', p . 26.
245
Catiline, 11.371-406.
178 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

nobility. But the continuing impact of 'civic' humanism is most obvious

in the treatment and endorsement of the mixed constitution.
There is a surprising degree of unanimity amongst scholars that the
idea of the mixed constitution exercised no influence in English
political discourse of the early seventeenth century.246 Nevertheless, I
find it difficult to concur with this. There is of course little doubt that
the classical theory of the mixed constitution never assumed a central,
let alone a dominant, place in the political vocabulary of Jacobean
Englishmen. But neither was it completely lost on them. The moral
and educational treatises we have been studying in this chapter had
little to say about the machinery of government; they did not, in other
words, discuss how the government of their commonwealth should be
organized. This is not to say, however, that the Jacobeans failed to
draw on the literature of classical republicanism in so far as govern-
ment organization was concerned.
The issues of the mixed constitution surfaced, to begin with, in a
number of translations. In 1607, m e lb9& translation of Laurentius
Grimalius Goslicius' De Optimo senatore was reprinted with a new title of
A common-wealth of good covnsaile: or, policies chiefs counseller. In 1615, E d w a r d
Grimeston rendered into English Pierre d'Avity's The estates, empires, &
principallities of the world, where it was claimed not merely that in
England 'all absolute power consists in the Parliament', but also that
the government of Venice exceeded every other form of government.
Venice had long enjoyed 'a golden age, living in tranquilitie and peace,
and encreasing dayly in prosperitie and wealth'. Although this pro-
ceeded 'chiefely from the will of God', d'Avity found it impossible to
deny that it also grew cby a well ordered government instituted by wise
men'. The chief benefit of the Venetian government was that it was
neither 'a government of many, nor of few' nor even a 'government of
one alone: but it is composed of all the three kindes of governments,
out of which they have made one that is perfect'.247 The whole success
story of Venice was told by Thomas de Fougasses in his The generall
historie of the magnificent state of Venice translated into English in 1612. 248

246
Weston i960; Hinton i960; d'Avack 1975; Eccleshall 1978, p p . 120-1; Weston and Greenberg
1981, p p . 8—34; Pocock 1975b, p . 355; Sommerville 1986, p p . 57-8; Mendle 1973, p . 222;
Mendle 1985, pp. 3, i n ; Nippel 1980, p p . 218—37; Collinson 1990, p . 23; Smith 1973. But see
recently W . Klein 1987.
247
Pierre d'Avity, The estates, empires, & prinapallities of the world, translated by Edward Grimeston
(London, 1615), pp. 10—11, 526-7, see also pp. 529—30. Cf. W. Klein 1987, p . 214.
Thomas de Fougasses, The generall historie of the magnificent state of Venice, translated by W. Shute
(London, 1612), sig. A3 r .
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 179

Three years later an anonymous treatise entitled A description of the united

Prouinces described the Netherlands as a country of freedom and liberty
and as a country where the prince was elected and where 'the other
Rulers and States that were chosen out of the Nobilitie and Commons,
had as much power or superintendance over the King, as the King had
over them'. 2
The cement of the English monarchical system did not inhibit a
number of Englishmen from perceiving the advantages of a republican
mixed government or even detecting its traces in their own common-
wealth. Thomas Smith's famous description of the mixed constitution
was reprinted three times during James's reign. Francis Bacon had
written in 1589 that a republic may be better policy than a monarchy.
In 1608 he reminded himself of the 'Bookes in commendac[ion] of
Mon[narchy] mix[ed] or Aristoc[racy] and told the king a few years
later that 'the senate of Venice' was 'the wisest state of Europe'. 251
Bacon asserted that a prince became a tyrant when he took 'all into his
own hands' and did not care 'for the consent of his nobles and senate
[ordinum et senatus]\ but administered 'the government by his own
arbitrary and absolute authority'. 252 In the Advancement of learning he
wrote that 'it was ever holden that honours in free monarchies and
commonwealths had a sweetness more than in tyrannies'. 253 He
scarcely used the term 'free monarchies' in the same sense as James I.
For Bacon, a free monarchy was something akin to a republic.
Similarly, Walter Ralegh argued in The historie of the world that
whereas kings were 'unwilling to pay great thankes', 'free Estates' were
'bountifull in giving thankes', 254 but in his tract on war he set greatest
store by the nobility in the political life of a community. He pointed
out that many 'learned writers abroad have declared' that 'the
commonwealth was best governed' in England. Although Henry III
had 'yielded to the growing greatness and privileges of the commons'
in order 'to lessen the power of the nobility', Ralegh completely agreed
with those 'politicians' who affirmed that 'nobility preserves liberty
249
Anon., A description of the prosperitie, strength, and wise government of the united Prouinces of the
Netherlands (London, 1615), sig. A3 r ~4 r ; cf. sig. B2 r , where the government of the Netherlands
was described as 'a Democraticke gouernment'.
250
For Smith's importance, see W . Klein 1987, pp. 214-15.
251
Bacon, 'Commentarius solutus' 28 July 1608, in Letters, iv, p. 73; Bacon to J a m e s I, 31 August
1617, in Letters, vi, p . 246.
252
Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, pp. 630-1, translation p p . 702-3.
253
Works, in, p. 316. See also, Greville, A dedication, in The prose works, p. 14; but cf. Treatise of
monarchy, stanza 594, in Remains, p. 184.
254
The historie of the world, v.vi.ii, p. 717.
180 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

longer than the commons'. In so far as longevity was concerned,

'Solon's popular state came far short of Lycurgus's by mixed govern-
ment; for the popular state of Athens soon fell, whilst the royal mixed
government of Sparta stood a mighty time.' Because of the prominent
place of the nobility both 'Sparta and Venice enjoyed their freedom
longer than Rome'. 55 Joseph Wybarne argued that since 'the Nobility
is interessed in the Commonwealth', it was not possible 'that any State,
eyther auncient or moderne, can be preferred to it for politicke and
discreete Governement'.
When Barnabe Barnes came to discuss forms of government, he
began by declaring that 'according to the generall opinion of all good
writers, there are sixe formes of policie'. Proceeding to the first one -
monarchy - Barnes cited Bodin to demonstrate that kings were above
the law by virtue of their law-making power. 257 He then briefly
introduced all six forms of government and stated that monarchy was
by far the best of them. Having established this, however, Barnes
quickly moved to treat the constitutional development of ancient
Rome. When the kings had been expelled from Rome, the common-
wealth had been 'by the Senate managed a long time'. After the
aristocratic phase the Roman people had retained 'a Democraticall
state', which was tempered 'with the moderation and authorities royall,
and with the Patricians, as appeared in the Consulate estate, and in the
Senators'. 'So that', Barnes asserted, 'out of the Soveraigne rule of a
kingdome, being revived in the Consuls; out of the government
Aristocraticall, represented by the Senators; and out of the Democ-
racie, manifested in the Plebeian Tribunes, a firme and absolute
Commonwealth was fashioned.' Without using the term 'mixed',
Barnes claimed that Rome had acquired its most stable and durable
form of government when it was organized as a mixture of all three
pure forms. To explain what he had in mind, Barnes pointed out that
the 'most perfect and excellent' monarchies in his own time consisted
of these three elements. They were 'established by the Senate or
Counsell of most prudent persons, advanced for their true nobilitie to
that place with a kind of consent and approbation of the commons'. 258
255
Walter Ralegh, 'A discourse of the original and fundamental cause of natural, arbitrary,
necessary, and unnatural war' (1614-16), in Works, VIII, pp. 295-6.
256
Wybarne, The new age of old names, pp. 78-9.
257
Barnes, Fovre boohs of offices, p . 63.
258
Ibid.,, pp. 63—5. Cf. Fulke Greville, Treatise of monarchy, stanzas 304-6, in Remains, p . i n ,
where republican Rome is presented in similar terms, in striking contrast with Greville's later
discussion of the same theme.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 181
Later in the third book of his treatise, Barnes discarded the
Bodinian concept of the king's law-making authority. Enquiring into
the nature of laws, he remarked on their constant change and
argued that this only happened in parliament. 'When the billes of
those houses [of parliament]', Barnes explained, 'are once exhibited,
past, and inacted, they cannot be repealed without another Parlia-
ment, by generall consent of the Prince and of all persons.' He
further named 'our Parliamentall lawes' 'the Civill law' partly
because they respected 'this Realme and Commonwealth generally',
but mainly by virtue of the method of making them. 'For as these
our Statute Lawes of England', Barnes wrote, 'are only made &
established by the popular consent and unanimitie; whereupon they
take title of commonwealthes Laws.' This way of making laws by
popular consent was not the distinctive mark of the English
commonwealth alone, but was characteristic of 'all free Cities'.
According to Barnes, 'the civill Laws of all free Cities' were 'devised
and established for the generall behoofe of those particular States,
by consent of all the free Citizens, and thereupon called civill
Lawes'. Ancient Athens furnished Barnes's instance: 'such were the
lawes of Solon and Draco, unto which the people of Athens (that
had during the Greeke monarchic been a free State, and royall
Commonwealth) were subjected in particular.' 259
A Scot, Robert Pont, enquired into the nature of the different
forms of governments at the beginning of his dialogue on the Anglo-
Scottish union. The dialogue was opened by Irenaeus summarizing
the topic of their former discussions. He pointed out how Polyhistor,
another interlocutor, had 'breifly described what Aristotle setteth
downe at large, and shewed that of the three formes of government,
monarchicall, aristocraticall, and democraticall, the cheif and princi-
palT was 'princely power'. But Polyhistor had also argued that
monarchy ought to be joined with aristocracy so that 'of this twofold
kinde a sweet and pleasant harmony of governing might be com-
posed'. This conclusion had been confirmed by 'Aristotle and Plato'
who both 'commend this mixt kinde of rule, and by good proofes
shew it to excell all other'. Nevertheless, Polyhistor's final point was
that the mixture of monarchy and aristocracy was the form of
259
Barnes, Fovre boohs of offices, pp. 134, 129—30; cf. also p . 73 where England and Venice are
described as 'free Cities'. Gf. R[obert] J[ohnson], The new life of Virginea: declaring the former
svccesse and present estate of that plantation being the second part ofNoua Britannia (London, 1612), sig.
182 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

government prevalent in both England and Scotland. 'You', Irenaeus

argued, 'did farther prase even for this amongst other the Britons'
commonwealth (I meant that of Great Britaine), and proved it to
take place with the very first entrance of those nationes that peopled
the country, and to be confirmed by the lawes, English and Scottish.'
The foundation of the English as well as the Scottish commonwealth
was such that 'one kinge by the counsell of his nobility ruled all'. If
this balance between the monarchy and the aristocracy was not
maintained, it either grew into tyranny or into 'timocraty'. The first
case occurred when the prince was not 'guided by the holesome and
sage advice of his counsellors'.260
William Stoughton defended his argument against prelacy by
identifying the commons with the democratic element and the Lords
with the aristocratic element of the mixed government. Rather than
being a pure monarchy, the English 'people ever since the time they
first began to be a people, have had their witts long exercised, with
the sence and feeling, of the reasons & principles, aswell of
Democracie, as also of Aristocracie'. The way of making laws in
parliament was 'a mere Democraticall consultation' while 'the
reasons, and principles of Aristocracie' were 'alreadie in the minds of
the Peres, the Nobles, the Judges, and other great men of the
Realme'. 261
In 1621, William Loe, a former chaplain of James, presented an
essentially similar account of the English form of government. 'The
inferiour Courts', Loe insisted, 'are erected for the good of the
subject in smaller causes, and the Parliament in supreame causes is
conveened, wherein the King himselfe (albeit he hath royall assent
in all) yet by Law, Reason, and Religion, he is legally limited and
concluded.' This was one of the excellences of the English system,
for 'no wicked Nimrod can offend by strong hunting, no cursed
machevillian, by damnable Statizing, nor any griping Zacheus by
260
Robert Pont, ' O f the union of Britayne', in The Jacobean union: six tracts 0/1604, ed. Bruce R.
Galloway and Brian P. Levack (Edinburgh: Scottish History Society, 1985), pp. 1-3.
261
[William Stoughton], An assertion for true and Christian church-policie (n.p., 1604), pp. 352, 361-4.
Cf. Judson 1949, p p . 331—2; Mendle 1985, p p . 98-102. Mendle's discussion is somewhat
misleading at this point. First, he repeats the common claim that there was a n absence of the
mixed government in the early seventeenth century, yet he states that 'Stoughton developed
quite the fullest and most penetrating version of the mixed constitution that had yet appeared
in England.' Secondly, he explains the alleged disappearance of the mixed constitution
during the period by claiming that the king associated it with the presbyterian cause against
bishops; yet he has to confess that Stoughton's book, which was indeed directed against
bishops, did not meet official displeasure (p. 102).
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 183
forged cavillations'. Loe first reminded his readers of the fact that
'wee live in a Common-wealth under a Monarchy which is the
most absolute forme of governement'. But he immediately pro-
ceeded to describe the English parliament as a mixture of the three
different forms of government. 'And seeing in the high Court of
the State,' he wrote, 'which wee call a PARLIAMENT, which consists
of a three-fold State, and all of God, the King as the Monarchy,
the Upper-house the Aristocracy, and the Lower-house as the
Democracy, which nathlesse hath freedome and libertie, both of
suffrage, voice, and vote.' 262 Englishmen were obviously capable of
conceptualizing the government of their commonwealth not merely
as a Fortescuan regimen politicum et regale but also as a classical mixed
government.
Although the author of the Organon reipvblicae indicated a complacent
view of the powers of virtues in the promotion of the common good, he
was clearly aware that this ideal state of affairs could hardly be carried
out without certain institutional factors. A commonwealth, the author
believed, was utterly destroyed if it was not maintained by 'Religion
and pollitique Lawes'. He did not elaborate on the former, but paid
attention to the 'pollitique Lawes'. 263 Of greatest importance was to
frame the laws relating to the constitution and form of government.
The author conventionally listed the three good and the three bad
forms, pointing out that monarchy is the form which 'is with us at this
time'. He also presented instances of each of the six forms from Roman
history. Monarchy was represented by the first kings while Tarquinius
Superbus, Sulla and Caesar stood for tyrants. The rule of consuls
formed his example of aristocracy, and the triumvirates of Caesar,
Crassus and Pompey as well as Octavian, Antonius and Lepidius
furnished instances of oligarchy. Roman democracy consisted of 'the
pollicy of the civill Magistrate: who expelled the Decemviri', whereas
'the authority of the raging and most audacious Commons, who, when
Antonius was mooved and provoked with anger, most wickedly and
villanously murdered Cicero, and many states of Rome', stood for
anarchy. It is noteworthy that whereas the author's positive examples
came from early Roman history, Caesar's authority was classified as
tyranny.
The author refrained from drawing any clear-cut preference
262
William Loe, Vox clamantis: Mark 1.3: a stil voice, to the three thrice-honourable estates of parliament
(n.p, 1621), pp. 28-3, 41.
[1. R.], Organon reipvblicae, sig. BI V -2 V ; The north starre, sigs. B4 r -ci v .
184 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

between either the three good or the three bad forms of government.
This is not to say, however, that he failed to reveal his own ideal
form of government. He did not specify his preferences from the
pure forms mainly because he held that none of them was sufficient
in itself. 'It is to be noted,' the author pointed out, 'that a Common-
wealth and the most perfect kindes of governments, are very seldome
found absolutely simple, but fitly composed amongst themselves.' He
expressed, in short, serious doubts that there could exist a pure
monarchy, aristocracy or democracy. But he also believed that the
best and most durable form of government was a mixed one. It is
often seen, he wrote, that 'a certaine mixture is voluntarily admitted
amongst them'. They were 'so mixt and tempred, that in a triple
forme (as in a mervailous and sweet harmonie) one counsell signifieth
as it were one minde'. Finally, the author stated that a common-
wealth retained the name of the dominant part.
If Anthony Nixon's discussion of the four cardinal virtues and
their political character was derived almost word for word from the
Organon reipvblicae, this was equally true of his scrutiny of the
different forms of government. Nixon opened his chapter 'Of
Policie' by defining what he meant by the term. 'It is', he argued,
'the regiment of a Citty or Commonwealth: the bond of all
society.' The proper end of government was 'publique benefit'.
When he explained the good and bad forms of government, he
quoted almost verbatim the definitions put forward in the Organon
reipvblicae. Having laid down the tripartite divisions of government
he posed the question: 'How are these kindes of governments
disposed?' Citing the Organon reipvblicae in response, Nixon wrote: 'It
is to be noted that a common-wealth, and the good, and most
perfect kindes of government, are very seldome found absolutely
simple, but fitly composed amongst themselves: For a certaine
mixture is voluntarily admitted amongst them, yet so mixt and
tempered, that in a triple forme (as in sweet harmonie) one counsell
signifieth as it were one minde.' 2 5

264
p. R.], Organon reipvblicae, sigs. A4r-Bir: 'Notandum est, quod perraro Resp. & perfectissimua
gubernandi genera absolute simplicia, sed concinne inter se composita inveniuntur. Mistura
enim quaedam inter se voluntarie admittitur; adeo tamen mixta & temperata, vt in triplici
forma (veluti Harmonia mira & iucunda) vnum consilium, vnam quasi mentem significet et:
Nomen tamen Resp. retinet, a parte digniore, caeteris imperante.' The north starre, sig. B2V~3V.
The discussion bears a close resemblance to that of Thomas Smith, De republica Anglorum,
PP- 49-52-
Nixon, TTiedignitieqfman, pp. 115-18.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 185

Perhaps the most unequivocal and sophisticated exposition of the

mixed constitution was put forward by Henry Wright in The first part
of the disquisition of troth concerning political affaires. In the second chapter,
entitled 'Of the best forme of a common-wealth', Wright first
introduced arguments for every particular pure form of government.
'According to many mens opinions', he introduced rule by one, 'the
Monarchy ... ought to be preferred.' Relying mainly on the authority
of Cicero, Sallust, Tacitus and Iivy, Wright presented a cluster of
traditional arguments favouring rule by one man. Monarchy was the
oldest form of government; it was the one which 'best agreeth to
nature' as well as 'to reason'; it resembled 'the divine Regencie'. It
had also been contended that without the authority of one it was
quite impossible to retain 'long concord and agreement' in a
commonwealth. The superiority of kingship had also been attested by
the observation that in times of difficulties democracies and aristoc-
racies 'were glad to abandon the former kinde of government' and
instead rely on a kind of monarchy by conferring 'the absolute
power, strength and authoritie upon one onely'. Finally, it was
possible to justify monarchy by pointing out that the tyranny of one
was less unbearable than the tyranny of many. It was easier to
persuade one tyrant to respect the common good than 'for many to
bee disposed to goodnesse'.
Those who favoured democracy did so because they believed
that it maintained equality. Then 'all are subject to the lawes alike',
and magistrates are 'placed by common suffrage, who judge
according to the lawes' and then all 'counsels and consultations' are
referred 'to the good of the Common-wealth'. Moreover, George
Buchanan had advocated democracy by contending that if many
were 'joyned together', they 'can better judge of all matters then
one alone'. The underlying reasoning was that 'it may very well
bee thought, that in every one of those many, there are certaine
sparkes of Vertue, and excellencies of gifts, which concurring and
put all together, must needs make an absolute judgment'.267
Aristocracy had been preferred, according to Wright, by 'those
taken to have beene of the wisest'. They claimed that in an
aristocracy 'the counsels and consultations of the best men, excelling
others in vertue and wisdome' guaranteed the maintenance of the
public good. The success of Sparta and Venice had often been
266
Wright, Thefirstpart, pp. 7-8.
267
I b i d , pp. 8^9.
186 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

invoked to suggest that 'the Aristocraticall state was more durable

then any other forme of government'. The rule of the most virtuous
enabled a commonwealth to accommodate itself 'to all times and
occasions'.
Having explicated the arguments put forward in defence of every
particular form of government, Wright did not decide the case for any
of these but provocatively claimed that these arguments were neither
good nor convincing. It was a relatively simple task to show the
weaknesses of these arguments and thereby to substantiate the further
claim that none of these three forms of government was sufficient in
itself. It is important to bear in mind that in presenting the various
arguments for the different forms of government Wright was simply
explaining what sort of arguments were usually put forward in
upholding them. But when he proceeded to advance the weaknesses of
these arguments and the deficiencies of the pure forms, Wright was
making claims of his own.
The major weakness of democracy was that since counsels and
decrees came from the people, they were governed rather cby meere
chance' than by grave wisdom based on experience and learning.
'This forme of government', Wright judged, 'is worst of all.' Although
the longevity of aristocracy could be adduced from the instances of
Sparta and Venice, Wright declared that 'experience hath made it
manifest to the world' that as a matter of fact this was not the case.
Those who 'for a while have justly and uprightly governed the
Common-wealth, not long after have abused their power and
authority to the gathering of riches'. Power had the tendency to
corrupt its possessors which was a particularly serious problem in
aristocracies, as was easily discernible in the instance of 'the Decemvi-
rate'. A scarcely less serious problem of aristocracy was constituted by
the issue of succession. Because aristocracies were normally derived
from nobility native rather than nobility dative many a time it
happened that the successors of virtuous governors turned out to be
utterly corrupt. Underlying Wright's analysis at this point was the
humanist idea of true nobility. It was often the case that 'the sonnes
of vertuous parents ... became extreame insolent'. So, true nobles
were not those who could claim a long and fine line of ancestors, but
those who proved to be virtuous in their own life. Since these two
qualities, a long line of ancestry and a virtuous mind, rarely

268
Ibid, pp. 9-10.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 187
concurred, it followed that aristocracies which were based rather on
blood than on virtues quickly degenerated. 'I conclude', Wright held
firmly, 'That the Aristocraticall government cannot stand long firme,
and stable, much lesse to bee permanent and durable.' 269
The problems of a pure monarchy were similar to those of an
aristocracy. Wright began his analysis with a dichotomy that every
'Monarch is either tied to rule, according to the lawes of the
kingdome hee possesseth, or he is not'. In the latter case, when the
prince is not bound by the laws, 'all men will confesse with me,
that Monarchy may easily degenerate, and grow into tyranny'. If
the laws, in other words, did not check the king, he would become
a tyrant. But even if the king was bound by the laws of his
kingdom, 'that forme of Commonwealth may not bee durable'; it
was ultimately impossible to evade the ensuing corruption.
Although the laws could check a ruler as long as he reigned, they
were not able to make his heir virtuous. 'For very seldome',
Wright announced, 'falleth it out, that to a wise and godly Father,
a Sonne of that stampe, and endowed with like vertues, should
succeed.' The confrontation of a corrupt king and good laws
always ended up with the subjection of the laws. The reason was
not far to seek. A degenerate prince would also corrupt his subjects
and the authority of the law would ultimately become subdued.
'Now, whenas by the perverse, carelesse, or bad carriage of the
Monarch toward his people, the manners of his subjects are once
corrupted, it must of necessitie follow, that either the lawes are of
small force, or none at all.' All these arguments enabled Wright
boldly to conclude his discussion: 'And so farewell to that forme of
governement. ' 27 °
If democracy was bad in itself and if it was not possible to check the
growth of corruption either in an aristocracy or in a monarchy simply
by establishing laws which would in principle coerce the ruler(s) to
behave virtuously, the question emerged as to how the government of a
commonwealth should then be organized. How was a commonwealth
to be rendered durable? At the beginning of his answer Wright
emphasized that one should conform with tradition. In general, the
best form of government in a commonwealth was that which was
'already established'. The underlying assumption was that people were
so used to the form of government which had been established in their
269
Ibid., pp. 11-12.
270
Ibid., pp. IO-II.
188 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

community that 'it would be a very hard matter' to accustom those

who were used to living under a monarch to ca free forme of
government5 and, contrariwise, it would be almost an impossibility to
reduce a free people 'to live under the obedience and command of one
absolute Ruler'. The moral of Wright's reasoning could be seen not
only in 'the Easterne Countries' which 'were ever devoted to live under
one sole Monarth', but also in the fact that 'no forme of government
would please the Athenians and Helvetians ... but a Democracy: None
the Lacedaemonians but an Aristocracy'.
Wright did not explicitly relate his discussion to the circumstances
of his own country, but he was careful to point out that to change
the established form of government in a community was not
recommended. Nevertheless, he was fully convinced that none of the
pure forms were good in themselves. 'I utterly', he declared, 'deny
all right formes of Common-wealthes, as the Monarchy, Aristocracy,
and Democracy, to bee absolute and perfect.' Although 'in them-
selves they are good ... yet accidentally, they many times become
evill, as well for that they last not long, as that they so easily
degenerate'. The argument Wright had been developing seemed,
therefore, to lead to the inescapable conclusion that the mixed
constitution was the best and most durable. 'To conclude therefore',
he argued, 'I hold that forme of Common-wealth to bee best, which
is compounded of the temper of all these, or at leastwise is so mixed
of a Monarchy and Aristocracy, that one (indeed) for the Majesty of
the State should bee the chiefe Commander, but his power should
be governed and his Counsels ordered by the decrees and wisedome
of the Senate.' This mixed form of government could resist the
corruption inherent in the pure forms and every form contributed its
characteristic virtues to the whole. The mixed state enabled, in
Wright's view, the prince to retain 'his splendor and dignity, the
Senate their power and authority, and the people their lawfull
liberty'. He did not specify the particular nature of the mixture, but
it seemed to be leaning towards aristocracy.271
Wright was thus engaged in an attempt to render the commonwealth
stable and durable. With a view to doing this it was, he argued, of
utmost importance to organize the government in a way which secured
this aim. Yet since every pure form of government was inherently
prone to corruption, the only way to acquire durability was to mix the
271
Ibid., pp. 13-15.
 Civic life and the mixed constitution 189
three pure forms. In arguing this, Wright embraced the classical belief
that the intrinsic and unavoidable decay of political authority could
only be stopped by organizing the government as a mixture of the
three elements - the one, the few and the many.
 CHAPTER 4

Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the

true greatness of Britain

One of the most important political issues of the early years of

James Fs reign was the union of England and Scotland. Although
James advanced his schemes for union cautiously and desired to
use the parliaments of both kingdoms as much as possible, it was
primarily the English House of Commons which would be
blamed for its failure.1 But, whatever the ultimate result of the
project, it aroused heated discussions not only on the floor of the
House of Commons, but also in writings available outside its
walls. The practical issues of the union and its theoretical under-
pinnings apart, one of the emerging themes was that of civic
greatness.
The king himself linked the union with the idea of civic great-
ness. Speaking at the opening of his first English parliament, 19
March 1604, James posed a rhetorical question, 'hath not the union
of Wales to England added a greater strength thereto?' Wales was
'a great principality', but it 'was nothing comparable in greatness
and power to the ancient and famous kingdom of Scotland'. The
logical conclusion was that the union of England and Scotland
would create a truly great monarchy.2 Many of the treatises of
union written in the course of 1604 followed suit, pointing out that
civic greatness would be a chief benefit of the union. Political
changes, it was argued, were always difficult and dangerous, but
the intrinsic value of the union far outweighed any danger: in this
case 'the increase of Empire' occurred by peaceful methods rather
than by wars or conquest. The nature of the union consisted,
William Cornwallis wrote in March 1604, of 'the greatnesse, that
from a weakned & almost breathlesse state, is come to be the most
1
Galloway 1986; Levack 1987.
J. R. Tanner, Constitutional documents of the reign of James I AD 1603-1625 (Cambridge University
Press, 1930), p. 26.

190
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 191

opulent, strong and entire Empire of the world'. 'Our encreased

dominions', he proclaimed, c ... have made us terrible to the world
without any terror to ourselves.'
According to the Scot, Robert Pont, 'the first fruit springing out
of this roote [of the union] ... is the enlarging of the empire',4
whilst another Scot, John Russell, argued that the union would lead
to 'the bettir knitting, enlarging and preserving thairof in ane heich
and soverane monarchic'. John Hayward employed a similar
vocabulary. 'All true testimonies', he wrote, 'doe agree, that the
greatest perfection of glory, beautie, stabilitie or strength, is either
occasioned by union, or therein found.' If the main domestic
consequence of the union was peace, the chief foreign benefit
resulting from it was 'the enlargement both of dominion and
power'. The theme of civic greatness did not fall into oblivion with
the encomia of the new king's inaugural year. It remained a staple
topic in the treatises dealing with the furtherance of the union, as
exemplified by Thomas Craig, David Hume and John Thornbor-
ough. In 1610 Thomas Gainsford rhymed:8

So now the English haue a new increase

Of Northern friends, in vallour like the rest,
3
[William Gornwallis], The miracvlovs and happie union of England and Scotland (London, 1604), sig.
Bir~v, B4r~v. In the datings of the tracts I rely on Galloway 1986, pp. 56-7.
4
Robert Pont, 'Of the union of Britayne', in The Jacobean union: six tracts 0/1604, ed. Bruce R.
Galloway and Brian P. Levack (Edinburgh: Scottish History Society, 1985), pp. 17, 20.
5
John Russell, 'A treatise of the happie and blissed union', in The Jacobean union, p. 136, also p.
116. See also Anon., ['A treatise about the union of England and Scotland'], in The Jacobean
union, pp. 42—3.
6
John Hayward, A treatise of union of the two realmes ofEngland and Scotland (London, 1604), pp. 2, 3,
4-5, 6. See also e.g. Henry Spelman, 'Of the union', in The Jacobean union, p. 163.
7
Thomas Craig, De unione Britanniae tractatus, ed. G. Sanford Terry (Edinburgh: T. & A.
Constable, 1909), pp. 241, the original 25, see also e.g. p. 357. David Hume, De mime insulae
Britannicae tractatus (London, 1605), pp. 5-6; John Thornborough, The ioiefbll and blessed reuniting
the two mighty & famous /ringdomes, England & Scotland into their ancient name of great Brittaine
(Oxford, n.d. [1605]), p . 23, see also p . 22; cf. idem, A discourse plainely proving the euident vtilitie
and urgent necessitie of the desired happie union of the two famous kingdomes of England and Scotland
(London, 1604). The theme of civic greatness did not appear in John Gordon, The union of
Great Britain (London, 1604), idem, Enotikon: or a sermon of the union of Great Britannie, in antiqmtu of
language, name, religion, and Jdngdome (London, 1604).
8
T[homas] G[ainsford], The vision and discourse of Henry the seuenth: concerning the unitie of Great
Brittaine (London, 1610), p. 7. Incidentally, it can be noted that in the early 1620s an author
argued that the Anglo-Scottish union could not be strengthened but by 'armes in some
fortunate warre, wher honour and danger may be equally devided, and no jealousie or
contention rise, but of well doing, one victory obtayned by the joint valour of English and
Scots'. This 'will more indelibly Christen your Majesties Empire greate Brittaine, then any
acte of Parliament or artifice of State'. Anon., Tom tell troath: or afree discourse touching the manners
of the tyme (n.p., n.d. [1622?]), p . 28.
192 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

So that all broyles of bordering warres must cease,

And now this lie may more advance her crest:
What power soever dares her lions wake,
Tis in their power a due revenge to take.

Even more conspicuously, the issue of the greatness of states surfaced

when James visited Oxford in August 1605. The university organized
academic disputations in different fields of learning to honour the
learned king. The last disputation was on moral philosophy, and one of
the two topics was 'whether it be more to defend, or enlarge the
boundes of an Empire or Kingdome?' James was highly interested in
the disputation - especially in the question of civic greatness - and
spoke 'with such learning, as Apollo, if his Tripos were up againe' and
'many times urged contrarieties to finde out the certaintie, indeav-
ouring in knowledge to winne a full and compleate perfection'. Being
the last disputation of the day, however, there was a shortage of time,
and the arguments were 'verie compendious and briefe'. Afraid that
'his Majestie should bee wearied with tediousnesse or proxilities, the
Proctors did cut off the Opponents verye suddainelye' and before 'all
the Opponents had disputed, they spoke to the Moderator that he
should conclude'. The king, however, intervened, having noticed that
'there was one left out, which had not disputed, [and] his Majestie gave
commaundement that hee should dispute also, so desirous hee was of
hearing'.9
Although contextually linked with the union, the issue of civic
greatness also emerged in other areas of political debate in the early
years of James's reign. In 1606 an English translation of Rene de
Lucinge's The beginning, contrivance, and decay of estates (originally published
in 1588) appeared on the stalls of London booksellers. The tract had
been prompted by 'the fortune of the Ottomans, and the increase of
their greatnesse'. Although the writer enquired into the ways in which
the Ottoman empire could be destroyed, he also took pains to discuss
in detail the ways in which civic greatness could be attained and
preserved.10 A similar range of questions was discussed in Giovanni
9
[Anthony Nixon], In the rqyall entertainment of his moste excellent maiestie, the queene, and the prince: the
27. of August last; 1605 (London, 1605), sigs. C4v-D2r. Isaac Wake, Rex Platonicus: sive de potentissind
principis Iacobi Britanniarvm regis, ad illustrissimam Academiam Oxoniensem, adventu, Aug. 27. anno 1605
(Oxford, 1607), PP- IO3> io8ff. See also Thomas Bodley's description in Trevor-Roper 1945.
10
Rene de Lucinge, The beginning, continuance, and decay of estates: wherein are handled many notable
questions concerning the establishment of empires and monarchies, translated by John Finet (London,
1606), sig. bi r , b2 r . Gf. Brathwait, The schollers medley: or an intermixt discourse upon historicall and
poeticall relations (London, 1614), p. 77.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 193

Botero's treatises, which were translated into English around this time.
It first emerged in 1601, in the second English edition of Botero's Delle
relationi universali (originally published in 1591-2).11 In 1606 Botero's
Delle cause della grandezza delle citta (originally published in 1586) was
rendered into English.12
But the idea of civic greatness had a scarcely less conspicuous place
in Barnabe Barnes's Fovre bookes of offices. In the fourth book, devoted to
the cardinal virtue of courage, Barnes referred to the rules offered 'by
the politicke Florentine Secretarie to Petro de Medici' giving advice on
how 'to conserve and augment, th'empire' and pointed out that 'the
amplification of Empire' was 'most noble and loveable'. 13 As late as
1616 we find Henry Wright asking the ways in which a kingdom might
be got and kept as well as 'how a new-got Kingdome may be
enlarged'.14
The greatness of states was discussed during the first years ofJames's
reign to such an extent that it raised objections. In Aristotelian fashion
Edward Forset asserted that the main end of a government was 'to
make the state happie', which he carefully distinguished from 'the
largenesse, the power, or the well shewing composure' of the same.
Studying the differences between 'religion' and 'policy' in 1608,
Christoper Lever came to realize that they differed radically in so far as
their rules and ends were concerned. Although a commonwealth
relying on 'the judgement of sense and politique advice onely' pursued
'greatnes' as its chief end, it ought to 'square out her forme of
government by religious rules', and aim at 'goodnes'. 15
One of the first writers, and certainly the most important, to devote
11
Giovanni Botero, Delle relationi vnwersali: parte seconda (Rome, 1592), pp. 1-11. The earliest
translation, The travellers breviat: or an historical! description of the most famous Jdngdomes in the world,
translated by R[obert] Jjohnson] (London, 1601) did not contain this discussion, but it
appeared in The worlde, or an historicall description of the most famous Idngdomes and common-weales
therein, translated by R[obert] J[ohnson] (London, 1601), pp. 1-10. I have used the 1608
(London) edition, entitled Relations, of the mostfamous kingdoms and common-weales thorough the world.
12
A treatise, concerning the causes of the magnificencie and greatnes ofcitie, translated by Robert Peterson
(London, 1606). A new translation was published in 1635, The cavse of the greatnesse of cities: with
certaine observations concerning the sea, translated by Sir T. H. (London, 1635).
13
Barnabe Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices: enabling private persons for the speciall service of all good princes
and policies (London, 1606), p. 172. For earlier examples see e.g. John Dee, General and rare
memorials pertayning to the perfect arte of navigation (London, 1577); Bartolome Felippe, The counseller:
a treatise of counsels and counsellers ofprinces, translated by J[ohn] T[horius], (London, 1589), pp.
166-70, which is based on Machiavelli.
14
Wright, Thefirstpart: of the disquisition oftrvth concerning political affaires (London, 1616), pp. 26-7.
15
Edward Forset, A comparative discourse of the bodies natural and politiqve (London, 1606), p. 4;
Christopher Lever, Heauen and earth, religion and policy: or, the maine difference betweene religion and
policy (London, 1608), pp. 49, 53, 95.
194 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

a considerable space to these issues was Francis Bacon. In 1603 in A

brief discourse touching the happy union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland,
he connected the Anglo-Scottish union with civic greatness.16 The
theme also appeared in his argument in Calvin's case in 1608 and in
his De sapientia veterum.17 Bacon's two most important statements on
civic greatness, however, were his long speech in the House of
Commons on 17 February 1607, and the unfinished tract 'Of the true
greatness of the kingdom of Britain'. 'Fo[r] greatness (Mr Speaker)',
Bacon told his colleagues in the House of Commons, CI think a man
may speak it soberly and without bravery, that this kingdom of
England, having Scotland united, Ireland reduced, the sea provinces of
the Low Countries contracted, and shipping maintained, is one of the
greatest monarchies, in forces truly esteemed, that hath been in the
world.'18 Finally, a few years later, in 1612, Bacon published the
second edition of his Essay es, where the last piece was entitled 'Of the
greatnesse of kingdomes'.
It is essential to an understanding of Bacon's political writings to
recognize that he was preoccupied with the same range of questions as
his contemporaries, since there is a tendency to insist that Bacon's
writings are independent of their restricted historical context and that
they form an example of classic texts making sense 'on their own' and
having a transhistorical audience.19 Furthermore, it has often been
claimed that Bacon's different writings form a consistent unity and that
the proper ideological context of his writings on civic greatness is his
scientific writings. Finally, this contention has often, though not
always, given rise to another claim, according to which Bacon's project
was essentially modern. Bacon's idea of civic greatness was modern,
we are told, since it was 'mercantile imperialism' as well as 'the
imperialism of Baconian science'.22
16
In Letters, i n , p p . 9 0 - 9 , see especially p p . 92, 9 5 - 6 .
17
Bacon, ' T h e case of the post-nati', in Works, v n , p p . 664-5; De sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, p .
642, translation p . 715.
18
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, p . 323. Cf. Epstein 1977, p . 97, n.40
where ' O f the true greatness of the kingdom of Britain' is called a 'tract on union'.
19
Weinberger 1985, p . 19; White 1968, p . 11.
20
White 1958; White 1968; Whitney 1986, p p . 50-4,197—8; Weinberger 1985, pp. 132—3; Martin
1988, p p . 1, 3-4, 204-5,164; Rice, 1963, p p . 49-53; Greenleaf 1964, pp. 202-3.
T h e most important studies which d o not see anything particularly modern in Bacon's
project are Martin 1988; and Webster 1975, p p . 420—65, 341, chapter 1.
22
White 1958; Whitney 1986, p p . 10, n , 197-8, 99, 105; Weinberger 1985, pp. 19-21, 28, 9, 2 5 -
6; Weinberger 1980, p p . vii, xviii; Greenleaf 1964, p p . 201-3; Bock 1937, pp. 4 2 - 3 ; Hill 1965,
p p . 9 6 - 9 . See also in general J . Klein 1987; Wheeler 1956; Kanerva 1985; Kraus 1926; Eiseley
1962.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 195
It is, however, arguable that the attempt to excavate a hidden
consistency underlying the seeming contradictions between different
works of Bacon is an anachronistic undertaking imposing our values on
Bacon's writings. First, in emphasizing the role of commerce in Bacon's
concept of civic greatness, scholars have overlooked the fact that Bacon
clearly distinguished the pursuit of wealth and riches from the quest for
true greatness. Secondly, and more importantly, in treating science as
an integral part of the greatness of states, scholars have overestimated
the unity of Bacon's thought. He never mentioned science in his
writings concerning true greatness. There was rhetorical similarity
between the propagation of the augmentation of learning and civic
greatness, but they stood in diametrical opposition in so far as the
qualities which they necessitated were concerned. 23 Instead of per-
ceiving Bacon's scientific writings, or the birth of modernity, as
constituting the intellectual context of his writings, perhaps we should
consider him as a classical republican in his moral and economic
thought. We have already seen in the previous chapter how Bacon
carried on the English tradition of classical humanism by defending the
central values of the vita activa against the advocates of moral scepticism
and relativism and the closely associated idea of the vita contemplativa. It
now remains to see that Bacon's most important political writings of
the first decade of the new reign were not merely composed as answers
to the central issue of the contemporary political debate — the Anglo-
Scottish union - they also utilized some of the chief themes of the
classical republican tradition. The Machiavellian tradition provides us
with the ideological context of Bacon's writings on civic greatness. 24
Scholars such as Charles Webster and Christopher Hill have inter-
preted Bacon from the standpoint of mid-seventeenth-century puritan
science. I should like to suggest, however, that James Harrington's
analysis of Bacon offers a better point of departure for reading Bacon's
writings on the true greatness of states.
23
Cf. Box 1982, p . 41; Whitaker 1970; Neustadt 1987.
24
Bacon's general debt to and connection with Machiavelli as well as their common
preoccupation with the theme of civic greatness has been recognized by many scholars. It is
arguable, however, that scholars have tended to concentrate mainly o n producing complete
lists of Bacon's Machiavelli citations, and by doing this have separated particular passages
from their meaningful contexts and failed to produce interpretations which see Bacon as a
follower of a tradition rather than as a borrower of a few separate ideas. See Orsini 1936,
especially pp. 50-2. This is the source of virtually all of the later studies at this point. See
Allen 1938, pp. 32, 58-9; R a a b 1964, pp. 73-6; Rossi 1968, pp. 110-15; Jardine IO-74> PP- J 6 6 -
8; Marwil 1976, p . 107; White 1958, pp. 473—6; Luciani 1947; Liljeqvist 1894, pp. 334—5; Kraus
1926, pp. 19-31.
196 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

Bacon's profound interest in the greatness of states marks a shift in

the development of English humanism. Although civic greatness had
emerged before, as had the idea of the armed citizen, neither had
assumed a central place, but remained matters of secondary impor-
tance. A partial exception is Richard Beacon's Solon hisfollie. But even
there civic greatness and the armed citizen were far from main
themes, in comparison to the reform of a corrupt commonwealth.
Bacon can thus be said to be the first Englishman to ponder on civic
greatness as a theme in its own right. Furthermore, Bacon's deep
concentration on the issue of civic greatness prompted him, as we
shall see, to set aside the issues of happiness and well-being. This is
not to say that he found these concepts completely irrelevant, for as
we have seen in the previous chapter, he displayed deep interest in
them. But when he treated the questions of civic greatness he took no
account of happiness and well-being. In addition, Bacon's enthusiasm
for the greatness of the state alerted him, as we shall also see, to
recent developments in the theories of civic greatness on the con-
tinent. But rather than following these new trends in an acquiescent
manner, he in fact restated the older and essentially Machiavellian
theory, which enabled him to mount a sharp attack against the newer
theory. Most importantly, because of the great popularity of Bacon's
writings, it was he more than anyone else who familiarized the
English with the Machiavellian theory of grandezza- Bacon's Machia-
vellianism, in other words, exercised a profound influence on subse-
quent English political discourse. He can be seen as the beginner of a
new, indigenous vein of classical republicanism, which found several
followers in the decades before the Civil War and which culminated
in the writings ofJames Harrington.
Bacon's point of departure in his assessment of civic greatness
was the great difficulty of the enterprise. Although it was relatively
easy to measure the size of the territory of a state, the measure-
ment of its power and strength was a most intricate undertaking -
than 'which there is nothing among civil affairs more subject to
error'.25 This had several important consequences. First, the over-
estimation of the intrinsic strength of a state could lead to 'many
inconsiderate attempts and insolent provocations'. But from the
erroneous measurement of the intrinsic power of a state could also
proceed a failure to seize every available opportunity to
25
Bacon, 'Of the true greatness of the kingdom of Britain', in Works, vn, p. 47 (hereafter
referred to as TGKB); cf. 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, 587.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 197
enhance its greatness.26 Finally, the difficulty of the true appraisal of
civic greatness ensured that it was a rare statesman who could properly
gauge the power and strength of a state. Bacon took pains to
demonstrate at the beginning of the essay 'Of the greatnesse of
kingdomes' that while the finding of counsellors who could advance
their own career but who proved to be ruinous for their common-
wealths was a simple task, the discovery of 'politikes & Statesmen' who
could 'make a small estate great' was a more formidable one. Thus,
after explaining how civic greatness could be acquired, Bacon con-
cluded his essay with a statement of scepticism noting that the rules of
greatness were not followed but were 'commonly left to chance'. 27
If erroneous opinions about civic greatness were so often voiced, it
can be asked what was the way in which reliable information about
the successful methods of acquiring greatness could be gathered.
According to Bacon, there was only one way to political wisdom:
one's judgement should be 'grounded upon reason of estate'; it was
pointless to speak 'of mathematical principles' when 'the reason of
state is evident'. He advised his colleagues in the House of
Commons to look 'into the principles of estate' and to 'true reason
of estate'.29 The key to political wisdom, to 'true reason of estate',
he insisted in a familiar manner, lay in the systematic use of
history.30 In reading on the Statute of Uses in Gray's Inn during the
Lent vacation in 1600, Bacon argued that precedents of former ages
could be employed since 'states and commonwealths have common
accidents'.31 When revealing his idea of civic greatness to the
Commons, he said that 'a position of estate' was to be 'collected out
of the records of time' and contended that 'the time past is a pattern
of the time to come'.32 In case of the true greatness of states,
Roman history offered the best example for imitation. It was best,
he pointed out in a philosophical paper written at the same time, to
dismiss the induction by enumeration in front of the superior single
example provided by Rome. 'Aristotle', Bacon argued, 'it is said,
wrote a book in which he gathered together the laws and institutions
of two hundred and fifty-five cities; yet I have no doubt that the
26
Bacon, T G K B , p. 47; cf. e.g. de Lucinge, The beginning, pp. 56—66, 82-90.
27
Bacon, ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p p . 587, 588.
28
Bacon, T G K B , pp. 50, 51.
29
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, pp. 312, 314.
30
For Bacon's method, see in general Clark 1970.
31
Bacon, 'Reading on the Statute of Uses', in Works, v n , p . 407.
32
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, pp. 319, 311.
198 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

customs and example of the single state of Rome are worth more
than all of them combined, so far as military and political prudence
are concerned.'33
Bacon's keen awareness of recurrent errors in the appraisal of
civic greatness prompted him to correction. He contrasted 'popular
errors' to 'the sounder sort of judgements', which were grounded
on 'reason and examples',34 and promised in 'Of the true greatness
of the kingdom of Britain' to begin 'by confuting the errors or
rather correcting the excesses of certain immoderate opinions'.
Having done this, he intended to propound and confirm 'those
other points of greatness which are more solid and principal,
though in popular discourse less observed'. In proposing this order
of procedure Bacon was, first, following his own instructions. He
had assured his audience at Gray's Inn in 1600 that 'it is the
nature of all human science and knowledge to proceed most safely
by negative and exclusion, to what is affirmative and inclusive'.
Secondly, and more importantly, by using this order of presenta-
tion, he made it clear that he intended to intervene in a
contemporary debate. He wanted, in other words, to refute some of
the claims put forward about the attainment of civic greatness and
to uphold more solid principles.
Although accurate appraisal of power and strength was a difficult
task, Bacon's theoretical starting point was similar to that of
Machiavelli. According to Machiavelli, a commonwealth could either
pursue civic greatness and glory or hold longevity as its chief goal.
The organization of the commonwealth depended on its chosen end;
in the former case it should adopt the policy of Rome, while in the
latter it should imitate Sparta. But, in practice, the pursuit of
durability was forlorn, for it was, he argued in a celebrated passage,
impossible to be successful in the policy of longevity. The only real
option was to consider the possibility of civic greatness.36 We have
already seen that Richard Beacon adopted Machiavelli's line of
reasoning, and Bacon fully agreed. Rather than arguing in the
context of the juxtaposition of civic greatness and longevity, he took
it for granted that whereas Roman policy proved to be immensely
33
Bacon, Redargutio philosophiarum, in Works, in, p . 569; I have modified Farrington's translation,
see Farrington 1964, p. 115. Cf. Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p. 335; Charge touching duels
(1614), in Letters, iv, p. 404. See in general Fischer 1857, p . 288.
34
Bacon, T G K B , pp. 55, 49-50.
35
Bacon, 'Reading on the Statute of Uses', in Works, v n , p . 398.
36
Machiavelli, Discorsi, 1.6.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 199

successful as far as the greatness of their state was concerned, that

adopted by Sparta was a failure in all respects.37 Bacon, in other
words, embraced the Machiavellian idea that empire and civic
greatness was the only reed option for states.
An important argument for the modernity of Bacon's 'imperialism3 is
constituted by the claim that it was commercial 'imperialism'. When we
turn to Bacon's writings on civic greatness, however, we can see him
emphasizing the corrupting nature of riches. One of the most 'immod-
erate opinions' put forward, Bacon opined, was that monetary values
were of crucial help in attaining civic greatness. A central mistake in
contemporary theories of greatness was that too much importance had
been ascribed 'to treasure or riches'. 38 The underlying assumption was
that, far from enhancing civic greatness, riches and treasure debased the
indispensable qualities. As early as the Christmas revels for the court in
1594, Bacon distinguished between virtue and wealth; the fifth counsellor
advocating virtue advised the prince to 'advance men of virtue and not of
mercenary minds'.39 Bacon's insistence that riches were but 'the baggage
[i.e. hindrance] of Vertue', would be utilized by James Harrington.
Although Bacon conceded that in certain circumstances riches increased
'true greatness', his account is organized around the polarity between
virtue and riches. 'We', Bacon advised the Commons, 'Shall refer our
counsels to greatness and power, and not quench them too much with
consideration of utility and wealth,' and added later that it was utterly
futile to 'think nothing but reckonings and audits, and meum and tuum, and
I cannot tell what'.42 Bacon contrasted 'effeminate' and 'merchant-like'
states with 'magnanimous' states, arguing in a law-case that, since the
laws of England 'looketh to the greatness of the kingdom', England was
not a 'merchant-like' state, and did not ponder on 'husbandlike con-
siderations of profit'. Explaining the same idea in 'Of the true greatness
of the kingdom of Britain', he contended that 'no man can be ignorant of
37
Bacon, T G K B , pp. 52-3.
38
Ibid., p . 48; cf. 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p. 587.
39
Bacon, Gesta Grayorwn, in Letters, 1, p. 339.
40
Bacon, ' O f riches', in Essaies (1612), in Works, vi, p . 566; James Harrington, The common-wealth
o/Oceana (London, 1656), p. 145.
41
Bacon, T G K B , p p . 58—61. T h e most important of these conditions was the Machiavellian
idea, according to which, money should be 'so disposed, as it is readiest and easiest to come
by for the public service and use', p. 59, see also p. 61; cf. Machiavelli, Discorsi, 11.19.
42
Bacon in parliament, 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, pp. 323, 325, cf. p . 313; cf. also Letters, 11,
p. 86.
43
Bacon, 'Lowe's case of tenures', in Works, v n , p . 548; ' T h e case of post-nati', in Works, v n ,
pp. 664-5.
200 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

the idolatry that is generally committed in these degenerate times to

money, as if it could do all things public and private'. 44
For Giovanni Botero, the cornerstone of civic greatness was riches
and profit. 'This profit', he argued, 'is of such power, to unite and
tye men fast unto one place; as the other causes aforesayd, without
this accompany them with all, are not sufficient to make any city
great.' Botero summarized his account by declaring that 'profite is
the verie thing from whence, as from the principall cause the
greatnesse of citties groweth'. The only way to achieve civic greatness
was to promote 'the industrie of men, and the multitude of Artes'. 45
Closely related to this was Botero's insistence that 'the fruitfulnes of
the country' was 'the second cause of the greatnes of a city'. 46 John
Hitchcock followed this line of argument pointing out that treasure
was 'the sinewes of the State'. 47 Similar argument, with a particular
emphasis on the navy, was presented by Walter Ralegh, who may
have translated Botero's treatise. According to Ralegh, 'whosoever
commands the sea commands the trade; whosoever commands the
trade of the world commands the riches of the world, and conse-
quently the world itself. As long as the Venetians had maintained
their navy, they had proved to be 'great and powerful princes', but
as soon as they had abandoned this maritime policy, they had lost
their greatness.48
The prevalence of these arguments that riches and wealth were of
crucial importance has led some scholars to assume that Machiavelli's
'out-dated claim that men, not gold, provided the sinews of war was
dropped' altogether. Nevertheless, when Bacon was denouncing the
importance of riches and wealth in the pursuit of civic greatness, he
44
Bacon, T G K B , p . 55. 'A discourse of Rome', in Anon., Horae subseciuae: observations and discourses
(London, 1620), pp. 331—4 (ascribed to Hobbes), offers a similarly traditional account.
45
Botero, A treatise, pp. n—13, 14, 48—50, 55-9, 18-29. See also William Fulbecke, Thepandectes of
the law of nations (London, 1602), fos. 68 r ~75 r ; J o h n Wheeler, A treatise of commerce (London,
1601), p . 7; Justus Lipsius, Sixe bookes of politicizes or civil doctrine, translated by William Jones
(London, 1594), p. 82.
46
Botero, A treatise, pp. 15-17, 13. [Giovanni Botero], Observations vpon the Hues ofAlexander, Caesar,
Scipio, translated by anon. (London, 1602), sig. E8^~ V . Incidentally, this was also Machiavelli's
point of view, Discorsi, 1.1.
47
John Hitchcock, A sanctuaryfor honest men: or an abstract of humane wisdome (London, 1617), pp. 91—
48
Walter Ralegh, 'A discourse of the invention of ships, anchors, compas, & c' (1604-16), in
Works, VIII, pp. 317—34, pp. 324-5; idem, 'A discourse touching a war with Spain', in Works,
VIII, pp. 299-316, pp. 302—3. Cf. also [John Keymer?], 'Observations touching trade and
commerce with the Hollander, and other nations', in Ralegh, Works, VIII, pp. 351-76, pp. 353,
365-7, 375-6. Lefranc 1968, p. 666.
49
Miller 1994, p. 32.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 201

aligned himself with Machiavelli. His argument, in other words, stood

in stark contrast to that maintained, for instance, by Botero and
Ralegh. And he not only condemned treasure and opulence; he also
claimed that in the measuring of greatness too much had been
'ascribed to the fruitfulness of the soil, or affluence of commodities'.50
All these values were direct antitheses of civic greatness and, far from
helping its pursuit, they tended to debase the qualities which were
necessary to its attainment. Indeed, Bacon wrote that civic greatness
always rose from poverty and barren soil.51 Moreover, in contrast to
publicists such as Edward Forset who wanted cto make the state
happie' instead of great, Bacon set out in 'The true greatness of the
kingdom of Britain' to speak 'of that which is proper to the amplitude
and growth of states, and not of that which is common to their
preservation, happiness, and all other points of well-being'. Finally,
Bacon's sharp dichotomy, between the size and riches of a state, on the
one hand, and its internal qualities, 'the forces and power', on the
other, bears a close resemblance to the humanist division between
lineage as well as riches and true virtuous nobility. It is arguable that
when Bacon composed his tracts on the true greatness of states he was
engaged in writing treatises on vera nobilitas.
According to Bacon, the most important quality and characteristic of
a truly great state was warlike disposition; civic greatness consisted 'in
the valour and military disposition of the people it breedeth: and that
in this, that they make profession of arms'.53 This contention was often
repeated in the course of the debate of the first decade of the
seventeenth century. Barnabe Barnes wrote that 'where militarie
science and exercise is frequent, there good laws are in most force and
honour: for it maintaineth and magnifieth every Commonwealth and
state'.54 It was perhaps most forcefully argued in de Lucinge's treatise
on the greatness of Ottoman empire. The Ottomans' success was
50
Bacon, T G K B , in p. 48; cf. however, Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, Letters, 111, p.
310. T h e same idea was endorsed e.g. in W[illiam] Crashaw, A sermon preached in London before
the right honorable the Lord Lawarre, Lord Gouemour and Captaine Generall of Virginea (London, 1610),
sigs. E^-Fi r .
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, p . 324. T G K B , p. 55—7, 59; cf. Advancement
of learning, in Works, 111, p. 275. Gf. [Cornwallis], The miracvlovs and happie union, sig. ci r ; Craig,
De wiione, pp. 357, 413-15; Anon., Horae subseciuae, pp. 330, 333-6; Brathwait, The schollers
medley, p. 9.
52
Bacon, T G K B , p. 49.
53
Ibid., p. 48. For the actual wording, cf. Iipsius, Sixe bookes, p. 144.
54
Barnabe Barnes Foure bookes of offices: enabling private persons for the speciall service of all good princes
and policies (London, 1606), p. 162, see also in general pp. 171-4. Gf. e.g. Hayward, A treatise of
vnion, pp. 5-6.
202 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

completely based on the fact that they 'fashion their whole dessignes to
the war, and bend all their thoughts and studies to the exercise of
armes, rejecting all others course, and pleasing themselves onely in
what may stand them in stead for that profession'.55
The idea that valour and military disposition were necessary for civic
glory recurred throughout Bacon's writings on true greatness. He
connected civic greatness and warlike ability as early as his long
parliamentary speech in 1607 and reiterated the connection in his
argument in Calvin's case, and in De sapientia veterum,56 But the theme
was most extensively explored in cOf the true greatness of the kingdom
of Britain' and in the essay 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes'. What was
needed above all, he emphasized in the former, was 'martial virtue and
discipline'; the import of every other quality was scrutinized in relation
to this basic value.57 'It is necessary', Bacon announced, 'in a state that
shall grow and inlarge, that there be that composition which the poet
speaketh of, Multis utile bellum.'58
There were two distinct aspects to Bacon's conception of valour and
warlike disposition. First, the people must have courage and warlike
spirit. like tiny grains of mustard seed there were states which had the
appearance of small states, but were apt to grow, by virtue of the
warlike and courageous spirit of the people. There were, Bacon
pointed out, 'States that are great in Territory, and yet not apt to
conquer or inlarge: and others that have but a small dimention or
stemme, and yet apt to be the foundation of great Monarchies'.59 But
it was not enough to possess the spirit. Bacon firmly endorsed the idea
that a thought without an ensuing act was completely futile. 'For good
thoughts,' he wrote, '(though God accept them) yet towards men are
little better then good dreams: except they be put in Act.'60 The
military virtue and spirit was completed by the concrete warlike ability
and the art of war.61

55
de Lucinge, The beginning, p. 4, in general pp. 3—8; cf. e.g. Wright, Thefastpart, p. 27.
56
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters in, p . 313; ' T h e case of the post-nati', in
Works, VII, pp. 664-5; D* sapientia veterum, in Works, vi, p . 642, translation p. 715; 'Lowe's case
of tenures', in Works, v n , p. 548.
57
Bacon, T G K B , pp. 53, 55, 58.
58
Ibid., p. 59.
Bacon, ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p . 587; Bacon in parliament 17
February 1607, in Letters, HI, p. 323.
60
Bacon, 'Of great place', in Essaies, (1612), in Works, vi, p . 550.
61
For a short account of the basic rules of the art of war, see Bacon, De sapientia veterum, in
Works, vi, pp. 641-3, translation pp. 715-17.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 203
Since military disposition and the actual art of war were indispens-
able for every state which pursued civic greatness, warfare lay at the
heart of Bacon's concept of the true greatness of states. To emphasize
the force of his argument, Bacon contrasted military virtues with
qualities such as the territorial size of a state and cthe strength and
fortifications of towns or holds' as he put it in 'Of the true greatness of
the kingdom of Britain'. A few years later he added that 'walled
Townes, stored Arcenals and Armories, goodly Stables, Elephants' as
well as 'Number in Armies, Ordinance, and Artillerie' were of no use
without the military virtue of the people. They were nothing 'but a
Sheep in a lions skin', Bacon wrote, 'except the breed and disposition
of the people be militarie'. They were, in short, 'mercenary aides' -
one of the epithets Bacon contrasted most strongly with true civic
greatness.62 But, expressing his opinion on this issue, Bacon was not
merely repeating a self-evident truism; he was also arguing against
those who, like de Lucinge, maintained that fortifications were of great
importance in warfare.6 It was of utmost importance, according to
Bacon, to appreciate that the quality which was needed above all in the
pursuit of civic greatness was military virtue and valour. Fortresses and
artillery were not so much in themselves inimical to civic greatness, but
the feeling of security to which they gave rise as well as the misleading
scale of priorities which they engendered usually ruined the quest for
civic glory.64
The final, and perhaps the most important, polarity in Bacon's
account of the people's bellicose virtues was the one between military
valour and riches. He vigorously opposed those who argued that
money was a crucial element in war. This was central in lipsius,
62
Bacon, T G K B , p p . 48, 49-55; A brief discourse, in Letters, in, p . 96; cf. ' O f the greatnesse of
kingdomes', in Works, vi, p . 587. For a strikingly similar wording for the virtue of courage, see
Anon., 'The genealogie of vertue', in The anathomie ofsinne, briefly discovering the braunches thereof
(London, 1603), sig. wf. Although Giovanni Botero argued in Relations of the most famous
kingdoms and common-weales (sig. BI 1 ""^ that a prince could obtain rule and dominion over
another amongst other things 'by largnesse of Territory', this principle was refuted in A
treatise, p . 1. Botero opened his treatise by asserting that 'the greatnes of a Citty, is sayd to be,
not the largenes of the scite'.
63
de Lucinge, The beginning, pp. 14—23 where the argument is directed against Machiavelli; cf.
also Giovanni Botero, The reason of state, translated by P. J. and D . P. Waley (London:
Roudedge, 1956), pp. 117-18.
64
Cf. Hale 1975. It is arguable that, when Ralegh argued that Alexander would easily have
conquered Rome had he chosen to make the attempt, he was criticizing or even poking fun at
this aspect of Bacon's argument; see Ralegh, The historie of the world (London, 1614), v.i.i, pp.
309-10: 'It were needlesse to speake of Treasure, Horses, Elephants, Engines of batterie, and
the like: of all which, the Macedonian had aboundance; the Romans having nought save men
and armes.'
204 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Botero, Ralegh as well as in de Lucinge's account of the success of

Turkey. De Lucinge opened his discussion by explaining that in
warfare 'the most necessarie and profitable is to have alwaies store of
money in our coffers'. 'This is', de Lucinge insisted, 'the sinew of
warre, and the onely meanes to hasten forward occasion, and attaine
... to a happie end of his enterprises.'65 According to Botero, 'money is
an advantage of great importance, forasmuch as ther is nothing more
necessary in warres, or of more use in peace'. It followed that 'mony
worketh these two notable effects to the augmentation and continuance
of the greatnes of kingdomes and estates'. It provided and maintained
forces, and it offered opportunities to weaken or at least to withstand
the enemy.66
But, according to Bacon, money was helpful in warfare only if the
enemy had the same amount of valour as you, since 'the better
monied state will be the better able to continue the war, and so in
the end to prevail'. In the case of foreign war, however, this rarely
happened; it was only in civil wars that money played a crucial part.
In every other case money yielded to valour. It is in this context that
we have one of Bacon's best-known references to Machiavelli.
'Neither', he told the Commons, 'is the authority of Machiavel to be
despised, who scorneth the proverb of estate taken first from a
speech of Mucianus, that Moneys are the sinews of wars; and saith
there are no true sinews of wars but the very sinews of the arms of
valiant men.' When Bacon set forth the same maxim in 'Of the
true greatness of the kingdom of Britain', he added that Machiavelli
had perceived its truth with 'his eyes in his own times and country'.
The Florentine had witnessed how an ill-provided French army
made 'their passage only by the reputation of their swords by their
sides undrawn, through the whole length of Italy' without encoun-
tering any resistance, in spite, or rather because, of the fact that
Italy was 'at that time abounding in wealth after a long peace'.
'But', Bacon concluded, 'it was not the experience of that time
65
de Lucinge, The beginning, p p . 69-70; Iipsius, Sixe boohs, p . 136; Ralegh, A discourse
touching a war with Spain, in Works, v m , p . 314; idem, ' O f the art of warre by sea'
(1608-9), i*1 Pierre Lefranc, Sir Walter Ralegh ecrivain: I'ceuure et Us idees (Paris, 1968),
pp. 597-601, p . 600.
66
Botero, Relations, sig. B3 v ~4 r . Cf. e.g. Robert Dallington, A survey of the great dvkes state of
Tuscany. In the yeare of our Lord ijg6 (London, 1605), p. 43; Hayward, A treatise of union, p.
6; Spelman, ' O f the union', in The Jacobean union, p p . 162, 173; Fulbecke, The pandectes,
fos. 68 r -69 r .
67
Bacon, T G K B , p. 58.
68
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, pp. 323-4.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 205

alone, but the records of all times that do concur to falsify that
conceit, that wars are decided not by the sharpest sword but by the
greatest purse.'69 The Roman empire was not destroyed by 'some
constellation or fatal revolution of time', but by the effeminacy of its
former valour.70 The same idea clearly emerged in the fourth book
of Barnes's Fovre bookes of offices, where he wrote that 'all places
naturally munited and fortified are nothing without the willing aide
of men valiant to defend them by force' and that 'treasure is wonne
by the sword, and not the swords vertue by treasure'.71 The inherent
danger of money in warfare was exactly the same as that of
strongholds and artillery: the wrong and eventually ruinous scale of
values which went with it prevented the ultimate success of the
pursuit of civic greatness. Military virtue always found money, but
money never found military virtue.
From the centrality of military virtue and warlike disposition, it
followed that constant warfare was a crucial element of the quest for
civic greatness. Peace was, therefore, inimical to a state pursuing glory.
'No body', Bacon wrote, 'can be healthfull without exercise, neither
naturall body, nor politike; & to the politike body of a Kingdome or
estate, a civill warre is like the heate of a fever: but an honourable
forraine warre is like the heate of exercise.' The underlying assumption
was, as Bacon put it, that 'in a slothfull peace, both courages will
effeminate, and manners corrupt'.72
In 1596 Bacon associated the flourishing of 'civil knowledge' with the
continuous exercise of bellicose qualities. Writing on behalf of the earl
of Essex to the earl of Rutland, he maintained that civil knowledge was
ruined either 'by civil wars', or by 'wealth' and 'too great length of
peace'. In times of peace and prosperity, men became interested in 'the
study of artes luxuriae' instead of pursuing proper learning. 'If it seem
strange', Bacon went on, 'that I account no state flourishing but that
which hath neither civil wars nor too long peace, I answer, that politic
69
Bacon, T G K B , p. 55-6. Gf. in general Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p . 172.
70
Bacon, T G K B , p. 53.
71
Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p. 172.
72
Bacon, 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p . 588. T h e maxim appeared for the
first time in 'Observations on a libel' (1592), in Letters, 1, p . 174. T h e same idea was endorsed
e.g. by Forset, A comparative discourse, p. 44; Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p. 162; Greville, Treatise
of monarchy, stanza 539, in Remains, p. 170; J o h n Wybarne, The new age of old names (London,
1609), pp. 32—3; Robert Johnson, The new life of Vtrginea: declaring the former svccesse and present
estate of the plantation being the second part ofNoua Britannia (London, 1612), sig. F4^ v ; Dallington,
Aphorismes civill and militarie amplified with authorities, and exemplified with historie, out of the first
quarterne ofFr Guicciardine (London, 1613), pp. 1, 143.
206 Classical humanism and republicanism 1370-164.0

bodies are like our natural bodies, and must as well have some exercise
to spend their humours, as to be kept from too violent or continual
outrages which spend their best spirits.'73
Although the flourishing of civil knowledge required circumstances
and qualities similar to those required by civic greatness, the notion
that the most crucial quality for a great state was warlike disposition
clashed directly with Bacon's idea of the advancement of learning. 74 In
the famous letter sent with a part of Instauratio magna to Toby Matthew
in 1609, Bacon described himself: 'Myself am like the miller of
Huntingdon, that was wont to pray for peace amongst the willows; for
while the winds blew, the wind-mills wrought, and the water-mill was
less customed. So I see that controversies of religion must hinder the
advancement of sciences.'75 While civic greatness demanded warlike
disposition and consequently also wars, science made its advancement
in peace alone. Towards the end of the Advancement of learning Bacon
argued that one of the reasons why his own times were so conducive to
learning was 'the present disposition of these times at this instant to
peace'. Two years later in 1607 he expressed the same firm belief
that his own age would witness the advancement of learning, since 'the
balance of power' in Europe would maintain peace which 'is fair
weather for the sciences to flourish'.77 The fact that Bacon believed in
the advancement of science through universal peace as he was else-
where arguing that warfare was indispensable for civic greatness,
suggests the distance between his search for the progress in science and
his idea of civic greatness. Science was an international pursuit
progressing only in universal peace. The quest for civic greatness was
the opposite; it was a purely national undertaking demanding not only
warlike disposition, but continuous wars.
Although valour, courage and military virtue were the essential
characteristics of a state which aimed at empire, these qualities were
hardly maintained and their ultimate object scarcely accomplished
73
T h e earl of Essex to the earl of Rutland (1596), in Letters, 11, p p . n - 1 2 .
74
Cf. liljeqvist 1894, p. 335; Box 1982, p. 41.
75
Bacon to T o b y Matthew, 10 October 1609, in Letters, iv, pp. 137-8.
76
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, pp. 476-7; cf. however, ' O f the interpretation of
nature', in Letters, i n , p . 86. In addition to universal peace, amongst the factors which m a d e
Bacon's own time so conducive to the augmentation of sciences was 'the leisure wherewith
these times abound, not employing men so generally in civil business, as the states of Graecia
did in respect of their popularity, a n d the state of R o m e in respect of the greatness of their
monarchy', p p . 476-7. This was against the ideal of the vita activa which Bacon so vehemently
defended in the Advancement of learning, see Chapter 3, p p . 139—45.
77
Bacon, Thoughts and conclusions, in Farrington 1964, pp. 9 4 - 5 ; the original, Works, in, p . 613.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 207
without the other qualities enunciated in 'Of the true greatness of the
kingdom of Britain5. The first in the list of the six true qualities, and
the only one treated in detail, was 'a fit situation'. This was composed
of three aspects, all of which were perfectly applicable to the kingdom
of Britain (although the unfinished treatise breaks off before Bacon
reached the section of application). The region of a great monarchy
should be 'of hard access', but at the same time 'in the midst of many
regions'. Finally, the region needed to be 'maritime'. This property
brings us to another practical quality of a truly great state. It was
crucial, Bacon maintained, that a state possessed 'the commandment
of the sea'.79
The third indispensable practical feature of a great state was a
large population. Although it was above all the military virtue of
the people which brought about civic greatness, it was extremely
difficult to achieve durable success without a large population. 80
One method of increasing the population was to acquire colonies
as the Romans had done.81 A second procedure for attaining a
large population, again following the Romans, was to form leagues
with other states. The most important method of increasing the
number of inhabitants, however, was to admit strangers. This line
of thought appeared first in 1603 in Bacon's discourse on the
union. 'So likewise', he wrote, 'the authority of Nicholas Ma-
chiavel seemeth not to be contemned; who enquiring the causes of
the growth of the Roman empire, doth give judgement, there was
not one greater than this, that the state did so easily compound
and incorporate with strangers.'83 A few years later in parliament
he attempted to prove 'a position of estate, collected out of the
records of time' that the union of the kingdoms must be fortified
by a further union of naturalization and presented Rome and
78
Bacon, TGKB, pp. 48, 62. Cf. Robert Cotton, An answer to such motives as were offer'd by certain
military-men to prince Henry (London, 1675), p. 96.
79
Bacon, T G K B , p . 49. Cf. e.g. de Lucinge, The beginning, pp. 72-3; Ralegh, 'Of the art of warre
by sea', in Works, v i n , pp. 600—1.
80
Bacon, T G K B , p. 49. Cf. e.g. Botero, A treatise, pp. 87—8, 33-5, [idem], Observations, sig.
G 4 V -6 V .
81
Bacon, 'The case of the post-nati', in Works, v n , p . 661. Cf. e.g. Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p .
172; Anon., ['A treatise about the union'], in The Jacobean union, p. 44. It can be noted that the
theme of civic greatness was a common topic in the treatises of colonies, see e.g. R[obert]
J[ohnson], Nova Britannia: qffiing most excellent fruites by planting in Virginia (London, 1609), sigs.
Bi r , C2 r , E2 V .
82
Bacon, A brief discourse, in Letters, in, pp. 93-5. Cf. Barnes, Fovre bookes of offices, p. 172; Anon.,
['A treatise about the union'], in The Jacobean union, p . 44.
83
Bacon, A brief discourse, in Letters, in, p . 96, see also p. 95.
208 Classical humanism and republicanism i^yo-1640

Sparta as his instances. Bacon answered those who charged that

England could not sustain any increase of population84 with a
rhetorical question: what is the most dangerous consequence of
this increase? 'Look into all stories', he argued in his own reply,
'and you shall find it none other than some honourable war for
the enlargement of their borders, which find themselves pent,
upon foreign parts; which inconvenience, in a valorous and
warlike nation; I know not whether I should term an inconve-
nience or no.' 85 In his argument in Calvin's case, he declared that
those states which have been fit for empire, 'have been ever
liberal in point of naturalization'.86 And since England was a
'magnanimous nation', the law of England 'open[ed] her lap to
receive in people to be naturalized'. The same argument appeared
in 'Of the true greatness of the kingdom of Britain' as well as in
the essay 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes'. Since Sparta had not
naturalized foreigners, it had happened that after 'they had
embraced a larger empire, they were presently surcharged'. But
Rome, by virtue of its policy of naturalization had achieved civic
greatness.
If civic greatness is to be achieved by a large population
displaying valour and military virtue in martial enterprises, it
remains to ask how we can guarantee not merely the occurrence
but also the continuation of these values. It is to this issue that
Bacon devoted some of the most important parts of his writings on
the true greatness of states. In answering this question he concen-
trated on the social and political factors underlying warlike disposi-
tion and consequent civic greatness. Some scholars have argued
that, for Bacon, a strong monarchy secured the coming of true
greatness. Bacon himself, however, was almost completely silent
upon the role of the king. There is no mention, in his writings
concerning civic greatness, of either the king's power or his
84
Bacon's speech was a reply to Nicholas Fuller who had claimed that England would become
over-populated; see Notestein 1971, p. 222.
85
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, in, pp. 319, 313.
86
Bacon, 'The case of the post-nati', in Works, v n , p. 664-5, see also p. 661.
87
Bacon, T G K B , p p . 52-3; ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, v i , p . 588. Cf. e.g.
Thornborough, The ioiefvll reuniting, pp. 68—70. It can be noted that Gerard de Malynes argued
in The maintenance of free trade, according to the three essential! parts qftrqffique (London, 1622), p. 67, that
whereas demoracies and aristocracies sought 'by all meanes to make their Countries populous
by the inhabiting of all nations for the increase of their meanes', monarchies avoided 'the
multitude of forraine nations to inhabite within their Government'.
88
Martin 1988, pp. 1, 3-4, 204-5,164; R a b b 1969, p. 182.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 209

necessary qualities and characteristics.89 It was the business of 'politikes

& Statesmen' to 'make a small estate great'.90 Although he did not
enquire, as Machiavelli had done, into the question of the constitu-
tional arrangements of a truly great state, the emphasis in Bacon's
treatises on civic greatness was on the virtues and qualities of the
people. This is particularly apparent in his discussion of the social and
political elements underlying civic glory. Here, in particular, he
endorsed some of the central notions of classical republicanism. One of
the central issues of greatness was 'that every common subject by the
poll be fit to make a soldier, and not only certain conditions or degrees
of men'. The practical dimension of this principle followed from the
idea of a large population: the great number of inhabitants was itself
negligible, if its majority failed to act as soldiers. But the idea also had
an ideological dimension.
By stressing that every subject should be fit to act as a soldier, Bacon
was embracing the classical concept of the armed citizen. This theme
surfaced in several early-seventeenth-century treatises of civic greatness.
According to a Scot, both the English and Scottish people were
'mightie, free and bellicose nations'.92 Similarly, Francis Trigge,
referring to Botero, pointed out that 'the common Souldier' was 'the
glory of England', and concluded that 'in some sort these Commons
may seeme to bee the sinewes of the Common-wealth'.93 That the
infantry was the most important part of the army was beyond doubt for
Barnabe Barnes, who coupled this assertion with a condemnation of
mercenaries. Barnes opened his analysis by stating that 'such ... as
propose honor for the meed of their travels are cold, resolute, of a
quiet and unbroken spirit, knitting up all their vertues in that action to
which the whole force of mind & bodie must be bent'. Mercenaries,
however, were unable to offer this kind of lavish display of virtues.
They fought 'for a little wages' alone; they 'cannot combat with that
true courage and martiall alacritie which native contrimen will'.
'Native souldiers', on the other hand, did not fight for money but of
'necessity' and 'in hope of a glorious conquest'. Since 'the largest
89
T h e issue of the king's power occurred towards the end of ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes'
where Bacon remarked that 'it is in the power of Princes or Estates by ordinances and
constitutions, and maners which they may introduce, to sowe greatness to their posteritie and
succession', Works, vi, p. 588.
90
Bacon, 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p. 587.
91
Bacon, T G K B , pp. 48-9.
92
Anon., ['A treatise about the union'], in The Jacobean union, p . 47.
93
Francis Trigge, To the kings most excellent maiestie: the hvmbk petition of two sisters; the church and
common-wealth (London, 1604), sig. Fi v -2 r , F2V.
210 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

portion of just reputation happeneth to themselves' they were ready to

employ all of their virtues in the cause of their nation.94
In the preceding chapter we saw how Barnes developed the civic
aspect of the vita activa; carrying arms and defending one's country was
thus just another form of the civic life, and another way to safeguard
one's own liberty as well as that of the whole commonwealth. It was
perhaps Machiavelli to whom Barnes was referring when he revealed
his own pessimism concerning the maintenance of liberty. He argued:
'the reason why so fewe free people and States are in comparison of
former times, and such a defect of true lovers and of valiant champions
of liberties in comparison of former ages (as a wily Commonwealths
man hath noted) is, that people in hope of beatitude, and towards the
fruition of a second comfortable life, devise in these dayes how to
tollerate and not to revenge injuries.'95 There was, then, a close link, in
Barnes's scheme, between liberty, virtue, and bearing arms; values
which stood in complete contrast with security, servility and unwilling-
ness to fight for the fatherland. Most of his contemporaries, Barnes
continued, kept 'their swordes and armes rustely sheathed and cased,
when a vehement necessitie doth importune the contrarie' and by
'sottishly nuzzling themselves in sluggish securitie, [they] utterly con-
demne the lawfull meanes and courses of warre, restoring that
needfully by force of swords, which no law nor charmes of perswasive
words can accomplish'.96 The danger of employing mercenary troops
was emphasized even more strongly by Ralegh, who wrote that the
point was 'well observed by MachiaveP. The Dutch revolt had
succeeded despite rather than because of the mercenaries fighting for
the Dutch. According to Ralegh, mercenary troops were employed by
tyrants, because they disarmed all their own subjects for fear of
rebellion. The proper way of organizing the defence of a country,
however, was to imitate the Roman example and arm the citizens.97
It was this idea of the armed citizen that underlay Bacon's concept
of civic greatness. Although his emphasis on the commandment of the
seas has led some scholars to claim that the navy was the most
important element of his military scheme, Bacon himself argued that
'the infantery' was 'the nerve of an Armie'.98 Thus the principal task of
94
Barnes, Fovre boohs of offices, pp. 190-1,171.
95
Ibid., p. 173.
96
Ibid., p. 173.
97
Ralegh, The historie of the world, V,ii,ii, pp. 377, 380, 386.
98
Bacon, ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p . 588; cf. Letters, in, p . 36. For de
Lucinge, the cavalry was the most crucial part of the army, The beginning, pp. 144—6.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 211

the majority of the people was to carry arms, to be ready to fight for
their commonwealth. A matter of even more decisive importance was
to avoid the usage of a professional army. Bacon's constant advice that
a state pursuing civic greatness ought to concentrate almost exclusively
on warlike disposition, that the people ought to 'make profession of
arms'," and his continuous insistence on martial 'discipline' seem to
point to the idea of the standing army. But this is hardly the case. His
idea that every subject should be capable of bearing arms and his social
analysis of a truly great state suggest the contrary. Bacon was most
emphatic that mercenaries should be avoided at all costs; if a state
relied on 'waged Companies of forraine Armes, and not' on its 'owne
Natives', it would never achieve long-lasting greatness.
By identifying courage with the people, Bacon endorsed the repub-
lican idea that a central part of the active role of the people was their
martial character. Warfare was the area in which the people demon-
strated their public spirit - military virtue. The powers of fortune were
exceptionally great in wars. But the effeminate states alone were under
her spell, and those states which had warlike people and strong military
valour could overcome fortune.101 Bacon approved of Xenophon's
saying that 'we have now but those two things left, our arms and our
virtue; and if we yield up our arms, how shall we make use of our
virtue?'102 Underlying Bacon's argument was the Machiavellian idea of
the armed citizens of the Roman republic. The inescapable conclusion
was that the only way to successfully pursue civic greatness, or even to
survive in the predatory world, was to attain a large population and to
arm it. Almost as soon as Sparta had been forced to acquire an empire
(i.e. when it had been forced into a martial policy) it had been
destroyed.
Bacon coupled this moral evaluation of the armed citizen with an
argument that society should be organized in a way which enabled the
people to perform their military role. To ensure that the people were
capable of cultivating valour, certain material standards should be met.
Bacon opened his analysis by stressing that sedentary and indoor arts
were not conducive to military character; these 'nice manufactures', by
requiring 'rather the finger than the hand or arme, have in their nature
99 Bacon, TGKB, p. 48, cf. p. 59.
100
Bacon, 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p. 587.
1
Bacon, Of the colours ofgood and evil (1597), in Works, vn, p. 79; 'Character of Iulius Caesar', in
Works, VII, p. 344.
102
Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p. 313. For Bacon's source, see Wolff 1913 n, pp.
27-8.
212 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

a contrariety to a disposition militar'.103 His argument was a reiteration

of a commonplace derived from Vegetius that certain professions made
better soldiers than others simply by increasing their members' strength
and capacity to endure pain and hardship.104
On the other hand, the argument carried with it two closely related
but distinct ideological implications. Instead of being hardworking,
warlike people were 'a little idle', for they loved 'danger better than
pain'. It followed that if the people were to retain their military virtue
and fulfil their duty as active members of their community, they should
in the first place maintain their virtue by continuous exercise — 'neither
must they be too much broken of it, if they shall be preserved in
vigor'.105 But it was of equal importance to ensure that they abstained
from direct involvement in economic life. Bacon did not explain,
however, as he would do a decade later, how the economic life of a
state pursuing civic greatness was to be organized.
The other element of Bacon's social analysis was his explanation of
the material position of the armed citizen. Instead of seeing him as a
man engaged in commerce, Bacon conceived him as a cultivator, a
sturdy, free Roman farmer; 'it is', he argued, 'the Plough that yeeldeth
the best soldier'.106 He stressed the relative freedom of farmers. To
guarantee that the community had a good infantry and that the
subjects were able to carry arms, a large body of 'middle people' was
required, men who were not dependent on a landlord but instead
owned their own pieces of land. There were several means to ensure
this. First, it was important that taxes and subsidies were not too high.
Bacon was fully convinced that 'a people overcharged with tributes'
would never be 'fit for Empire'.107
Another means to ensure that the state had a large body of
'middle people' was to inhibit the disproportionate increase of the
nobility, because a sharp increase in the numbers of nobles would
mean that farmers would become dependent on landlords. And in
losing possession of their land, they would lose their willingness and
their 'heart' to devote themselves to their commonwealth by fighting
103
Bacon, 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p. 588.
Vegetius, The/owe boohs contayninge a plaineforme and perfect knowledge of martiall policye, translated
by John Sadler (London, 1572), 1.7, fos. 3 ^ ; Lipsius, Sixe bookes, p. 150. Cf. de Lucinge, The
beginning, pp. 23-6; William Leighton, Vertve triumphant, or a lively description of the fovre vertves
cardinall (London, 1603), stanza 132; Matthew Sutcliffe, The practice, proceedings, and lawes ofarmes
(London, 1593), p . 67.
105
Bacon, ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p. 588.
106
Ibid., p . 588. Bacon endorsed this view as early as 1601, in Letters, 111, p . 36.
107
Bacon, ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, vi, p . 587.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 213

for it. Finally, it is arguable that Bacon's reasoning pointed towards

the Machiavellian idea that dependence on landlords made people
lose the moral independence which was indispensable for partici-
pating in the public life of their commonwealth. 'Nobilitie &
Gentlemen multiplying in too great a proportion,' Bacon observed,
'maketh the common subject grow to bee a pesant and base swaine
driven out of heart, and but the Gentlemans laborer.' 108 In his
natural analogy, he pointed out that it was in commonwealths just as
it was 'in copices, where if you leave your staddels too thick, you
shall never have cleane underwood, but shrubbes and bushes'. It was
therefore of crucial importance that the plough was maintained 'in
the hand of owners, and not of meere laborers'. 109 If a state wanted
to become great, it should be organized in a way which enabled its
people to perform their main function - the participation in military
affairs - and this was made possible, if the people retained their
material as well as moral freedom and independence through
owning their farming land.
Bacon's final characteristic of true greatness, regarding the quali-
ties of the people, concerned the government of the community.
Civic greatness, he maintained, 'consisteth in the temper of the
government fit to keep subjects in heart and courage, and not to
keep them in the condition of servile vassals'.110 He thus drew a
sharp distinction between 'servile' people and people capable of
achieving greatness in the political as well as in the material arenas.
The moral independence of the people and their willingness to
employ their virtue for the public good required both proper social
organization and proper arrangement of the political institutions of
the community. Bacon, that is, attributed to the organization of the
government the responsibility for preventing the people's servitude.
Defending the naturalization of the Scots, he told the House of
Commons that the Scots were, like the English, not 'tractable in
government'. Indeed this quality was incident to all martial people,
as was evident 'by the example of the Romans'. They were like
108
Ibid., p p . 587-8. Cf. T h o m a s Wilson, ' T h e state of England anno D o m . 1600', ed. F. J .
Fisher, G a m d e n miscellany, 16 (1936), pp. 18—19, 38—9, according to whom, 'the yeomanry of
England' had already decayed and become but 'servants to gentlemen'. Cf. however, 'Lowe's
case of tenures', in Works, v u , p . 548.
109
Bacon, ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes', in Works, v i , p . 588. It can be noted that Joseph
Swetnam regarded war as one of 'arts, trades and sciences' and contended that yeomen were
'idle'; Joseph Swetnam, The schoole of the noble and worthy science of defence (London, 1617), pp. 16,
75-6, 79~8°-
110
Bacon, TGKB, p. 49.
214 Classical humanism and republicanism ijyo—1640
'fierce horses', 'of better service than others, yet are they harder to
guide and manage'. 111 The attainment of civic greatness required
that free people were not governed or directed at will. This was the
price a state had to pay if it wanted to achieve civic glory and
empire.
How were the political institutions of a community to be organized?
Unfortunately in the unfinished 'Of the true greatness of the kingdom
of Britain' Bacon never reached detailed analysis of the idea of 'the
temper of the government'. Nonetheless, something of what he might
have had in mind can be gathered from his other writings on civic
greatness. In A brief discourse, he noted that laws which formed a
principal part of the union fell into three parts: 'Laws', 'Manners' and
'Abilities and Freedoms'. Although in Calvin's case in 1608 Bacon
would argue that the liberties of the Romans were 'the devices
commonly of popular or free estates' and, therefore, 'unfit for mon-
archies', which granted unconditional citizenship,112 five years earlier
he resorted to the same Roman liberties in defining the freedoms of the
Englishman. According to Bacon, the Romans had had four particular
liberties. The first one 'Jus Connubii was out of use in Bacon's time,
since marriage was open between diverse nations. But the other three
had still an accurate equivalent in England. The right of citizenship,
'Jus Civitatis\ answered to naturalization. The last two, however, were
the most interesting. While the Romans' liberty - 'Jus Suffragfi -
'answereth to the voice in Parliament, or voice of election of such as
have voice in Parliament', that of, 'Jus Petitionis answereth to place in
counsel and office'.113 Bacon defined the basic political capacities of
the Englishman, sitting in parliament and giving counsel, with the help
of Roman liberties.
What was Bacon doing in this argument? The interpretation of the
Roman policy of naturalization as the proper pattern for the Anglo-
Scottish union, and the definition of the Englishman's fundamental
spheres of political activity with the help of the model of the Roman
citizenship, furnished Bacon with an argument against those who
111
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, in Letters, 111, p. 315. See also John Melton, A sixe-folde
politician: together with a six-folde precept ofpolicy (London, 1609), S^S- P8r~v. According to Melton,
the heroes of republican Rome 'helde true valour, and Magnanimitie to consist in avoyding
of subjection, and that the quiet and patient tolleration of adverse fortunes, drawing under
the yoak of obedience, and subscribing to domination, rule and superiority, was baseness &
brutishnes'.
112
Bacon, 'The case of the post-nati', in Works, v n , p. 649.
113
Bacon, A brief discourse, in Letters, in, p. 97; cf. 'The case of the post-nati', in Works, v n , p. 661.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 215

expressed fears of Scottish participation in English offices. This was one

of the most heated political issues associated with the union, and many
an Englishman was apprehensive that vacant offices would be filled by
Scots.114 By showing that the capacity to hold office and have voice in
parliament belonged to liberties which were granted in the act of
naturalization, Bacon and the other advocates of the union were able
to argue that the bestowal of these freedoms followed naturally from
the complete union.
A similar argument was put forward for instance by John Hayward,
Alberico Gentili, Thomas Gainsford, John Doddridge, Walter Ralegh
and John Thornborough, who noted that the Tree denisons of Rome'
had enabled the Romans 'to participate in honour, magistrates, and
dignities' and that this was a worthy example to be imitated. Alberico
Gentili referred to the crucial passages of Machiavelli's Discorsi,
Iipsius' Admiranda, sine, de magnitudine Romana and to Cicero's Pro
Balbo. Similarly, Thomas Craig claimed that 'unless all distinctions
between the two countries are removed, and equal access to dignities,
honours, and immunities be allowed, perfect union is not attainable'.
To prove his point, Craig offered a set of arguments based on the
history of the Roman republic. First, 'the jealousy between the plebs
and patricians' concerning 'the consulate and all other public offices'
had compromised the interests of Rome. Secondly and similarly, a
bitter war had broken out between the Romans and the Latins over
the fact that the latter had been excluded from being eligible for
consuls. 'Why', Craig posed the question, 'restrict honours and
administration to one and leave the other in an almost servile
situation?' The only way to acquire a lasting union was to offer
everyone an equal 'hope of attaining the reward and promotion
which are wont to stimulate men to excellence'.116
114
Levack 1987, p. 60, and pp. 59-62; see also State trials, 11, cols. 564, 574. The conference of
both houses on naturalization on 25 February 1607 discussed an act to naturalize all ante-nati
'with certain conditions and restrictions for bearing offices judicature, or having voice in
parliament', Somers tracts, 1, p. 133.
115
Thornborough, The ioiefull reuniting, pp. 68—70, Hayward, A treatise of union, pp. 19-22; John
Doddridge, 'A breif consideracion of the unyon', in The Jacobean union, pp. 147—8; Tjhomas]
G[ainsford], The uision and discourse, p. 17; Ralegh, The historie of the world, v.ii.ii, p. 382; Alberico
Gentili, 'De vnione regnorum Britanniae', in Regales disputationes tres: id est, de potestate regis
absoluta: de unione regnorum Britanniae: de ui auium in regem semper iniusta (London, 1605), pp. 44—5;
Machiavelli, Discorsi, 11.3, 4; Justus Iipsius, Admiranda, siue, de magnitudine Romana libri quattour
(Paris, 1598), pp. 47—56, especially pp. 47-8; Cicero, Pro Balbo, xiii.31.
116
Craig, De unione, pp. 329-31, 333-4, 344, 35i~2> 44I— 3> 467; cf. Henry Spelman, 'Of the
union', in The Jacobean union, p. 182; de Lucinge, The beginning, pp. 47-8; Botero, A treatise, pp.
30-3; [idem], Observations, sig. G5v-6r.
216 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Although some theorists felt qualms about directly applying the

Roman model to the Anglo-Scottish union, 117 Bacon showed no such
hesitancy about the usefulness of the Roman model of bestowing
citizenships. He constantly employed the example of the Roman policy
of naturalization to urge the complete naturalization of Scots in
England. And he used the Roman concept of citizenship to define the
liberties and freedoms of the English, in order to show that they should
be extended to the Scots as part of the union.
The Roman liberties that were of crucial importance for Bacon's
particular argument for the union carried with them a contention of a
wider ideological importance. It was only through the exhibition of the
people's virtue that civic greatness could be attained, and this required
a community where the conditions of participation in public life were
fulfilled. With a view to preventing the people from losing their 'heart
and courage' and becoming 'servile vassals', the government of the
state should be organized so that the people retained their ability to
take part in its political life. This becomes clear in Bacon's February
1607 parliament speech. According to Bacon, 'the points or parts of
Naturalization' could not be better expressed than by 'the ancient
distinction of Jus Civitatis, jus Sttffragii vel Tribus, and Jus Petitionis sive
Honorum?. To be a citizen entailed the capacity of voting and bearing
office. Explaining what he had in mind, Bacon told the Commons that
'all ability and capacity is either of private interest ofmeum and tuum, or
of public service'. There were two spheres of action, the private and
the public, and whilst the first consisted of looking after one's private
property, the latter was not constituted simply of safeguarding the
private sphere, but also of serving the public. Elucidating further what
he meant by public service, Bacon announced that it 'consisteth chiefly
either in Voice, or in Office'.118
It was, therefore, a central feature of the English political system that
the basic conditions for the people's public service were maintained. A
state pursuing civic greatness should, in other words, be organized so
that it was certain not merely that the people were armed, but also that
their ability to participate in political life - through having a voice in
parliament and opportunity for office - was secured. The armed
citizen took part in the civic life of his commonwealth by assembling
for battle and for parliament. Illustrating the nature of a warlike
nation, Bacon argued: 'we see that, in the very summons of parliament,
117
Anon., ['A treatise about the union'], in The Jacobean union, pp. 42-3, 58—9, cf. 44-5.
118
Bacon in parliament 17 February 1607, m Letters, ni, P- 309-
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 217

the knights of the shire are required to be chosen milites gladio cincti; so
as the very call, though it were to council, bears a mark of arms and
habiliments of war'. It was only when everyone set aside their
narrow private interests and dedicated themselves to the public good
that a state could attain civic greatness. Although Walter Ralegh
disagreed with Bacon about the role of money in the attainment of
civic greatness, he wholeheartedly agreed with him about the impor-
tance of civic virtue. Summing up Bacon's idea of civic greatness, he
wrote: 'Certaine it is (as Sir Francis Bacon hath judiciously observed)
That a State whose dimension or stemme is small, may aptly serve to
be foundation of a great Monarchic: which chiefly comes to passe,
where all regard of domesticall prosperitie is laid a side; and every
mans care addressed to the benefit of his countrie.'120
It comes as no surprise, therefore, that Ralegh's account is also
strikingly similar to Bacon's in so far as the close connection of the
citizen army and a certain type of government is concerned. Whereas
mercenary troops were usually employed by tyrants, a citizen army
entailed 'the moderate government of the Romans'. Since they had been
free, the Romans and the Latins had been particularly willing to fight.
Slaves could be 'furious' and 'outragious', but they always wanted
virtue. Only those who lived 'under a pleasant yoke' were courageous as
well as 'stout fighters'. Ralegh found this argument so compelling that he
was astonished how rarely it had been followed up: 'The moderate use
of souereigne power being so effectuall, in assuring the people unto their
Lords, and consequentlie, in the stablishment or enlargement of
Dominion: it may seeme strange, that the practise of tyrannie, whose
effects are contrarie, hath beene so common in all ages.'
Bacon's account of the social and political underpinnings of a truly
great state formed a startling contrast to that presented in de Lucinge's
The beginning, continuance, and decay of estates. In the second book of his
treatise, de Lucinge enquired into the means of preserving greatness
once it was attained. The chief responsibility in the maintenance of an
empire lay in organizing of its social and political structure. The first
rule was carefully to ensure that the subjects 'have alwaies neede of him
that is their Commander'. The sultan was 'Master of the persons,
liabilities, goods, houses, and possessions of his vassals'. But it was not
119
Bacon, 'Lowe's case of tenures', in Works, v n , p. 548.
120
Ralegh, The historie of the world, v.iii.xiii, p. 49*
496.
121
Ibid., v.ii.ii, pp. 376-7, 382—6.
382-6.Cf. howeveri v.iv.v, p . 607, where mercenary troops were said
Cf.however
to prevail against the militias of'free States'.
218 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

merely their homes, lands and other goods which the subjects had
solely by the favour of the sultan: they owed their very lives to him.
'And in a word', de Lucinge argued, 'their being and life depending
indifferently upon the Prince, their principall care is to winne his
favour.' It was scarcely surprising that the subjects called themselves
'slaves of their Prince'. 122
The next step in safeguarding an empire was to take care of possible
popular commotions. It was, in the first place, important to disarm the
people, so that they would 'forget both the use and courage to handle'
arms. In order to keep the subjects under 'so barbarous a yoake', it was
of the highest importance for the sultan to maintain 'a general peace
and tranquillity throughout his estate'; to make certain 'that justice be
equally distributed' and that the people had 'plenty of victuals, and all
other usuall commodities'. As de Lucinge put it, it was best 'to lull
asleepe their fury'. Under these circumstances 'every one maketh the
best of his fortune and liveth quietly at home, embracing that naturall
desire of holding his owne', and 'they rest free from the thought of
plotting or understanding sturs and rebellions'.123 The final step in
organizing the empire was to have a standing army always ready to
suppress possible commotions. The prince, de Lucinge argued, ought
to maintain 'a great number of horse and foot alwaies armed, alwaies
in pay, and distributed in garrisons thorow out his Empire, especially,
in places most proper to resist or assaile'.124
The central features of Bacon's concept of the true greatness of
states - that every subject ought to be fit to act as a soldier and that
'the temper of the government' must not keep subjects 'in the
condition of servile vassals' - can perhaps be seen as a sarcastic
repudiation of the values put forward by de Lucinge. On several
occasions Bacon firmly maintained that the English as well as the
Scottish were military in character. In A brief discourse, Bacon
remarked that union entailed the unification of 'these two mighty
and warlike nations' 125 and he told the Commons that Britain had
'the best iron in the world, that is the best soldiers of the world'.126 In
Calvin's case he described England as 'a warlike and a magnanimous
122
d e Lucinge, The beginning) pp. 95-6.
123
Ibid., p p . 102.
124
Ibid., p . 105; see in general pp. 9 6 - 8 , 105-8 for the details of the professional army. It should
be noted that de Lucinge disassociated himself from the policy conducted in Turkey, p . 9 6 ,
cf. however, p . 95.
125
Bacon, A brief discourse, in Letters, in, p. 92.
126
Bacon in parliament, in Letters, in, p p . 313, 325, cf. p . 315.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 219

nation fit for empire5.127 The point he was making was that the new
united kingdom of Britain, if not destined, was at least eminently
qualified, to attain civic greatness. Britain met the conditions of a fit
situation. More importantly, it fulfilled the social and political require-
ments of a truly great state. It was a populous and warlike state, and its
social structure was based on armed citizen-farmers, ready to die for
their country. Finally, its political institutions were such that the people
were well equipped to participate in political life by answering the
summons for a parliament, and by playing the honourable role of a
counsellor.
The lively debate about civic greatness calmed down with the end
of the union project in 1608. The theme emerged only sporadically
during the next decade, and although Bacon published 'Of the
greatnesse of kingdomes' in 1612, he had by then turned his attention
to other political issues. It was only during the major crisis of the
1620s that similar issues surfaced with equal vigour. And it was then
that Bacon returned to the theme of the true greatness of states,
developing his earlier ideas and making his final contribution to
English political debate. His tract 'Of the true greatness of the
kingdom of Britain' remained, however, unpublished as well as
unfinished. This was no doubt partly because the union project for
which it had been intended had come to an end. But there is little
doubt that the general thrust of Bacon's idea of civic greatness also
had something to do with it. Considering James's fame for peaceful
policies and in particular the great emphasis he laid on peaceful
methods for attaining an empire (through union), the extent to which
Bacon's conception of civic greatness implied an aggressive advocacy
of martial enterprises might account for the incompleteness of his
tract. Furthermore, the utmost importance Bacon attached to warfare
in his essay 'Of the greatnesse of kingdomes' put him in surprising
and even awkward company.
A central argument in George Wither's Abvses stript, and whipt
(published in 1613) called for a radical change in James's foreign policy.
Wither could expatiate on the vita activa and vera nobilitas, but he also
claimed that meticulous attention should be paid to external relations.
The peace which God had brought about had made the English

127
Bacon, 'The case of the post-nati', in Works, vn, pp. 664—5; c^- 'Lowe's case of tenures', in
Works, VII, p. 548.
220 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

'feareless, careless and secure', and they had passed 'slightly' their
'former care of Martiall discipline'.128

We have not onely let all care alone,

But also are so drunken with delights,
And drown'd in pleasure, that our dulled sprits
Are so o'reclog'd with Luxury; we droupe,
More fit for Venus then for Mars his troupe.

Wither urged a drastic change of this development: the English should

renounce their 'presumption' and prepare for war. To accomplish this,
'a Parlament' should be called and those 'Martiallists' who had long
been 'disgrac't' should 'be lov'd againe'. There is litde doubt that
Wither's outspoken statements about foreign policy played a central
role in his imprisonment in 1614.
More importandy, the vocabulary Bacon employed in favour of the
royal project of the union had been borrowed by Thomas Hedley, one
of the most vigorous opponents of the king's new impositions, in his
famous speech in James's first parliament in June 1610. The importance
of this speech has been recognized by scholars; it is often quoted in
studies ofJacobean political thought, mainly to highlight Hedley's close
allegiance to the common law.1 l Michael Mendle alone has clearly
detected the republican traits of Hedley's oration and has recently
labelled it as 'the profound, sadly ignored Machiavellian-Baconian
speech'.132
The weight and significance of Hedley's address was wide and
multifaceted. The bulk of the speech relied upon the familiar vocabu-
lary of the common law. But towards the end of the speech Hedley
added the classical republican vocabulary to that of common law; an
apposite example of the fact that the boundaries of political vocabul-
aries were fluid enough to be combined without apparent contradiction
and without sacrifice of persuasive force. There was a touch of irony to
Hedley's speech: not only did he speak right after Bacon;133 his
128
George Wither, Abvses stript, and whipt: or satirical essaies, diuided into two bookes (London,
r
1613), sigs. 5 5
129
Ibid., sig. S5VI, in general sig. S 5 - y .
130
See Pritchard 1963.
131
Sommerville 1986, p p . 90-1, 94—6, 98, 134, 135, 148; Sommerville 1989, pp. 57, 60; Pocock
1987a, p p . 270-4; Sharpe 1989, p . 285; Hirst 1981, p p . 86-7; Christiansson 1991, p p . 70-1;
Sacks 1992, pp. 118-19; cf- Notestein 1971, pp. 365-6.
132
Mendle 1985, p. 190, n.24; Mendle 1989a, p . 116.
133
Notestein 1971, p. 365; PD1610, p. 72.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 221

arguments were directed, amongst other things, against those of Bacon.

Hedley employed Baconian arguments to counter Bacon's arguments.
When Hedley gave his oration, the topic of the debate was whether
the king had the right of impositions. Hedley opened his long speech by
claiming that the previous speaker (i.e. Bacon) had digressed from the
matter under debate but that he had, in his 'slow and imperfect pace',
'a more direct and open way to walk'. After some preliminary
remarks, Hedley proceeded to 'examine the question in hand' and was
fully convinced that he could 'give a certain judgment' whether the
king's right to impose was 'any part of the common law or no'. Since
the common law had been defined as 'the best reason or the
quintessence of reason', the king's right of impositions had to be proved
to be 'tried and allowed by the wisdom of time for many ages together
to be good and profitable for the commonwealth'. Bacon had erred,
therefore, when he had claimed that 'this question was not a question
otbonum et malum, but oivera etfalsa'.135
Hedley's definition of the common law suggested that if 'it is ill for
the good of the commonwealth, ergo, no law'. Since the good of the
commonwealth was the end of the common law, 'whatsoever, then,
crosseth this end, the law will not digest it, but reject it as unsavory as
soon as time, the trier of truth, hath found it out, and that notwith-
standing any former precedents or judgments'. So a former judgment
of a law court (such as Bate's case) in no way prevented judges making
a contrary decision, since the whole excellence of the common law was
based on the fact that it was 'tried reason', which was taken to mean
that it was constantly redefined in the light of new circumstances. If this
were not the case, Hedley argued, quoting Bacon's Advancement of
learning, judges would have been devoid of 'versatile ingenium! and
'subject to the reproof of idem manebat neque idem decebaf.137
Hedley's delivery was dominated by common-law vocabulary until
the final argument which he opened with a familiar contention: 'My
last reason is drawn from the ancient freedom and liberty of the
subjects of England, which appeareth and is confirmed by the great

II} p p 170-1; cf. however, p . 180, where Hedley confessed, after a long discussion of
the excellence of the common law, that he was 'necessarily drawn to digress'.
135
Ibid., 11, p p . 172-6. For Bacon, see Letters, i v , p . 191; cf. Bacon in parliament 28 February
1607, in Letters, in, p. 327.
136
PP1610,11, p . 176.
137
Ibid., 11, pp. 176, 178-9; Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p. 465, cf. p . 454. T h e first
phrase is taken from Livy, 39.40, while the other one is a paraphrase from Cicero, Brutus,
95.327, where Cicero wrote 'remanebat idem nee decebat idem1.
222 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Charter of the liberties of England, but more plainly and particularly

by reports and judgments printed and published in our law books.' But
the liberty of the subjects was only one of the twin pillars of'the felicity
and happiness of all kingdoms'. It was wholly useless without the other
- 'the sovereignty of the king'. Making use of Bacon's speech delivered
in the committee of grievances on 19 May, Hedley pointed out that the
truth of this pair became manifest in Tacitus' description of how Nerva
had combined two things which customarily had been thought to be
incompatible - liberty and sovereignty.138 Whilst Bacon's point had
been to suggest that the Commons should not intrude in the area of the
king's sovereign power, Hedley wanted to show, instead, that the king
should not exceed the proper limits of his power. But in accomplishing
their respective ends, they both employed exactly the same juristic
vocabulary. As Hedley put it, the sovereignty of the king consisted
chiefly in 'honor or government' whilst 'the liberty of the subject'
embodied 'matter of profit or property'.139
But Hedley went on to couple this argument with the republican
idea of the armed citizen. The liberty of the subject, he told the
Commons, furnished him with 'such ingenuity and freedom as main-
tains him in spirit and courage'.140 Hedley thus embraced a central
doctrine of the classical republican tradition. Military disposition was
the citizen's chief area of action and his liberty was closely connected
with his military virtue. Although in his writings on civic greatness
Bacon had made the same association, his employment of Nerva's
example stopped short of this. This republican argument was linked in
Hedley's analysis with the idea of liberty rooted in property. Whereas
in other spheres 'the bound and freemen are almost alike', their
difference emerged most clearly in the area of property. If 'the liberty
of the subject in his profit or property' was taken away 'a promiscuous
confusion of a freeman and a bound slave' ensued.141
It is important to note that Hedley cited Cicero's De qfficiis in defence
of the inviolability of private property. The earl of Northampton
argued later in the same session that Cicero had exhorted the citizen to
I I } p p ^ 0 - 1 . For Bacon see Letters, i v , p . 177, PP1610, 11, p . 9 8 . It c a n be noted that
Nicholas Fuller c o m m e n t e d o n Bacon's speech: 'though M r Solicitor's speech were full of
rhetoric a n d art, yet it h a d some good substance in it', ibid., 11, p . 9 8 . Cf. also Bacon,
Advancement of learning, in Works, i n , p . 303; Bacon in parliament 7 July 1610, in Letters, i v , p .
202. T h e same passage from Tacitus was again used by the Speaker in the 1626 parliament,
see PP1626,1, p . 31.
139
PP1610,11, p . 191.
140
Ibid., 11, p. 191.
141
Ibid., 11, pp. 191—2.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 223
devote his time 'upon moral studies for the service of his country'. But
this did not mean that he should be like 'those empirics that trifle out
the time idly about questions impertinent either touching the precedent
errors or future directions'. The subject should not, in other words,
ponder over problems regarding the questions of prudence. Moral
studies amounted simply to taking care of 'their sovereign's necessity',
to giving pecuniary help. 142 In startling contrast, Hedley quoted Cicero
to the effect that the commonwealth could not violate citizen's property
rights. 'Tully', he told the Commons, 'though an heathen yet a wise
man, makes it a principal point in state administration ut suum quisque
teneat neque de bonis prwatorum publice diminutio fiat [that everyone has his
own and that there is no loss of private property in the interest of the
public].' To provide security for private property had been a principal
reason for founding the commonwealth. 'This then', Hedley con-
cluded, 'may give proof to the state that the prerogative of princes
should not dive too deep into the profit or property of their free
subjects.'143
Property was thus the chief ingredient of the subject's liberty, and its
safeguarding lay at the heart of founding a commonwealth. Hedley, of
course, wanted to prove that despite his sovereign rule in area of
government, the king could not violate the subject's property rights. 144
But his emphasis on property enabled him to argue further that 'a
man's lands and goods' increased 'spirit and courage to the professors
thereof.145 Underlying Hedley's argument was the Aristotelian idea
that in order to be able to bear arms and to be a citizen a man ought to
have inherited property. He was, in other words, describing the
material basis of armed citizens. He completely agreed with the view
that 'gentry' was 'nothing else but ancient riches'. It was not, however,
the amount of property which created liberty and citizenship, but
simply the ability to possess and thereby to exercise power over it.
'But', Hedley maintained, 'it is not so much to lose all a man's wealth
as the power of holding it, for that is nothing else but bondage, or the
condition of a villein, whose lands and goods are only in the power of
his lord, which doth so abase his mind, even the lack of liberty in this
point, that he is neither fit to do service to his country in war nor
peace, for the law enables him not so much as to serve in a jury, and
142
Ibid., 1, pp. 264, 267. Cf. in general Nederman 1993, pp. 512—13.
143 ppjfijQ^ n > p j g 2 . £)e qffidis, 11.21.73; 11.22.78.
144
See PP1610,11, p p . 192-3.
143
Ibid., 11, p . 194.
224 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

the wars design him but to the galleys or the gallows.'146 If a man lost
his material independence, he also lost his moral independence, and his
ability 'to do service to his country'.
Without liberty in their property, subjects would become 'little
better than the king's bondmen' and consequently unfit to bear arms.
To be 'the king's bondmen' would 'so discourage them and so abase
and deject their minds, that they will use little care or industry to get
that which they cannot keep and so will grow both poor and base-
minded'.147 In England, however, this was not yet the case. England
met the material conditions of a warlike commonwealth. Because the
Englishman had his ancient liberty, he was an able soldier. Hedley
contrasted sharply 'the peasants in other countries' who were not free
and who were 'no soldiers nor will be ever made any' to free
Englishmen. 'Every Englishman', he argued, 'is asfitfor a soldier as
the gentleman elsewhere.'
If England could enjoy 'the blessings and benefits' of an absolute
monarchy — benefits which Hedley refrained from spelling out — it was
scarcely less fortunate in enjoying, to an equal degree, the benefits of 'a
free estate'. Because of the peculiar nature of the English common-
wealth, it could easily defend itself against any threat from without.
The military virtue of the Englishman grounded on his freedom in
property maintained and safeguarded the whole kingdom.149 This was
the essence of 'the blessings and benefits' of 'a free estate'. Moreover,
the armed citizens who enabled England to withstand the corruption
coming from without could also help her play a more honourable role.
England had, Hedley reminded his colleagues in the House of
Commons, 'prevailed with a perpetual happy success to the everlasting
honor of the realm and the admiration of all the world'. Although
Hedley did not argue that England could pursue civic greatness, as
explicitly as Bacon did, his employment of the example of the Romans
who had performed 'vast exploits' and had become 'conquerors'
pointed in this direction.150
It was, however, a cardinal error to suppose that the amassing of
wealth could produce great success. Hedley was careful to emphasize
the fact that riches never brought civic glory. He first cited Bacon's

146
Ibid., 11, p. 194.
147
Ibid., 11, p. 194.
148
Ibid., 11, pp. 194-5.
149
Ibid., 11, p . 195.
150
Ibid., 11, p . 195.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 225

(and Machiavelli's) favourite example - the story of Solon and

Croesus. The moral of this story was that 'gold is not sure to find
good soldiers, but good soldiers are sure to find gold5. The same
lesson could be learned from Roman history. For had they 'warred
with gold', they could hardly have proved successful, but since they
had been 'warring with iron', they had become 'conquerors and [had]
never wanted gold'. The underlying assumption was obvious. 'It is',
Hedley spelled out by paraphrasing Bacon, 'the sinews of men's arms
then (namely a valiant, populous and military nation), as hath been
well observed and collected by one of the worthies of this House, that
there are the true sinews of war and hath made our nation so
renowned through the world.'151
What was Hedley's point? This Baconian argument enabled him to
prove the great harm of impositions and to counter the arguments that
since money was crucial in warfare, it was prudent for the subject to
contribute. Salisbury had argued at the beginning of the session that it
was a prudent line of policy to have money ready, and that people's
willingness to contribute was the measure of their love towards their
country. James had put it in even plainer terms. 'If I must maintain
you', the king had told the both Houses in March, 'in peace and
defend you in time of war, it must be by money, which is the sinews
there of.' And as we have seen, a similar argument cast in a
Ciceronian vocabulary of negotium was put forward by the earl of
Northampton later in the session. In paraphrasing Bacon, Hedley was
thus not merely following a theoretical tradition in a servile way; he
was also mounting a more particular attack on the importance of
money in warfare and thereby on the king's authority for impositions.
Hedley drew two conclusions from his discussion. In the first place,
he maintained that warlike disposition and military virtue were neither
natural characteristics nor qualities depending on outward circum-
stances. It was not 'the nature of the people or climate' which enhanced
a people's military virtue. The warlike disposition of a people mainly
descended from 'the laws, liberties, and government' of the community.
The valour of the people, Hedley claimed, was upheld by the
'maintenance of houses, of husbandry and tillage' as well as by avoiding
'depopulation', and finally by 'restraining great and mighty men from
151
Ibid., 11, p. 195; Letters, m, pp. 323-3, 313. Since the example of Solon and Croesus appeared
almost immediately before the passage Hedley was paraphrasing, it is possible to assume that
he also took that example from Bacon.
152 ppjQw^ n> p p 15-17, i, p . 50.
226 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

wronging or oppressing the common people'. In order to have valorous

people, it was important to organize society so that the farmer could
retain ownership of his land, and the noble could not oppress him.153
The other, and more important, conclusion Hedley drew from his
social analysis of the armed citizen was to the effect that to take one
brick away would ruin the whole building. If the property of the people
were touched, their liberty would be destroyed. And this would not
merely corrupt their military virtue, ultimately, it would also entail the
demolition of the whole commonwealth with a vengeance. 'But once
take this ancient liberty from the commons,' Hedley explained, 'so that
they perceive their lands and goods not absolutely their own but in the
absolute power and command of another, they will neither have nor
care for that wealth and courage that now they have, but a drooping
dismayedness will possess and direct them or deliver them up to
desperate resolutions; for seeing their liberty and condition no better
than the bondmen or the peasants in other places, their courage will be
no better than theirs.'154
But how was all this connected with impositions? They were, after
all, customs imposed upon foreign trade rather than upon the farmer.
In order to demonstrate the connection, Hedley pointed out that what
applied to the farmer, applied mutatis mutandis to the merchant. He
claimed that 'the wealth and strength of the realm' rested as much 'in
the merchant as in the ploughman'. This was so because the merchant
increased, on the one hand, the strength of 'the navy and mariners
which are the walls of this island' and, on the other hand, 'the wealth
and treasure of the kingdom'. It followed, according to Hedley, that if
'great men' or 'the king's prerogative' oppressed and discouraged
either 'the merchant or ploughman', then 'the wealth and strength of
the king and kingdom must needs decline'. Because of its peculiar
geographical surroundings, England needed valorous mariners as well
as soldiers,155 and it followed that any infringement on the subject's
(whether farmer's or merchant's) property would commence corrup-
tion. As Hedley put it himself: 'And impositions, if unreasonable, touch
all the commons as well as the merchant, and so doth touch and
impeach the wealth, strength, and honor of the king, and may so

153
Ibid., 11, p . 196. It should b e remembered that Bacon developed his similar social analysis
only in ' O f the greatnesse of kingdomes' in 1612, although the embryo was already there in
T G K B , p p . 4 8 - 9 ; see also Letters, in, p. 36.
154
PP1610,11, p. 196.
155
Cf. Nicholas Fuller, 23 J u n e 1610, in ibid., 11, p p . 160-1.
 Francis Bacon, Thomas Hedley and the true greatness of Britain 227
weaken the king and kingdom that he will want both gold and iron,
both men and money, and so will be unable to defend himself and
kingdom with his own force.'156 If the king had the power to impose,
he was also bound to resort to foreign help; he 'must depend on other
princes or states' and employ 'mercenaries'. Some 'great and ample
kingdoms and monarchs' had been able to maintain, besides their own
forces, 'a sufficient number of mercenaries' to the extent that 'some
wise statesmen have held it as good to lose with their own as win with
others' arms'. But Hedley repudiated the value of mercenaries.
Although they could serve well, it was his firm opinion that England
'must (as it hath done) stand of its own strength, which (as hath been
said) resteth principally in the liberty and wealth of the commons'.157
The conclusion Hedley drew from his argument was that impositions
without the consent of the subject were not merely against the common
law, but were also a most imprudent line of policy. 'That prerogative,
then,' Hedley concluded, 'that shakes this so long settled freedom of
the subject in point of profit or property, hazards ... to unjoint the
whole frame of this so ancient, honorable and happy state, so prudently
compact of the sovereignty of the king and the liberty of the subject.'158
By reducing the courage of his subjects, the king would not only
jeopardize his own treasure; he would also compromise his whole
realm. The decrease in valour of the people meant that the king could
not defend his realm by his own forces, but would have to resort to
foreign help. And this was the most perilous menace.159
Although Hedley had gone a long way towards employing Bacon's
notions, there was a striking difference between their social analyses.
Bacon concentrated exclusively on the role of farmers. In arguing that
sedentary and indoor arts were contrary to military disposition, he was
consciously belittling the role of merchants. Hedley, on the other hand,
wholeheartedly included merchants among his warlike people. One
does not have to go far to find the reason. To demonstrate the
imprudence of impositions it was reasonable for Hedley to include
156
Ibid., ii, p . 196.
157
Ibid., 11, pp. 196-7.
158
Ibid., 11, p . 197.
159
It should be noted that Hedley circumscribed the people's active role to the military sphere
and left government to the king. T h e common law allowed 'to the subjects such ingenuity
and freedom as maintains him in spirit a n d courage a n d yet contains him in all duteous
subjection'; ibid., n , pp. 191, 192. Cf. Forset, A comparative discourse, p . 18 (see also p . 21): 'If the
people be tractable, a n d truely serviceable, with all dutious subjection, in the nature of right
alleagiance, then as loving subiects, by their forwardnesse in cooperating with him, they give
strength and stay unto his government.'
228 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

merchants, for the efficacy of his line of reasoning hinged upon the
maritime nature of England. This difference contains a touch of irony.
Bacon's idea of the true greatness of states has often been seen as an
embodiment of commercial imperialism because of his insistence on
the control of the seas. But it was in fact Hedley (as well as Ralegh) -
not Bacon - who embraced merchants, and thereby commerce, in his
conception of a warlike nation and a great state.
 CHAPTER 5

Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the

'mixed Governement'

If the Anglo-Scottish union formed a major political issue during the

first years of James Fs reign, the question of how to respond to the
European crisis acquired an equally dominant position in English
politics towards the end of the reign. England had been entangled in
the European crisis from the very beginning, ever since James's son-in-
law Frederick had accepted the Bohemian crown offered to him after
the Bohemians had renounced their allegiance to the Archduke
Ferdinand, heir-apparent to the Holy Roman emperor. Although
James had tried to persuade Frederick to turn down the offer and had
consequently not acknowledged Frederick as king of Bohemia, the
situation changed dramatically when the Catholique League not
merely crushed the Bohemian army, but also occupied Frederick's
hereditary Palatinate on the Rhine with Spanish troops. Frederick and
Elizabeth were popular in England and their popularity grew further
with the Spanish intervention. The English parliament, which met in
1621, earnestly pleaded with the king to restore the Palatinate to
Frederick by force. James also condemned the Spanish intervention
since it upset the status quo, but he preferred a peaceful settlement. He
assumed that Spain controlled catholic Europe and placed his hopes on
the negotiations about a marriage between Prince Charles and the
Spanish Infanta which had been going on since 1614. These negotia-
tions looked like foundering in 1618 over the issue of toleration for
English catholics, but the pursuit of a negotiated settlement of the
international crisis revived hopes of a Spanish match. Nevertheless,
these came to an abrupt end in 1623 w n e n Charles and Buckingham
made their hazardous trip to Madrid. In the course of their stay in
Madrid it seems to have become clear to Buckingham that the
Spaniards were not fully committed to the restoration of the Palatinate
to its rightful heir, Frederick. When they returned from Spain in
October 1623 Charles and Buckingham met with huge popular acclaim

229
230 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

and were determined to persuade James to change his peaceful line on

foreign policy to a more martial one.1
The outbreak of a major European conflict with strong ideological
implications kindled wide public discussion in England. The king
endeavoured to restrict public speech about state matters. 2 A critic of
royal policy told the king that CI can come into no meetinges, but I
finde the predominant humor to be talking of the wars of Christen-
dome and honour of theire country, and suchlike treasons', whilst a
catholic apologist for the Spanish match complained in 1623 that the
propaganda campaign against Spain and the match had led 'the
people of London . . . to snarle and murmur, even at the verie name of
Spayne: and everie artificer presumed, as an Aristarchus, to censure
the king for that negotiation, as for an error of state'.3 A few years later
George Wither could still claim that 'These times do swarme with
Pamphlets, which be far / More dangerous, then mortall poysons are.' 4
This lively debate has been charted in detail by Thomas Cogswell in
his recent study of the period between 1621 and 1624. He distinguishes
two periods, the dividing line being Charles and Buckingham's return
from Madrid in October 1623. Before this the king's policy for solving
the Palatinate crisis met with criticism, despite James's attempt to curb
it. Whilst the rapprochement with Catholic Spain led some to praise peace
and to produce Anglo-Spanish grammars and dictionaries, as well as to
promote a more ecumenical stance by the Church of England,
opponents of the Spanish match watched the developments with
growing dismay. The government's control of the press was exception-
ally tight, but Cogswell has been able to detect ways in which contrary
opinions were publicly aired in sermons and in print as well as in
manuscript pamphlets. 'For both James and his subjects,' he concludes,
'the pursuit of a Spanish match had been an ordeal. Never before in
James's reign had a single political issue so deeply divided the
kingdom.'5 Yet by 1624 the situation had dramatically altered. A
belligerent foreign policy was more openly advocated and the villain of
1
See Cogswell 1989a, pp. 6-20, 36-54, 57-69. For a succinct, balanced account of English
foreign policy during these years, see Lockyer 1989, pp. 17-21; see also Russell 1979; Adams
1983; Adams 1985; Young 1985.
2
Cogswell 1989a, pp. 20-1, 32.
Anon., Tom tell troath: or a free discourse touching the manners of the tyme (n.p., n.d., [1622?]), p. 1;
M[atthew] P[attenson], The image of bothe churches, Hiervsalem and Babel, vnitie and confvsion:
obedience and sedition (Tornay, 1623), p. 1.
George Wither, Britains remembrancer containing a narration of the plague lately past (n.p., 1628), fo.
246".
5
Cogswell 1989a, pp. 20—53, m e quotation is from p . 50; Cogswell 1989b.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 231
the first act, the duke of Buckingham, suddenly became the hero of the
second.6
In his lucid analysis of the period 1621-4, Cogswell primarily aims at
showing first how the political nation reacted to the king's peaceful
foreign policy and secondly how the 'Patriot' coalition was organized in
1624. But as far as the ideological underpinnings of the pamphlets are
concerned, Cogswell has surprisingly little to say. He has traced the
changing religious stances of the tracts, but on the whole he focuses on
revealing that the literati of 1621-3 were talking about arcana imperii,
that they proposed in only thinly veiled suggestions that England ought
to help foreign protestants and that in 1624 there was a strong and
more open campaign for martial intervention. The religious aspect
apart, Cogswell does not pause to ask whether those who publicly
voiced their opinions employed some theoretical tools in their attempts
to grasp the political world they inhabited. Although it is of course true
that the majority of pamphleteers were perhaps not concerned with
any wider theoretical implications, it does not follow that this is true of
all of them.
The best known as well as the most prolific pamphleteer of this brief
but remarkable period was Thomas Scott. Scott studied both at St
Andrews and at Peterhouse, where he received his BD in 1620. He
wrote his first pamphlet Vox populi (published in 1620) whilst still in
Scotland in 1619. In the course of the next four years he was to publish
more than twenty pamphlets, all dealing with the problems of Eng-
land's role in the European crisis. Although Scott's life and his writings
raise formidable biographical and bibliographical problems,7 a con-
siderable amount of scholarly attention has been paid to them.
According to the traditional account, Scott opposed the king's foreign
policy, thereby expressing the opinions of 'the intelligent Protestant
groups notably the London middle class'.8 As far as his theoretical
outlook is concerned, Scott is placed amongst those puritans who
argued that the law should circumscribe the king's authority.9 More
recently, Peter Lake has argued that Scott's radicalism is not to be
found in 'his publicly expressed opinions' but rather in 'his actions',
that is, in 'his career as a pamphleteer'. A central aspect of Scott's

6
Cogswell 1989a, pp. 281-307. James Howell, Dendrologia: Dodona's grove, or the focall forest (n.p.
[London], 1640), pp. 170—3. See also Limon 1986.
7
See Adams 1973, pp. 448-62; Adams 1976.
8
Wright 1943. Cf. van Eerde 1968.
9
Judson 1949, pp. 328, 333-4, 342-3.
232 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

argument was the 'activist view of government and citizenship'.

According to Lake, the ideological setting for this idea of political
activism and for so much else in Scott's writings must be sought in his
religious background. The most important political contribution of
puritanism, we are told, was the formation of an active citizenship.
According to Lake, Scott's 'view of the world' enabled him 'to transfer
"puritan" attitudes concerning a proper personal understanding of and
zeal for true religion and further reformation directly into that enlarged
political arena. This puritan contribution to the formation of an ideal
of active citizenship ... may be the most important effect of puritan
ideology on the political attitudes of the period.'
Although the thesis presented by Lake has gained wide accep-
tance,11 there are two factors which must lead us to question it. First,
in stressing the formative nature of active citizenship, he tends to
imply that we are here dealing with an entirely novel feature of
English political discourse. But this amounts to a failure to recognize
that the ideas put forward by Scott and other like-minded puritans
can scarcely be said to be new. In fact they had been expressed in
England throughout the sixteenth century as well as the first decades
of the seventeenth. Secondly, Lake has overrated the puritanical
elements in Scott's ideas. Scott can of course be classified as a puritan
in his religious outlook and this may be said to have had several
implications of great importance for his political ideas. But in so far as
his advocacy of active citizenship is concerned, Scott's arguments are
almost exclusively classical republican in character.
The main aim of the present chapter is to analyse Thomas Scott's
ideas of politics, relating them to the classical humanist tradition we
have been exploring and thus to substantiate my reservations about
Lake's thesis. It should be emphasized that I do not wish to deny the
central role of religion and anti-popery in Scott's writings. Many of his
arguments were put in exclusively religious terms. He pointed out that
'this great businesse of Religion' was 'the foundation of all'; as he
argued elsewhere, it was that 'which wee alwayes prize and preferre
10
Lake 1982, pp. 807, 813, 824; Walzer 1965, pp. 206, 210, 282. The rapprochement with Spain
could also be opposed by restating the king's supremacy in religion; Thomas Proctor, The right
of kings: contemning a defence of their supremacy (n.p. [Amsterdam], 1621), sig. A2r, pp. 3-4, 10;
Edward Forset, A defence of the right of kings (London, 1624), PP- 5°~1- Cf. Thomas Reeve,
Mephibosheths hearts ioy vpon his soveraignes sqfetie: deliuered in a sermon in the church of Great Yarmouth in
NorfoJke, the ig. day of October. 1623 (London, 1624), pp. 18-20, who ascribed a dominant role to
the king in promoting the common good.
11
See Sommerville 1986, p. 45; Lake 1989, p. 89; Cust 1986, pp. 76-7; Cust and Hughes 1989,
p. 21; Hughes 1991, pp. 87, 89. See, however, the brief remarks in Butler 1985, pp. 160-1.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 233
before all other respects'.12 But Scott was also using history to prove his
points. On one occasion he wrote that his argument was not only 'a
Paradoxe in divinity', but also 'a law universall, both of nature, &
nations'. And since, as Scott put it, 'the more noble the nation is, the
more frequent the examples', he employed instances drawn from
Greek and Roman history.13 He espoused the principle that 'by
precedent examples men commonly judge of future events'. It was best
to proceed 'by comparing time past, with that which is like to follow'.14
It is therefore argued that, in addition to the religious features, it is
possible to trace a distinctive humanist analysis of the commonwealth
through Scott's writings and that it is only when we also recognize this
element in Scott's polemic that we can begin to appreciate the full
nature of his enterprise.
An important point which should be borne in mind is the Scottish
background of Scott's career. It is a well-known fact that for a number
of reasons Scottish politics was particularly prone (in comparison to
English) to humanist and republican trends of political thought. The
lack of an apocalyptic vision and of legal traditionalism, the constant
instability of national politics as well as a strong sense of aristocratic
civic virtue as a bulwark against tyranny contributed to the Scottish
susceptibility to humanist and civic ideas. 15 The impact of Scottish
humanism on English political discourse is obvious at least at two
specific moments. The first of these was the Anglo-Scottish union
debate. As we have seen in the previous chapter, this debate not merely
provoked a number of Englishmen and Scots to study the problems of
civic greatness; it also prompted them to enquire into the nature of
citizenship. Another and even more specific moment when Scottish
humanism can be said to have impinged on English political thought is
Thomas Scott's pamphlet campaign. He was, as has been said, a
graduate of St Andrews and began his publishing career in Scotland.
12
[Thomas Scott], Vox regis (n.p., [Utrecht], n.d., [1624]), p. 66; [idem], Synmachia: or, a trve-bves
knot (n.p., n.d., [1624]), p. 14; see also e.g. [idem], Vox Dei (n.p, n.d., [1623?]), P- 49j [idem],
The Belgicke pismire: or stinging the slothful! sleeper (London, 1622), p. 5. See in general [idem],
Englands iqy,for suppressing the papists, and banishing the priests and iesuites (n.p., 1624), p. 13; [idem],
Aphorismes of state (Utrecht, 1624); [idem], DigitvsDei (n.p., n.d., [1623]), pp. 20, 39.
13
[Scott], Vox Dei, p. 35. Cf. in general e.g. Abraham Gibson, Christiana-polemica: or apreparatiue to
wane ...a sermon (London, 1619), sig. A6 F ~ V ; Thomas Sutton, The good fight of faith: a sermon
preached at Saint Mary-acts in London, vnto the gentlemen of the Artilley Garden, the ig. of Iune, 1623
(London, 1624), pp. 27—8.
14
[Thomas Scott], A relation of some special! points concerning the state of Holland (The Hague, 1621), p.
16; [idem], An experimentall discoverie of Spanish practises or the covnsell of a well-wishing souldier,for the
good of his prince and state (n.p., 1623), p. 29.
15
Williamson 1979, especially p p . ix, 86-116; Mason [s.a.]; Norbrook 1987.
234 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640
As we shall see, Scotland played a significant role in some of his
arguments. It is arguable, therefore, that Scott's Scottish background
can in part account for the striking degree of humanism and repub-
licanism in his pamphlet campaign.
'The generall Torrent of discontent that raigns with such a seditious
noyse over your whole Kingedome3 had not yet made an 'open breach
uppon your peoples obedience', but had certainly 'very much weakned
theyr affections'. This is how one author described the political
situation in England in early 1622. The reason for this 'generall
Torrent of discontent' was twofold. It was caused both by 'Dishonour
abroad', and by 'Discord at home'.16 In 1624 John Randol preached
that 'ye have corruptions within, [and] provocations without'.17 As
Lake rightly reminds us, Scott too was not merely preoccupied with
English foreign policy; he was equally concerned with the underlying
domestic developments. International politics was full of intrigues,
frauds and dishonesty. 'In these warres and times of wickedness', Scott
wrote, 'so many outrages & cruell bloodsheddings were committed,
that Nero's opening of his mothers wombe was not comparable.'18 But
the international events had important reverberations in England.
Whilst the alarming news of 1623 was spreading, Scott reminded the
king of the fact that everyone who searched 'into the Spaniards
proceedings' could see that Spain would corrupt the whole of
England.1 Elsewhere, he was even more pessimistic, pointing out that
'the corruption of manners hath broken downe our Walles, and let in
that Trojan Horse laden with trumperies'. 'To conclude all,' he wrote,
'this Nation of ours at this day, outsinnes all the nations of the world,
even in their proper sinnes for which they have beene infamous.'20 It
was useless to dwell on particular problems when 'not only this or that
member, this or that finger or toe, but the whole body is corrupted'.21
The good news of October 1623 and the consequent shift of direction
16
Anon., Tom tell troath, p. 5, see p. 6, for further description of corruption.
17
John Randol, A sermon preacht at St Maries in Oxford, the 5. of August: 1624: concerning the kingdomes
peace (Oxford, 1624), p. 18.
18
[Thomas Scott], Boanerges: or the humble svpplication of the ministers of Scotland, to the high court of
parliament in England (Edinburgh, 1624), sig. C3V.
19
[Thomas Scott], An experimentaU discoverie, p. 7; cf. his, The Spaniards perpetual! designes to an
vniversall monarchie (n.p., 1624), sig. **i v .
20
Thomas Scott, The proiector: teaching a direct sure, and ready way to restore the decayes of the Church and
state both in honour and revenue: delivered in a sermon before the iudges in Norwich, at summer Assises there
holden, anno 1620 (London, 1623), s^§- A3V> P- 34J c^- DigitusDei, pp. 31-2; Englands iqy, p. 5.
21
Thomas Scott, The high-waies of God and the king: wherein all men ovght to walke in holinesse here, to
happinesse hereafter: deliuered in two sermons preached at Thetford in Norfolke, anno 1620 (London, 1623),
p . 80.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Govemement3 235
in English foreign politics did not fully change Scott's mind and in
1624 he still talked of cthe generall grievances of the Church and
State'.22
What did Scott mean by corruption? To begin with, there is little
doubt that he associated it with religious issues. He declared that 'the
whole body [of England] is corrupted', and noted that every place
'swarme with schismes, sects, heresies, and private spirits'. 23 But where
the exact nature of corruption was concerned, Scott resorted to a
familiar stock of images. It is significant that he was engaged in the
translation of Trajano Boccalini's The new-found politicize, often described
as a prime example of the exhaustion of Italian republicanism. 24 In Vox
popvli he expounded that, whilst enriching themselves, 'tymeservers
milk the estate and keep it poore'. 25 Those whom Gondomar had
managed to 'Hispaniolize' Tor their private ends (as all temporisers do)
neglected the publicke good either of Church or Common-wealth'. 2
In his definition of England's corruption, Scott placed his greatest
emphasis on 'an itch of private wealth which ever forerunnes and
effects the mine of the Common-wealth'.27 The first conclusion Scott
drew from his analysis of corruption can be expressed at its simplest by
saying that in a corrupted commonwealth people neglected the
common good and instead pursued their own private interest. Many
critics of the royal policy arrived at the same judgment. John Randol
believed that the world was full of 'Oeconomicall hunters ... that hunt
for the provision of their owne houses' and neglect 'the publick welfare
of the state'. According to the author of Tom tell troath, 'the olde
compasse of honour is quite forgott'. People knew 'no other route, then
that of thair owne fortunes: according to which they tacke and untacke
all publicke affaires'.28
This familiar idea occurs throughout Scott's writings. In 1621 he
22
[Scott], Vox regis, p . 18, see in general pp. 18—24. Cf. [idem], A briefe information of the affaires of
the Palatinate (n.p., 1624).
23
Scott, The high-waits of God, p. 80.
24
Trajano Boccalini, The new-found politicize, disclosing the secret natures and dispositions as well ofpriuate
persons as of statesmen and courtiers, translated by J. Florio, T. Scott and W. Vaughan (London,
1626); Thomas Scott, Newes from Pernassvs: the politicall touchstone, taken from Mount Pemassus
(Helicon, 1622); Skinner 19781, pp. 168,188—9.
25
[Thomas Scott], Vox popvli: or newesfrom Spaine (n.p., 1620), sig. B3V; cf. sig. B4r.
26
[Scott], Boanerges, sig. D4 r .
27
Scott, The high-waies of God, p. 80.
28
Randol, A sermon, p p . 3-4, also p p . 6-7, and especially p . 25; Anon., Tom tell troath, p . 6;
[Alexander Leighton?] The interpreter wherin three principall termes of state: much mistaken by the vulgar
are clearely unfolded (n.p., 1624), pp. 12, 14. This tract was previously ascribed to Thomas Scott,
but was probably written by Leighton, see Condick 1982.
236 Classical humanism and republicanism i^yo-1640

argued that there were 'two great hinderances' which commonly

appeared together: 'Jealousie and respect of our owne benefit'. 'When
any man', as Scott explained his idea, 'bendeth his wit and all his
actions only to seeke his owne benefit; he thinkes every thing too much
that another man hath, when he cannot have a part therein.' Those
who had nothing but their own private gain in mind were 'the meanes
and causes of the ruyne of all Common-wealths'.29 Corruption made
people lose their sense of judgement and, instead of esteeming the
common good, they would begin to value the art of amassing private
riches as the most desirable quality. The people's resulting moral
character could be described as effeminate and as loving 'Luxurie'.
They did nothing but sleep 'in securitie' and enjoyed their 'sensuall
pleasures', 'bewitching pastimes' and 'brutish passions'.30 Complete
apathy among the people was therefore an unmistakable sign of
corruption.
According to Scott, corruption affected the whole commonwealth,
but most conspicuously and dangerously the nobility. Central to Scott's
whole pamphlet campaign was the idea of a totally corrupt court.
Describing the characters who were to be blamed for the corruption of
the commonwealth, he said: 'I will conclude with him that is the cause
of all this, and that's the Courtly Thiefe.' 31 These 'Monopolists' were
amassing 'all our private Wealth'; in their mischievous lives, they
wholly degenerated from the virtues of their progenitors. Scott was
convinced, as he put it in his typical flowery style, that 'their breede is
from the lazie scumme of counterfeyt Gentilitie, who bearing those
Armes idely, which their diligent Predecessours have purchased as
badges of some honorable atchievement, doe thereby disgrace their
Originals, as if they were priviledged to be vicious by the redundancy
of their predecessors vertues'. These men, irrespective of whether they
were 'base in their originals' or had degenerated 'from the nobilitie
and vertue of their Ancestors', directed their efforts to 'undo the
publique for their private and inordinate desires'. Scott later added
that it was most typical of his own corrupt times that the more a man
was able to 'inrich himselfe by the losse of others, yea by the losse of all
... the more wise he is thought to bee, and the more worthy of
29
[Thomas Scott], A relation of Holland, p . 18. Cf. also The Belgicke pismire, pp. 30-1; [Thomas
Scott], The Belgick sovldier: dedicated to the parliament: or, wane was a blessing (Doit, 1624), p. 39.
30
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, pp. 12, 44, 82—3, 26. Cf. e.g. Thomas Barnes, The wise-mans forecast
against the evilltime(London, 1624), PP- 3^J 43> 45-
31
Scott, The high-waies of God, p. 79.
32
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, pp. 26-8.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 237

preferment'.33 The degeneracy of the nobility was primarily due to its

education. It was, Scott wrote, 'farre unfit for true Nobilitie to be
educated in an idle course of life, and trayned up onely to hunt, to
hawke, or daunce, or drinke, or court, or play', which were 'the
ordinarie exercises of these degenerate times'.34
If corruption held sway long enough, it would not confine itself to
the morality of the individuals but would infect the whole common-
wealth. A long period of corruption led, in other words, 'to the yoke of
slaverie'. Servitude could arise in two important ways; first, when
people lost their vigilance and all their energy to serve the community,
devoting their attention instead to their private good. With his typical
verbosity Scott emphasized that 'to waste and impoverish a plentifull
Estate like a Prodigall, to sucke the life bloud out of the Common-
wealth, thereby to deject the spirits of men with their fortunes, and so
subjugate them under the yoke of slaverie, to draw all the juyce and
marrow from the veints and bones of a people, requires no great wit to
bring about'. Slavery was brought about by people's idleness - 'the idle
and secure people were drowned in the generall Deluge'.35 This kind
of life dejected them and consequently imposed the yoke of slavery
upon them. To illustrate his point, Scott took Cato's view that men's
feeling of security and their inclination 'to shackle and manacle, to
bridle and saddle themselves in silkes and velvets, in gold and silver'
'threatneth and introduceth slaverie'.36 If a man became subject to the
vices of prodigality, idleness and sloth, his heart would become
effeminate, which would pave the way for 'a State fit and supple for
any other subjection'.37 There was thus a direct road from the
promotion of private riches through idleness to the slavery of the entire
commonwealth.
But an even more insidious way in which slavery could victimize a
community was through the abuse of government. By becoming a
cruel tyrant, the king reduced his realm to slavery, as the examples of
33
Ibid., p . 34. Cf. George Wither, Wither's motto: nee habeo, nee careo, nee euro (n.p. [London], 1621),
sigs. Bi r ~ v , D5 r ~ v ; Edward Sutton, The serpent anatomized: a morall discourse (1623) (London, 1626),
pp. 9-10, 13-14, 39-40 and especially p . 11; Anon., Tom tell troath, p. 4, where the corruption
of the court was partly explained by the influence of merchants who were only concerned
with 'what toucheth their owne profit'. An indication of this influence was the fact that 'one
of their occupation, is made Treasurer'.
34
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, p. 31.
35
Ibid., p. 38. Cf. [Leighton?], The interpreter, p. 14.
36
[Thomas Scott], A tongue-combat, lately happening between two English souldiers in the tilt-boat of
Grauesend (London, 1623), p. 64.
37
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, pp. 81-2.
238 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Roman emperors amply demonstrated. 'We see5, Scott wrote, 'Clau-

dius the dullard, Nero the Mountibanke, Caligula the debosht drun-
kard, (that had neither wit nor honestie) could doe this as well and as
readily, as Tiberius, that had wit without honestie.'38 Although Scott
used Roman emperors to illustrate how a tyrant could bring about the
yoke of slavery, it was of course the Spanish monarchy which furnished
his main instance. If the United Provinces were to have peace with
Spain or to be 'in subjection to Spaine', Scott argued in 1622, they
would be nothing but 'slaves3. The reason was not far to seek.
Wherever the king of Spain goes, 'he sets himselfe downe like an
absolute and tyrannical Lord, silencing all Lawes but his owne, which
are as those of the Medes and Persians; yeas as those of Draco written
in blood'.39
In the context of England this meant that the king would turn tyrant
if he disregarded parliament and sought to oust the majority of the
political nation from the main sphere of active life. According to Scott,
'publique persons should do publique actions in publique' which he
defined as taking place 'in the Gates of the City, in the Kings high-way,
in the eye of all'. This was the way to guarantee that the public good
was duly respected, for when public actions were done in private, they
not merely became 'chamber-workes'; they did nothing but promote
'privacy and partiality'. Scott's most telling example was the seventh
king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, who, according to Scott, 'made
the name of a King odious at Rome, because he ruled all Domesticis
consilijs by chamber-Councell'.40 The instance of Tarquinius was highly
relevant because a similar danger was threatening English public life.
In Voxpopvli, Scott boldly maintained that there were many counsellors
around the king 'who blow this cole fearing their owne stakes, if a
Parliament should inquire into their actions, that they use all their art
and industrie to withstand such a councell; perswading the King he
may rule by his absolute prerogative without a Parliament'.41 In 1624
he claimed that he had heard 'a generall despaire close up the hearts of
all men, that they should never see Parliament againe'.42 Scott's
rhetoric left a strong impression that there were men around the king
who advocated the policy of disregarding parliament, and in seeking to

;» I b i d , p. 39.
39
Ibid., p . 56.
40
Scott, The high-waies of God, pp. 69-70; Lky 1.50. Cf. e.g. [Thomas Scott], Englands toy, p. 7.
41
[Scott], Voxpopvli, sig. B3V. Cf. [Leighton?], The interpreter, p. 7.
42
[Scott], Vox regis, p . 23.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 239
do this they were, in fact, causing James to become a Tarquinius
Superbus. In Scott's definition of 1624, 'a Parliament where Prince and
People meet and joyne in consultation, is fit only for that weightie and
important worke, in whose even ballancing, the weale of a State doth
consist. And without this Councel, the greatest Peere or Officer, yea,
the greatest profest Engineere in State stratagems, may easily erre
upon either hand, many degrees from good government, and so fall
into an Anarchy or Tyrannie.'43
Scott was not content, however, with a description of a corrupted
commonwealth. He also wanted to show how the growth of corrup-
tion could be halted or even avoided altogether. It is arguable, in
other words, that it was Scott's main aim to explain the ways in
which the most serious trouble ravaging the English commonwealth
could be cured or eradicated. The first remedy for corruption lay in
reversing the dominant values. In one of his most important
pamphlets, The Belgicke pismire, Scott declared that the two first things
to be done were 'to full the veines of a decayed estate' and 'to inrich
a Common-wealth'. If Scott was fully convinced that corruption
was closely linked with people privileging their own private gain, he
was scarcely less persuaded that citizens of a healthy commonwealth
placed the good of the community before any consideration of
personal gain. When crucial issues of the commonwealth, such as the
one of peace and war, were to be decided, 'wee must not consider
nor respect any mans particuler interest, but the benefit and
commodity of the generality'. There was no real advantage 'in
seeking after our owne particuler benefit', since its pursuit meant
that 'the generall commodity is lost' and if this happened, 'the
particuler cannot continue'. 'It ought to be', as Scott concluded his
examination of the state of Holland, 'a Maxime in all good and
politicke Governments, to doe Justice, and procure the good of the
generality, and particuler profit will of it selfe come unto you.'45 If
one wanted to reform a degenerate community, it was essential to
change people's morality; instead of preferring their own personal
interest, they ought to place the good of the commonwealth above
anything else. Whereas Tarquinius Superbus was Scott's most telling
example of a tyrant, Cato epitomized republican virtues. 'We have',
Scott proclaimed, 'more neede of a Cato to reforme our corrupt
43
Ibid., p. 68.
44
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p. 39.
45
[Scott], A relation of Holland, pp. 5, 18-19. Cf. [Leighton?], The interpreter, p. 7.
240 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

manners, then of a Cicero, or Antony, or Salust, to purifie and polish

our Language.'46
But Scott argued that merely to convert people's private interest into
an attachment to the common good was not sufficient; complete
reform also required a change in other areas. Instead of luxury and
wealth, the people should esteem frugality. More importantly, they
ought to denounce slavery and cherish, above anything else, freedom
and liberty. Scott quoted Willem Verheyden in extenso to demonstrate
the crucial importance of liberty.47 In The Belgicke pismire, the third
necessary measure to stave off corruption was 'to restore libertie'.48 In
other words, Scott adopted, to some extent, the republican scale of
values. If there was a strong link between the growth of private riches
and slavery in Scott's account, that between frugality and liberty was as
close. A Cato could easily observe that 'ancient and commendable
frugality ... maintaines their liberty'.49
Scott's contention, that frugality could reform a corrupted common-
wealth, promote the common good and ensure liberty, raises a
practical problem of the utmost importance: what was the key to these
qualities? Again, Scott turned to the humanist vocabulary for an
answer. The way to foster the common good and to uphold liberty was
to lead the vita activa. Using the metaphor of the body, Scott pointed
out that 'nature makes use of any parte in any office, for preservation
of the whole man from ruine'. Since every member of a body, he went
on, 'partak's with the head and whole body, in paine or pleasure, in
honor or dishonor, therefore it concerns every member, to looke to the
preservation both of themselves in perticuler, and of others in gen-
erall'.50
As we have seen, this idea of the active life in Scott's writings has
commonly been ascribed to his puritan background. There is of course
little doubt that the more fervent protestants in general and Scott in
particular sometimes expressed religion in distinct terms of action.
William Hull told his listeners in a sermon that 'in this spirituall
Theater, not idle contemplatives, but active performers of vertuous
offices, are honoured with crowns celestiall' and that therefore 'the
46
Scott, The high-waies of God, p. 84.
47
[Thomas Scott], The second part of Vox populi: or Gondomar appearing in the likenes ofMathiauell in a
Spanish parliament (Goricom [i.e. London], (1624), s^g- D 2 v ~3 r -
48
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p. 39.
49
[Scott], A tongue-combat, p. 64.
50
[Scott], Vox Dei, p p . 25-6. Cf. e.g. J[oh]n R[eynold]s, Vox coeli: or, newesjrom heaven (Elesium
[i.e. London], 1624), pp. 35-6.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 241

active and contemplative life meete both in the true Christian'.

According to Thomas Taylor, 'Christian prudence' was not 'a con-
templative, but an active knowledge'. In The arte of happines, Francis
Rous spoke about 'the fellowship & communion of Saints' in a similar
manner. They were 'sill Brethren and Countrimen, and withal Pilgrims
in a strange Countrie'. If they were to survive, they ought amongst
other things to 'excel in vertue' and 'confirme and provoke one another
to good works'.52 In another treatise, Rous referred directly to the
debate about the respective merits of the contemplative and the active
life. It was possible to argue that being closer to heaven 'Contemplation
is heerein more excellent then Action.' Nonetheless, contemplation
ought to be combined with action. 'For Contemplation', Rous
expounded, 'is then most commendable when it is expressed in deeds,
and not when it is meerly borne and buried in thoughts.' 53 Similar
ideas can be found in Scott's writings. In The Belgicke pismire Scott
claimed that man 'was not created to idlenesse', but to enjoy labour
and 'to preserve by industrie what God himselfe had created'. 'In the
action,' he added, 'there is terminus a quo implyed, and terminus ad quern
expressed.'54
The idea of the active life, however, was scarcely a puritan invention.
On the contrary, the puritan insistence on the vita activa was, as Margo
Todd has shown, a mixture of Christian and humanist values, which
she calls 'Christian humanism'. 55 Rous could exploit the notion of the
vita activa in a religious context, but the arguments he was employing
were scarcely more Calvinist in character than his argument that the
church needed continual amendments and a return to its origins.
Whereas in 1622 he simply observed that 'it is an observation of secular
Policie, That all States, with time gather rust, and therfore by often
reviews, they are to bee reduced to the first grounds of Vertue and
Justice, which setled their Foundations', five years later he explicitly
51
William Hull, The mirrovr ofmaiestie ... set forth injiue sermons (London, 1615), pp. 45-6. Thomas
Taylor, Circumspect walking describing the seuerall rules, as so many seuerall steps in the way qfwisedome
(1619) (London, 1631), pp. 31-2.
52
Francis Rous, The arte ofhappines (London, 1619), pp. 399-403; cf. p. 411.
53
Francis Rous, Diseases of the time, attended by their remedies (London, 1622), pp. 208-21. For Rous,
the pursuit of private gain comprised 'the privatnesse of contemplation' a n d this was to
'neglect the profit of the publike', p. 17. Cf. in general his Meditations of instruction, of exhortation,
ofreprofe: indeavovring the edification and reparation of the house of God (London, 1616), pp. 1-3, 330;
idem, Oile of scorpions: the miseries of these times turned into medicines and curing themselues (London,
1623), s ig- A 7 V ~8 V ; William Evans, A translation of the booke of nature, into the use ofgrace (Oxford,
l6
_. 33)> PP- 24, f>-i.
Scott, The Belcigkepismire, pp. 1, 12.
55
Todd 1987; see also Todd 1983.
242 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

referred to Machiavelli at this point. 56 This is equally true for Thomas

Scott. His idea of the active life was not limited to religion, nor was it
only expressed in religious terms. In Vox regis Scott defended the
contention that the marriage of a prince concerned the commonwealth
as much as the prince himself. This was so, he argued, since 'everie
mans vocation bindes him to prevent evill, and to doe good. So that,
whensoever I have opportunitie to doe it, I have a calling to doe it.' A
man was not only a Christian, he was also 'a Subject', and hence it was
his duty to work Tor the benefit of the State and Church'. 57
In his last pamphlet, Sir Walter Rawldghs ghost, Scott described the
Elizabethan hero as a man whose mind was 'actively disposed'.
Although Ralegh had possessed excellent qualities for otium, he had
never given up negotium. For all Ralegh's inclinations which could have
drawn 'thy minde from all other obiects, and to have setled thee upon
this Theorie, that solitarinesse is the most excellentest condition
belonging unto mankinde', but 'yet all this thou didst neglect, and both
contradict and disprove'. The life of contemplation was totally 'unfit
for thy greatnesse'. Scott was convinced that 'thou wert not borne for
thy selfe but thy Countrie'. 58 The same priorities also emerged else-
where in Scott's writings. 'It is my duty', said Henry Hexham in his
introduction to one of Scott's pamphlets, '... to doe thus; for my
meanes receive of the States obligeth my tongue, hand, heart, and
whole man, to promote their just cause in wordes, writings, actions,
prayers.' He 'that doeth not thus thinke speake, write, and doe, having
the same ingagements, where occasion is presented' was deemed to be
a 'traytor'.5 In his assize sermon delivered in Norwich in 1620 and
printed in 1623, Scott preached that a man 'must give an accompt for
the imployment of his talents'. He should avoid gathering wealth and
focus on doing 'God service, and other men good'. Cicero helped him
to explain what he had in mind; 'as Heathens could say', the chief rule
of public justice was that VVOH solum no bis nati sumus, sed partim patriae,
partimparentibus, &c.'60
In Scott's analysis the active life was not only the direct antithesis of
sloth and idleness; it was equally at variance with the vita contemplativa.
Preaching at Thetford in Norfolk in 1620, Scott told his listeners that
56
Rous, Diseases of the time, sig. A7 r -8 r ; idem, The onely remedy, that can cure a people when all other
remediesfaile (London, 1627), PP- 208—10.
57
[Scott], Vox regis, pp. 14-15.
58
[Thomas Scott], Sir Walter Rawleighs ghost: or Englandsforewarner (Utrecht, 1626), pp. 15-16.
59
[Scott], A tongue-combat, 'The epistle dedicatorie', sig. A2I"~V.
60
[Scott], The protector, p . 6. Gf. Taylor, Circumspect walking, sig. A2 v ~3 r .
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Government 243
men had two ways before them - 'the way of knowledge and under-
standing' and 'the way of Practise or Action'. The former consisted of
'Faith or Religion' whilst the way of action was chiefly formed by
'conversation, manners and fashion of living and dealing betwixt man
and man, in vice or in vertue'.61
The same traditional line of argument also emerges in Scott's
account of learning. He insisted that learning was an indispensable
quality, but was even more adamant that it was utterly useless as long
as it was not combined with action. A man could not be called truly
wise although he was 'a great Scholer' and 'a great Philosopher' being
'seene in the hidden secrets of nature', mastering all 'the Arts' as well as
all 'the Languages' and superseding even Aristotle in learning. Neither
could he be truly wise even though he understood 'the whole bodie of
Divinitie' and was able 'to resolve all the knotty controversies that are
in the world, or may bee imagined'. Nor could a man even claim to
attain true wisdom while being 'a great and perfect Politician, diving
into those arcana Imperij that are sealed up in silence', whilst acquainted
with 'all forraine Countries and Customes' and with 'the natures of all
people' and able to 'dissemble more artificially then MachiavelT. A
man could not be called a wise man until he could put his learning to
active use. 'For he that will be wise,' Scott insisted, 'must not onely
labour for wisedome, (that is, to get the Theory or bare Speculation
thereof as it is a Science) but when he hath gotten that he must labour
with wisedome also, or else hee can effect nothing: that is, he must
shew his wisedome in action.' The reason was straightforward. A
man was truly wise only when his learning materialized in action,
because 'virtus in actione consistif. Wisdom was not given to men so that
they 'should sit still and sleepe with it, or play or dally with it, as with a
pleasant companion'; the purpose of this quality was simply 'to direct
us in vertuous undertakings'.6
If Scott's idea of the vita activa bears a close resemblance to the
Ciceronian ideal, this is equally true of his idea of the qualities which
enabled a man to lead this kind of life. He argued in Ciceronian
fashion that the key to public service and the promotion of the
common good lies in virtue. Instead of pure contemplation, everyone
should aim at 'vertuous undertakings'. And in his discussion of the
nature of virtue, he further evinces hisfidelityto the humanist tradition.
61
Scott, The high-waies of God, pp. 6-7.
62
Scott's italic.
63
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, pp. 37-8.
244 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

It is above all the cardinal virtues of courage and prudence that a man
needs in order to enhance the good of his community. Scott vehe-
mently admonished his countrymen: 'cease to be foolish, and become
wise; cease to be a Sluggard, and become diligent; cease to be fearefull,
and become couragious and active'.64 It is 'humane and politique
providence' which helps us 'foresee that which in our actions and
dealings is fit to be foreseene and prevented'.65 'Consideration', as he
defined it, 'is a serious examination of any businesse, with the causes,
effects, beginning, continuance, and issue thereof.' It is simply 'a
rumination of the judgement, pondering, and revolving some matter in
hand, untill the same be perfectly digested, settled, and disposed by
reason'.66
Scott's example of 'a good Commonwealths-man' was a pismire (i.e.
ant) who, as he took pains to explain, 'forecasts where best to provide
herselfe, and then diligently takes the oportunitie of the time for her
best advantage'. Furthermore, her wisdom was such that 'shee doth not
onely and barely know this by a naked speculation; but considering it
aright, shee puts it in practise, and makes use of every occasion, for the
full and finall accomplishment of her purposes'.67 Later in the same
treatise, Scott spelled out the relevance of the pismire's example to
human life: 'Now, since wisdome is so requisite for the life of man, as
that without it a man is worse then a Pismire; and, since wee see to be
wise, is not only to know by speculation, nor only to goe and to
consider, but also to resolve, to practise, and to execute what wee
know, and have considered.'68 To be devoid of prudence 'keepes men
in slouth'; they are unable to ponder upon 'the reward of glorie' which
they would only attain by their 'good and vertuous actions'.69
It is thus no exaggeration to state that one of Scott's main aims in his
pamphlet campaign was not only to lay bare the serious menace to the
English commonwealth but also to indicate the way out of this
64
Ibid., p. 16; cf. A relation of"Holland, pp. 16—19.
65
[Scott], A relation ofHolland, p. 1.
66
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, p. 14.
67
Ibid., p. 25.
68
Ibid., p . 43; see also The high-waies of God, p p . 6-7. According to Francis Rous, 'the maine
Faultinesse of these Times, is a Disproportion, betweene Knowledge and Action; or rather a
meere resting in knowledge short of Action', Meditations of instruction, p . 1. Cf. J o h n Everard,
The arriereban: a sermon preached to the company of the Military Tarde (London, 1618), p. 47; J[ohn]
R[eynolds], Votivae Angliae: or the desires and wishes of England (Utrecht, 1624), sig. B2r, A$T. For a
strikingly similar rhetoric, see Secretary Edward Gonway's strategic plans cited in Cogswell
1989a, p. 70. See also [Alexander Leighton], Speculum belli sacri: or the looking-glasse of the holy war
(n.p., 1624), PP- 32-3-
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p. 14.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 245

corruption. His confidence in the possibility of the reform of the

English commonwealth remained unshaken in the face of the bad news
of 1623. I n V°x dei he offered a cluster of examples, including some of
the central heroes of republican Rome - Mucius Scaevola, Scipio
Africanus and Horatius Codes - and wondered whether someone
'desires further satisfaction, and thinkes these examples of antick
liberty, & vertue, too fair out of fashion, to be revived in these dayes,
degenerating from true nobility, and declining headlong towards
security'.70 The reform of this degeneracy depended, to a great extent,
on whether the people could be persuaded to change their heart. To
accomplish this Scott used a distinctively classical republican vocabu-
lary. The best means of upholding liberty was to lead a virtuous active
life and thereby to serve the common good. If only the people could be
persuaded to change tack, the commonwealth could be reformed and
the people's liberty maintained. 'Finally,' Scott concluded the second
sermon printed in The high-waies of God, 'let none amongst you bee
seene idlely to sit at home, whilst these things are doing in the full
Country, as if it did not concerned you: but ride, runne, and deale
seriously herein, as for your lives and liberties which depend heere-
upon.' 71
Although Scott maintained that it was everyone's duty to be actively
involved in the promotion of the public good, he reserved a special role
for the nobility. Having strongly disparaged the contemporary idea of
nobility, Scott felt it was necessary to point out that it was not his
intention 'to disparage the Nobilitie' as such but on the contrary 'to
preserve it in tire from mixture and coagulation'. He levelled unmiti-
gated criticism at the corrupt nobility of his day, and was equally
determined that 'antick liberty, & vertue' were closely linked with 'true
nobility'.73 In one of his pamphlets Scott sought to argue that it was of
great importance to confer 'honors and rewards' on those who
deserved them. Since there was a 'Common Error' 'That Common-
weales are incapable of this power to conferre honors', Scott resorted
to the history of Rome for corroboration. 'Amongst the Romans', he
observed, 'severall rewards and honors of all sorts [had been],
distributed freely and constantly to the best deservers.' This had been
70
[Scott], Vox Dei, p . 37, cf. p p . 70-1. It was of course a commonplace to offer the Elizabethan
period as a model to be emulated, e.g. Anon., Tom tell troath, p p . 2, 6; J o h n Taylor, An English-
mans love to Bohemia (Dort, 1620), p . 4; Randol, A sermon, p . 4; Cogswell 1989a, p p . 9 5 - 8 .
71
Scott, The high-waies of God, p . 87.
72
[Scott], The Belgickepismire, p . 28; Vox Dei, p . 57.
73
[Scott], Vox Dei, p . 37.
246 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

done with a view to encouraging 'all of every ranck, high and low, the
witty and valiant, in their severall kindes, to do their best, and to
adventure for the publique good5. This kind of system, Scott assured
his readers, where honours were conferred on the basis of merits alone,
'would animate and stirre up noble spirits to excellent actions and
enterprizes through emulation'.74 Elsewhere he pointed out that the
idea of a meritocracy was exemplified by the governors of the
contemporary Netherlands as well as by Roman consuls. In both cases
'the wisest and worthiest persons' were employed, in spite of the fact
that they were 'without traine, or pompe, or titular vanities; and many
of them [were] raised for their experience, fidelity and wisedome, from
meane stations, to treade in those high steps of authority and super-
ioritie'.75
In The Belgicke pismire Scott opened his discussion of nobility by
quoting Aristotle to the effect that nobility proceeded from excellent
lineage. Conversely, the wrong kind of nobility was exemplified by
those who had either degenerated from 'the nobilitie and vertue of
their Ancestors' or were 'base in their Originals'.76 But in general
Scott's treatment of the issue was dominated by a different set of
values. The true nature of nobility became clear as soon as attention
was focused on 'Antiquitie'. When 'the desire of dominion' had begun
'to disturbe the whole World', people had had 'to elect out some of the
strongest' for protection. 'And to these', Scott proceeded, 'they gave
both titles and priviledged, to incourage their diligent attention on
their offices.' The moral of this ancient instance was obvious. Nobility
was based on personal qualities rather than ancestry, or as Scott put it:
'Thus it appeares, that Nobility was first from Office, not from nature.'
Although the eldest son could inherit his father's 'titles and lands', his
'most vertuous and active' son was 'the heyre of his fathers honors'. 77
Even 'Principalitie it selfe', Scott added, 'springs from this low but
fruitefull root.' It followed, therefore, that 'virtue' alone determined
'nobility'.78 He insisted that at birth men were equal and it was only
their later lives that determined their worth. According to him, 'all
have alike common entrance into the world; the King and the beggar;
the foole and the Philosopher; and that only the difference betwixt

74
[Scott], Synmachia, pp. 26-8.
75
[Scott], A tongue-combat, p . 50.
76
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, pp. 27-8.
77
Ibid., pp. 29-30.
78
I b i d , p . 28.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 247

Man and Man was, in the different use of themselues, and the choyce
of their wayes heere, where there was a way of wisedome and vertue,
and a way of ignorance and vice propounded to all'. 79 The same point
was versed by George Wither in 1621:
I care not for that Gentry, which doth lye
In nothing but a Goat of Heraldry.
One Vertue more I rather wish, I had;
Then all, the Herald to mine Armes, could add:
Yea, I had rather, that by my industry
I could acquire some one, good quality.
Then through the Families, that noblest be
FromfiftyKings, to drawe my Pedigree.80
Scott's strong emphasis on the importance of virtuous actions as the
chief quality of true nobility had an immediate bearing upon the role
the nobility was expected to play in the public life of the common-
wealth. The maintenance of the commonwealth hinged on their active
participation. It was the 'vocation' of 'true Nobility' to promote the
common good. 'For all the honors & priviledges of the ancient
Nobilitie', Scott argued, 'were granted upon this ground, that they had
worthily acted something for the generall benefit of many.' 81 Any
attempts 'to purchase honour without some worthy action fore-going,
or for any man to conferre this without merit concurring' was doomed
to fail; it was not 'truely to be Noble, but the idole of Nobility'. 82 Scott
never tired of repeating that 'Nobilitie' sprang 'from action'; 'the
workes that Nobility is originally tyed unto, are actes of bountie,
justice, charity, piety, loyalty, and prudence'. True nobility ought 'to
watch and warde, and study, and counsell, for the Common-wealth'. It
had been created 'for the generall service of the State in publique
imployments'.83
For those who pursued the virtuous active life with vigour and
success Scott retained his most honorific term 'commonwealth-men'.
He defined 'worthy Commonwealths-men' as those who 'with his
Majesties good liking, the peoples generall applause, to Gods glorie,
the States good, and their owne personall honours, have liberally and
freely layd open the Grievances of all good men, and with solid
arguments inveighed against the Abuses of the Time, presented to their
79
Scott, Thehigh-waiesgfGod, p. 1. Cf. Sutton, The serpent anatomized, pp. 11, 17-18.
80
Wither, Wither's motto, sig Ei v -2 r .
81
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, p. 28.
82
Ibid., p. 30.
83
Ibid., pp. 30-1; Vox Dei, pp. 1-3, 16-17.
248 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

censure and correction, in the high Court of Parliament'.84 His

concrete example of a 'commonwealth-man' was Cicero who 'is a
member, a servaunt, a childe, of the Common-wealth; yet is he truly
what he is, called the father, of the Common-wealth'.85 In The Belgicke
pismire Scott sharply contrasted 'the effect of privacie, whilst every man
cares onely for himselfe, and neglects the Common-wealth' with what
he called 'the practise of the Pismire' who represented 'a good
Common wealths man'. Quoting Bacon's three-part division of studies,
Scott argued that there were three spheres of life: those of 'a
Naturalist', 'a Moralist' and 'a Polititian'. When a man acted as 'a
Politician', he became 'a good Citizen, a good Common-wealths-
man'. 86
The meticulous attention which Scott paid to the issues of the active
life raises the further question of the nature and range of actions the
people in general and the true nobility in particular were expected to
perform. In answering this question, Scott followed a familiar path. In
the first place, it was the duty of the people and of the nobility to be
willing to defend their country - a characteristic which corresponded
to the virtue of courage. Whereas the wrong kind of nobility were
perpetuated by an education which trained noblemen for an idle
course of life, the creation and maintenance of true nobility were
crucially dependent on the right kind of education, which brought up
children in 'militarie affaires', so much so that 'they seeke the warres'.
It was one of his most central contentions, which recurred in most of
Scott's pamphlets, that war was justified and that it often proved highly
beneficial to the community. There was a close link between corrup-
tion, the pursuit of private profit and the promotion of peace. As 'in the
microcosme of private estates', so 'in the megacosme of publique
wealths' there was nothing which made 'an estate' more secure 'then to
have an enemy' and nothing which more corrupted 'a state, then
security and peace'. A long period of peace 'softneth, and make's
effeminate the heart of men, with immoderate pleasure'. In effect,
every state which allowed itself to degenerate through long peace
presented 'it selfe to subjection, with all the opportunity, and advan-
tage, that may wooe any lustfull enemy to attempt'. 88
84
[Scott], Vox regis, p. 7.
85
[Scott], Vox Dei, p. 42.
86
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, pp. 36-7; Bacon, Essaies (1612), in Works, vi, p. 675. Cf. Sutton, The
serpent anatomized, p. 30.
87
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, pp. 30-1.
88
[Scott], Vox Dei, p. 48, cf. pp. 48—9; The Belgicke pismire, p. 51. Gf. Hale 1971, p . 376.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governemenf 249

When Scott placed so much emphasis on the merits of martial

valour and on the corrupting nature of peace respectively, it is
apparent that he had a specific target in mind. Those who advocated
the Spanish match and therefore a peaceful foreign policy could follow
the royal line of argument in their public remarks. In 1618 a tract, The
peace-maker: or Great Brittaines blessing, bearing the royal arms and voicing
James's opinion, strongly argued for peace. The purpose of the
publication was to continue 'that mightie Happinesse wherein this
Kingdome excells manie Empires'. England was referred to as 'the
Land of Peace, under the King of Peace' and the British people, living
'in Beth-salem the house of Peace', sang 'this song of peace, Beati
pacifici'.89 Similar opinions were expressed throughout the period.
John Denison had preached before the king in 1611 that 'no man
knowes thorowly the benefit of Peace, but hee that hath seene the
dolefull face of warre'. The sermon was published in 1620 to 'stirre
men up to a serious consideration, and correspondent thankefulnesse
for these blessed daies of Peace'. 90 In 1622 Robert Willan contrasted
the 'Halcion dayes' of England with 'tumultuarie times' of other parts
of the Christian world. And in 1623 these opinions became louder
and more voluminous.
Yet the Bohemian crisis prompted several authors to compose
treatises upon warfare. Abraham Gibson argued in traditional rhetoric
89
Anon., The peace-maker: or Great Brittaines blessing (London, 1619), sigs. A4 r , Bi v -2 r . According to
Gardiner 1863—84, in, p . 183, a view which Willson 1956, p . 271 endorses, the tract was
mostly written by Lancelot Andrewes. It should be noted that at least the argument that
warfare without a just cause was an 'Apparition of Honour' and its contrast, 'Honourable
Services, publike Merits, good Causes, and Noble Adventures', (sig. D2v~3r) were taken
almost verbatim from Francis Bacon's The charge touching duells (1614), in Letters, iv, p p . 3 9 9 -
409, at p. 401.
90
John Denison, Beati pacifici: the blessednes ofpeace-makers: and the advancement of Gods children: in two
sermons preached before the king (London, 1620), p p . 12, 14-15, sig. A2r~v.
Rfobert] Willan, Conspiracie against kings, heavens scorne: a sermon preached at Westminster-Abbey before
the iudges, vpon thefifthofNovemb. 1622 (London, 1622), pp. 1—3; Walter Gurll, A sermon preached at
White-hall, on the 28. of April, 1622 (London, 1622), pp. 1-4, 7—8, 10—13, 17—23; Thomas Adams,
Eirenopolis: the dtie of peace (1622), in The workes ofTho: Adams (London, 1630), pp. 993-1015. Gf.
however idem, The sovldiers honour (London, 1617).
92
See e.g. J o h n Stradling, Beati pacifici: a divine poem (London, 1623), PP- 6, 24, see also pp. 7—10,
22—4, 33-5, 48-50; Nehemiah Rogers, A strange vineyard in Palaestina: in an exposition of Isaiahs
parabolical song of the beloued, discouered: to which Gods vineyard in this our land is paralleld (London,
1623), especially pp. 15, 258—62; idem, Christian curtesie: or St Pavls vltimum vale: deliuered in two
semons ... at St Margarets on Fish-street hill in London (London, 1621), pp. 62-5; Edmund Garrard,
The covntrie gentleman moderator (London, 1624), pp. 50—1; Gfeorge] Warburton, King Melchizedech:
a sermon preached at the court, at East-Hamspted, in ... the second of September. 1623 (London, 1623),
sig. A3r~v, p p . 33-5, 49-53; Pfattenson], The image ofbothe churches, p . 2; Joseph Hall, The true
peace-maker: laid forth in a sermon before his maiesty at Theobalds. September ig, 1624 (London, 1624), p.
43-
250 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

that it was partly because of his friends' admonitions that in 1619 he

finally published his sermon on the preparations for war, preached
in April 1618. But he hastened to add that he also did it because of
'these late rumours of warres'. Recommending his military treatise to
the potential reader, Thomas Trussell wrote: 'Let the example of
forraine evils warne England to awaken it selfe out of securitie.' 93
Many of these war-manuals repudiated the all-embracing blessedness
of peace; 'these Halcion dayes, wherein Peace and Plentie lull us
asleepe in the lap of Securitie', as one author put it. 94 It is arguable,
however, that they were justifying their own enterprises rather than
expressing apprehensions about James's foreign policy. But when we
come to Edward Davies's The art of war, published in 1619, the target
becomes somewhat more definite. Promising to make 'the many
unexpert traine-men of this Kingdome' 'absolute Souldiers', Davies
readily confessed that he was facing an uphill struggle since the
would-be soldiers had 'reaped a large harvest of peace under the
most peacefull Monarch in Europe'. As early as 1618 John
Everard had preached that 'the name of a Souldier' was 'at this
time ridiculous among secure fooles, and contemptible among such
birds of peace, as cannot abide the Drumme, saving in a Morris-
dance' and that 'wee have turned Memento mori, the meditation of
death, into Vine hodie, an Epicurean and sensuall life'.96 As James
endeavoured to solve the mounting crisis peacefully, the advocacy of
war became more blatant. In early 1622, one author wrote that
although peace was the most praiseworthy blessing of heaven, 'a
man may have too much of his Fathers blessing'. He expressed his
fear that 'wee have too much cause to complaine of your Majesties

Gibson, Christiana-polemica, sig. A5r v; Thomas Trussell, The sovldier pleading his owne cause, 2nd
impression (London, 1619), sig. A3r. Pierre Du Moulin, A preparation to suffer for the Gospell ofIesvs
Christ (London, 1623), pp. 1-3, 42—4, amply evoked forbearance and patience.
J. T., The ABC ofarmes, or an introduction directone; whereby the order ofmilitarie exercises may easily bee
understood, and readily practised, where, when, and howsoeuer occasion is offered (London, 1616), sig. A4r.
Cf. e.g. Jeremy Leech, The Wayne souldier: a sermon preached befor the worthy Societie of the captaynes
and gentlemen that exercise armes in the Artillery garden (London, 1619), pp. 60-1; Trussell, The sovldier,
pp. 31-2; Gibson, Christiana-polemica, pp. 1—2, where the argument is conventionally directed
against the Anabaptists. For this, see e.g. [Leighton], Speculum belli sacri, p. 6. Cf. Croft 1986,
P-I4-
Edward Davies, The art of war, andEnglands traynings (London, 1619), sig. T[2V. Cf. idem, Military
directions, or the art oftrayning (London, 1618).
John Everard, The arriereban, pp. 25, 27—8, 56, 73-4, 87-9, 91—2, 101—2. See in general Hunt
1990, pp.226-8.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 251

unlimited Peace' because the excess of peace chath long since turned
vertue, into Vice, and health into sicknes'.97
The fact that John Reynolds's Votivae Angliae was published in 1624
might serve to explain the absence of any lavish description of
corruption, but Reynolds was careful to warn the king about the
shameful consequences of an overlong period of peace. 'And although
your Majestie', he wrote, 'delight and glorie to be tearmed, A Prince of
Peace; yet lett your Peace live and flourish in Honnor, and not wyther
dye in Contempt and shame.' He was not 'a true Subject' and 'a
faithfull and loyall-harted Britton' who was not ready to sacrifice his
life for the good of his country.98
In his denunciation of peace and his exhortation to martial enter-
prises, Scott was concerned to uphold the same set of values. It was his
firm opinion that England ought to renounce James's peaceful foreign
policy, denounce every possible treaty with Spain (including of course
the marriage treaty) and adopt a more aggressive role in international
politics. As early as 1621, when the truce between Spain and the
Netherlands was due to expire, Scott insisted that 'all Treaties of Peace
and Truce to be made with the King of Spaine, are wholly unprofi-
table' for the Dutch. Since a permanent peace was 'impossible' and the
'Truce hurtfull', 'what resteth onely to bee expected but warre?' 99 Two
years later, he repeated that although peace was in principle a valuable
thing, in practice it turned out to be ruinous because 'the time agreeing
with the necessity, we are in regard of the feare of the Spanish
greatnesse'.100 This kind of rhetoric became especially powerful and
explicit in 1624 when Charles and Buckingham decided to campaign
for war. Scott dedicated his tract The Belgick sovldier, subtitled 'warre was
a blessing', to parliament, and promised to prove 'that Warre hath
97
Anon., Tom tell troath, p . 7, cf. pp. 10-11, 27. Cf. e.g. Sutton, The serpent anatomized, p . 8; Francis
Markham, Five decades of epistles of warre (London, 1622), especially sig. A3V, p . 9; Samuel Buggs,
Miles mediterranevs: the Mid-land souldier: a sermon (London, 1622), p. 17; Richard Bernard, The
seaven golden candlestickes: Englands honour (London, 1621), sig. A4 r . It was opinions such as these
that Thomas Adams sought to answer in his Eirenopolis, when he pointed out that it was not
simply prosperity which destroyed our peace; it was 'the prosperitie of fooles' alone which
brought about the violation of peace, The workes, p . 1012.
98
R[eynold]s, Votivae Angliae, sig. EI V , *4 r ; idem, Vox coeli, pp. 31, 34, for corruption see pp. 35,
36; [Leighton], Speculum belli sacri, pp. 7-8, 42. Cf. the views expressed by the prince's
c h a p l a i n , Isaac B a r g r a v e , A sermon preached before ...the lower house of parliament: February the last
1623 (London, 1624), PP- 25~6, 35-6; idem, A sermon against selfe policy, pp. 30—4. Later in the
1620s those who criticized Charles saw James's foreign policy as an epitome of England's
corruption; see e.g. J. R., The spy discovering the danger of Arminian heresie and Spanish trecherie
(Strasburg, 1628), sig. B2r~~v.
99
[Scott], A relation of Holland, sig. A2r, p . 11.
100
[Scott], An experimentalldiscoverie, pp. 1—2, 6-7.
252 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

been better than peace, and that the Commonwealth and Religion of
England have had their glory and propagation by opposing Antichrist,
and in plaine termes reputing Spaine'. 01 Using the earl of Essex as his
spokesman, Scott insisted that James was being seriously misled 'by
(some) false hearted Counsellours5 and that the king had himself been
c
a peaceable King from his Cradle', so much so that CBEATI PACIFIGI is
his happy destined Motto'. Although it was a good thing to be at
peace, it was 'an unhappy and dangerous a thing to have league or
amity with Romane-Catholique Kings'. 102
Although in arguing against effeminate peace and for a valorous war
Scott had the possible misfortune or success of his native country in
mind, he employed specific vocabularies in support of his case. First,
the pursuit of a martial policy could be justified on the basis of religious
arguments alone. Scott claimed that 'I will onely deale with the Church
of God, and cause of Religion.' But he also ridiculed the earlier
Christian humanists for extolling the blessings of the peace with Cicero.
'He that pleaded for peace', he expounded, 'and cried out in an
insulting bravery, Cedant arme [sic] togae, concedat laurea linguae [sic], that
maintained the morrall precepts of Philosophy, that an unjust peace
was to be preferred before a just warre' singlemindedly forgot that
Cicero had also set down 'in his lib. I. De qfficif that *Suscipienda quidem
bella sunt ob earn causam, vt sine iniuria in pace Vivatur [War could only be
justified that we may live in peace without harm]'. 1 3
Nevertheless, elsewhere Scott was inclined to use a somewhat
different vocabulary. In denouncing sloth and idleness and exhorting
his countrymen to action, Scott proclaimed that continual exercise was
of vital importance since otherwise men would become weak and
wholly 'unfit for any imployment'. Hence, Scott wrote, 'an army is
termed Exercitus, quod exercitandofitmelior, because it is much bettered by
exercise'. The truth of this was most easily discerned from the examples
of the Romans, who had known it well and who had therefore been
'not only carefull to exercise their owne persons and the people at
home, but their armies abroad'. 104 In his prefatory verses to Samuel
Bachiler's Miles christianvs in 1625, Scott rhymed:

[Scott], The Belgick sovldier, pp. 2—3; cf. e.g. A second part, sig. G4r; [Thomas Scott?], Certaine
reasons and arguments qfpolicie (n.p., 1624), sig. B2V, B4 V .
[Thomas Scott], Robert earle of Essex his ghost, sentfrom Elizian: to the nobility, gentry, and commvnaltie
of England (Paradise [i.e. London], 1624), pp. 2, 4.
[Scott], The Belgick sovldier, pp. 4-5; cf. in general Digitvs Dei; Cicero, De qffidis, 1.35.
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, pp. 12—13; cf. A tongue-combat, p. 61.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 253
The Campe's a Court, where all heroick seedes
Of Courage, freedome, Noblesse, vertue breedes,
Where native comelynes is man-like brave,
And inward worth may unbought honour have.105

He compared England ('so base a State') unfavourably to Rome ('so

brave a State') and posed a question to his countrymen: 'Can you
exceede all Nations in Christendome in wastfull vanities; And can you
not arme your selves against one Nation, (which you have ever beaten)
for your necessary defence?'
Underlying Scott's reasoning was the old Roman idea of the citizen
bearing arms. In order to survive in the hostile world and to uphold
liberty, it was vital to arm the people. To illustrate his point further,
Scott proclaimed that perhaps he was living in 'so degenerate an Age'
that 'you will not be able to defend your owne Land'. But he sincerely
hoped that 'there is yet left some seed of that auncient vertue' which
had enabled other nations to defend their fatherland. Scott's most
instructive example was Publius Valerius Publicola, who had played a
crucial role in the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus from Rome, who
at his death had been hailed as the greatest soldier and statesman of
his day and who had therefore been buried at public expense, for
inspite of his renown he had been so poor that his resources had not
been enough to allow for the funeral. 0 6 Invoking the memory of the
Roman hero, Scott wrote: 'And doubdesse there will ever be found
some VALERII, who (so the State may stand and flourish) will not care
thogh they leave not where with to bury themselves, though other
some bury their money, not caring in what estate they leave the
State:101
This background to Scott's arguments serves to explain why he
sometimes regarded war as a way of achieving civic greatness. His
point of departure was the belief that, to some extent, the end justified
the means. He saw the world in the almost Machiavellian terms of
continuous warfare. Where 'the preservation of Kingdomes' was at
stake, it would be a misguided policy to have 'too much fidelity to
others', for this had proved to be the destruction of 'great and potent
Kingdomes, Provinces and Townes'. The safest rule of conduct for
105
Samuel Bachiler, Miles christianvs: or the campe royal (Amsterdam, 1625), sig. Bi r .
106
Uvy, 2.17.
107
[Thomas Scott], Robert earle of Essex his ghost, pp. 14-15; Rfeynolds], Vox coeli, sig. B2V. Gf.
Anon., The military discipline (n.p., 1623), where the basic argument was directed against the
relevance of ancient examples to modern warfare. See also [Scott], Vox Dei, p. 20. Gf. Gibson,
Christiana-polemica, pp. 23-4.
254 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-164.0

'private men or publique States' was, therefore, 'mistrust'.108 Scott

drew two conclusions from this argument. First, he insisted that a
preventive war was a just war. More importantly, commonwealths
always had to be ready to fight a war, and hence the best general policy
was one of aggression. Urging James to make an about-turn in his
foreign policy, Scott reminded him that 'the desire of honour to
advance States, and enlarge Kingdomes, is naturally grafted in the
hearts of all Princes of noble spirits; and there was never any King, of a
worthy and high courage, but desired to leave to his posterity the
memorie of some noble and worthy action'.109 And to prove that it was
above all by martial enterprises that greatness could be achieved, Scott
claimed that Henry IV of France acquired fame and 'greatnesse' whilst
'the warres lasted' but that as soon as 'peace was contracted, his
honour was distracted'. But the Low Countries furnished more
conclusive proof still that it was war which brought about civic glory,
and Scott asked his readers to judge the matter for themselves. The
Dutch people had 'augmented their fame and renown abroad, and
increased their wealth and territories at home'. When England had
fought Spain in Elizabeth's times, 'we were', Scott boldly claimed,
'beholding to the warres and such Martiall spirits: who tooke example
from ancient Patriots, to be indulgent over their Countries renowne
and enriching'.110
Of all the advocates of a martial foreign policy it was Francis Bacon
who made the most daring use of civic greatness in his arguments.
After his impeachment in May 1621, Bacon never gave up the hope of
being able to return to the court and to politics. In 1622, during the
period of rapprochement with Spain, he wrote the incomplete An
advertisement touching an holy wane, where he discussed the possibility of a
common attack of Christians against the Ottomans. But the main
way in which he attempted his political comeback was by promoting a
more martial foreign policy. He returned, in other words, to the issue
which had been prominent in his political statements during the first
years of James's reign — civic greatness. Bacon's somewhat ambivalent
position is well described by John Reynolds in Vox coeli, a dialogue
between the Tudors and the Stuarts. 'Sir Nicholas Bacon my Chan-
108
[Scott], An experimentall discoverie, pp 3—4. For a similar notion, see R[eynolds], Votivae Angliae,
sig. B3 r .
[Scott], An experimentall discoverie, p. 33.
110
[Scott], TheBelgick sovldier, pp. 28, 29, 31, 36-7, 39; The proiector, p. 1. Cf. Anon., Tom tell troath,
p. 2.
1x l
Bacon, Works, v n , pp. 3-36; Cogswell 1989a, pp. 38-9. Cf. Patrick 1971.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 255

cellor on his Death-bed', Queen Elizabeth remarked, 'wrote me a

letter, that the Glory and Conservation of England consisted in holding
Spaine at Rapiers point; and will not his sonne Sir Francis, the now
[sic] Chancellor tell his Maister so much?3 But Prince Henry quickly
replied: 'O no, he is otherwise imployed.'112 The issue of civic greatness
surfaced afresh in The historie of the raigne of king Henry the seventh which
was written as an advisory book for Prince Charles immediately after
Bacon's impeachment and published early in 1622. In 1622 he also
received a Latin translation of the Advancement of learningL13 and it was
finally published in 1623 in a greatly expanded form bearing the title
De dignitate et augmentis scientiarum. The only issue of the art of govern-
ment which he discussed in the treatise was the extension of the
empire. When Charles and Buckingham returned from Madrid, Bacon
was actively involved in offering advice to Buckingham about a possible
war against Spain, noting that 'the King will put a hook in the nostrils
of Spain, and lay a foundation of greatness here to his children in these
west parts'. 114 His final verdict upon the greatness of states was the
expanded essay 'Of the true greatnesse of kingdomes and estates',
published in the final edition of his Essayes in 1625, which was almost a
verbatim translation of the treatise in De augmentis.
Again Bacon opened his account by vehemently arguing that the
right touchstone of greatness was an undertaking of the greatest
difficulty. Hence he emphasized not only the danger of miscalculation
but also the difference between seeking longevity and greatness of
states. There were many counsellors and statesmen who were able 'to
mannage Affaires, and to keepe them from Precipices, and manifest
Inconveniences', but these qualities were far removed from 'the
Abilitie' or 'virtus\ as Bacon put it in the De augmentis, of amplifying a
commonwealth.115 The difficulty of measuring greatness notwith-
standing, Bacon was convinced that he himself was fully qualified to
perform the task of advising on the subject, since, as he explained, he
had 'long-continued experience in business of estate, and much
conversation in books of policy and history'.116 In 1623 he wrote to
Buckingham to recommend his services: 'My good Lord, somewhat I

112
R[eynold]s, Vox coeli, p. 34.
113
See Bacon to Father Redemptus Baranzano, 30 June 1622, in Letters, vm, pp. 375-7.
114
Ibid., VII, p. 445.
115
Bacon, Essayes, p. 90; De augmentis, in Works, 1, p. 793.
116
Bacon, 'Considerations touching a war with Spain', in Letters, vn, p. 469.
256 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

have been, and much have I read; so that few things which concern
states or greatness, are new cases unto me.' 117
Bacon strongly emphasized that the only way to attain civic greatness
lay in the possession of arms. 'But above all', he insisted vigorously, 'for
Empire and Greatnesse [ad Imperil Magnitudinem], it importeth most;
That a nation doe professe Armes, as their principall Honour, Study,
and Occupation.'11 To enhance the military valour of the people, it
was essential to have 'just causes' or 'pretexts' for waging a war. 119
Following this principle, Bacon carefully pointed out that a war against
Spain was a preventive war and thus justifiable. 'Howsoever', he
argued, 'some schoolmen (otherwise reverend men, yet fitter to guide
penknives than swords) seem' to insist, they were of no 'authority to
judge this question against all the precedents of time.' 'For certainly,'
he went on, 'as long as men are men ... and as long as reason is
reason, a just fear will be a just cause of a preventive war.' 120
Although Bacon expressed his admiration for the Spanish veteran
army which was 'alwaies on Foot', nonetheless reason and experience
told him that Spain could scarcely match England. Spain lacked both
men and valour. It was a country 'thin sown of people'. Even more
importantly, 'the Spaniard's valour lieth in the eye of the looker on'
while 'the English valour lieth about the soldier's heart'. 121 But the
most ruinous weakness of Spanish politics was that the greatness of
their empire was not grounded on arms but on money. In his earlier
papers on civic greatness, Bacon had, of course, rejected the idea that
money contributed to civic greatness and warlike valour, and the same
idea continued to occupy a prominent place in his later writings on the
same issue. In October 1620, Bacon introduced a draft of a proclama-
tion to summon a parliament and wrote that for 'moneys being the
sinews of war' 'no man is so ignorant' as to think that a successful war
could be waged without 'some large and bountiful help of treasure'. 122
But in the De augmentis as well as in 'Of the true greatnesse of kingdomes
117
Bacon to Buckingham 18 April 1623, in Letters, v n , p. 424.
118
Bacon, De augmentis, in Works, 1, p p . 794-5, 799—800; Essayes, pp. 91-2, 95-7.
119
Bacon, De augmentis, in Works, 1, p . 800; Essayes, pp. 96-7.
120
Bacon, 'Considerations touching a war with Spain', in Letters, v n , p . 477. Cf. Secretary
Conway's justification, Cogswell 1989a, p. 70; Walter Ralegh, 'A discourse of the original and
fundamental cause of natural, arbitrary, necessary, a n d unnatural war' (1614-16), in Works,
VIII, p p . 253-97, p. 259. For Ralegh's tract in general, see Luciani 1948.
121
Bacon, De augmentis, in Works, 1, p . 801; Essayes, p . 97; 'Considerations touching a war with
Spain', in Letters, v n , p . 499. Cf. in general Roger Williams, The actions of the Lowe Countries
(London, 1618).
122
Bacon, Letters, v n , p. 126.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 257
and estates', Bacon squarely denied this and maintained: 'Neither is
Money the Sinewes of Warre, (as it is trivially said) where the Sinewes
of mens Armes, in base and Effeminate People, are failing.'123 Instead
of being based on valorous people, the greatness of Spain ultimately
hinged on the treasures and riches she had obtained from America.
Tor Money', Bacon wrote, 'no doubt it is the principal part of
greatness of Spain.' Spanish 'greatness', he added, 'consisteth in their
treasure; their treasure in their Indies; and their Indies (if it be well
weighed) are indeed but an accession to such as are masters by sea'. 124
One of the main aims of Scott's public statements was to effect a
dramatic change in English foreign policy, and to insist, therefore, that
she was quite capable of adopting a more militant role. But he never
limited the scope of his discussion to warfare alone. The people's
martial deeds did not comprise the only domain of their active role.
Their virtuous character was not limited to courage but also included
prudence. Similarly, the children of true nobility ought to be trained
not merely in warlike discipline but also 'in counsell'. True nobles,
Scott wrote, are not 'accomplished, till they are able both to advise,
and execute in matters of State'. 125 As Scott saw it, it was above all the
role of counsellor which recommended itself to the active subject. On
the one hand, he was most emphatic that it was unfaithful counsel
which had misled James into adopting the ruinous foreign policy of
peace. On the other hand, the solution was not to disregard counsellors
and to establish an absolute monarchy, but rather to give sincere
advice. Scott had the earl of Essex admonish the nobility, gentry and
commons 'seriously and yet submissively to dehort and dissawade your
King, to leave off and absolutely dissolve all Treaties of Matches' with
Spain.126 Counselling called for prudence or 'humane and politique
providence' which enabled one to 'foresee that which in our actions
and dealings is fit to be foreseene and prevented'.
Scott stressed that a man ought to participate on his own initiative in
both the military and the political arenas. Advising the king in 1623 * o
123
Bacon, De augmentis, in Works, 1, p p . 794-5; Essayes, p p . 91-2. Gf. Everard, The arriereban, p . 7.
124
Bacon, 'Considerations touching a war with Spain', in Letters, v n , p p . 499-500; 'Notes of a
speech concerning a war with Spain', in Letters, v n , p . 464; De augmentis, in Works, 1, p p . 795,
801; Essayes, p . 91, 9 7 - 8 . Cf. [Leighton], Speculum belli sacri, p p . 31-2; R[eynold]s, Vox coeli, p .
32. It is probable that Buckingham was following Bacon's advice when he told his strategic
plans to the parliament on 3 March; see Ruigh 1971,191-2; Cogswell 1989a, 181-2.
125
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p p . 3 0 - 1 . Cf. Leech, Trayne souldier, p p . 6 2 - 3 ; [Leighton], Speculum
belli sacri, p. 91.
126
[Scott], Robert earle of Essex his ghost, p. 13.
127
[Scott], A relation of Holland, p. 1.
258 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

abandon 'this mischievous and poysonous peace with Spaine', Scott

took some pains to point out that 'though I be not called, yet
considering I am your subject ... I cannot but presume to speake of
such things, which I thinke now fit to be considered'.128 Obviously he
was much preoccupied with this justification of political action, since in
Vox regis he claimed that 'the generall grievances of the Church and
State'justified the writing of his book. 'This', Scott wrote, 'I might well
see, being a Member of the Multitude: my Office also being to see, to
watch, to speake, to blowe the Trumpet, to give warning.' The
common people best knew 'where the disorders of a State, & the
mischiefes [were] approching', and it was therefore from this source
that kings could gather 'the best and most certaine intelligence of their
Domesticke affaires'.129
Parliament, however, dominated Scott's concept of the vita activa.
There was nothing exceptional in this. A number of writers pointed out
that parliament was the place where grave political problems could be
remedied.130 But as Lake has perceptively pointed out, for Scott
parliament had 'an almost mystical significance as the ultimate source
of unity and concord'.131 Making use ofJames's argument against the
claims of the pope, Scott contended that the king could not give away
his crown without his 'Peeres & peoples consent'. It followed that the
Lords, the Commons, and through them the whole commonwealth
took part in the public life of parliament. As Scott himself put it, 'the
Parliament makes free-Denizens, and incorporates members into the
State by publike Acts, and not the King alone'. 132 In Scott's schemes,
there was a sharp contrast between a timeserver who thought of
nothing else but his own private gain and a freely elected parliament
which held the common good as its chief aim. 133 The fact that the law
- the king's highway - was established by the king together with the
Lords and the Commons made 'every Freeholder' 'a way-maker'. 134
128
[Scott], An experimentall discoverie, p . 45, see also p . 46. Cf. Anon., Tom tell troath, p p . 1, 5;
Randol, A sermon, pp. 1-2.
129
[Scott], Vox regis, p . 18. According to J o h n Randol, it was important to grasp the point that
'there is a division that makes for the good of the whole'. It was as 'in pursuit of deliberative
argument' where 'Disputants' were often divided and yet in the e n d there was 'the unitie of
the same conclusion'. It was, Randol told his listeners, 'not onely lawfull, but most necessary
to be divided for the publicke good'; A sermon, pp. 25-6.
130
Anon., Tom tell troath, pp. 13, 6; Rous, Oile of scorpions, pp. 36-7; R[eynolds], Vox coeli, sig. B I V -
2r.
131
Lake 1982, p . 818, see also pp. 814, 815.
132
[Scott], Vox regLS, p. 12; Robert earl ofEssex his ghost, pp. 15-16; cf. Englands ioy, pp. 4, 6.
133
[Scott], Voxpopvli, sig. B3 v -4 r . Cf. [Leighton?], The interpreter, p . 5.
134
[Scott], The high-waies of God, p. 86.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 259

But parliament also took part in more general matters of policy. The
chief grievance of England - the Spanish match - had been caused by
disregarding the normal procedure of decision-making. The prince was
'a publike and private person'. Both aspects had to be respected when
his consort was chosen. 'As a private person,' Scott argued, che may
chuse for his private affection, and match where he list; provided he
neglect not the publike part, which is the principall.' The prince, in
other words, ought to listen to popular opinion about his spouse. And
this opinion was aired by 'the State representative (that is, the
Parliament)... wherein the consent of everie Subject is included'.135
Most importantly, Scott saw parliament as both discussing and
deciding on the central issues of foreign policy. In 1624 n e offered
parliament a long list of detailed issues for discussion. 'First, whether
we have sufficient occasion or no to fall out with Spaine? Secondly,
how shall a warre be maintained? Thirdly, where the seate of this
warre shall be? Fourthly, who shall be called to our assistance? And last
of all, whether the Country be willing to such a designement?' Scott
did not answer these questions but told the MPs that they were
summoned to a parliament 'to decide these things'.136
So far we have seen that in Scott's vision a healthy commonwealth
was represented by a community where everyone would be willing to
practise his virtues to its benefit. It is clear, however, that Scott was not
completely satisfied with this rather platitudinous view. Although he
espoused the idea that the reform of corruption was, to a great extent,
a matter of morality, it is obvious that he never thought that corruption
and servility could be nipped in the bud by simple moral inducements.
This was so because moral decay had a striking parallel in the social
domain.
When Bacon turned to the issues of civic greatness anew in the early
1620s, he developed his former discussion of the material basis of a
truly great state. Although he now placed a somewhat stronger
emphasis on the commanding of the seas, he did not abandon his
former conviction that the infantry formed the backbone of an
army. To ensure that a state which aimed at greatness had a proper
infantry, it was of crucial importance to look after its social organiza-
tion. Since free and sturdy farmers made a good infantry, the nobility

135
[Scott], Vox regis, p . 14.
136
[Scott], The Belgick sovldier, p . 4; cf. [Scott], Second part, p . 24.
137
Bacon, De augrnentis, in Works, 1, p . 796; Essayes, p p . 92—3. Cf. Everard, The arriereban, p . 7;
Markham, Five decades, p . 43.
260 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

should under no circumstances expand too rapidly. To this familiar

argument Bacon now added his example of Henry VIFs land policy. It
first appeared in his History of the raigne of Henry the seventh and was taken
up in De augmentis and in the Essayes. Whereas Italy and particularly
France had a good cavalry but no real infantry because there were only
either 'noblesse or peasantry', in England, due to Henry's prudent land
policy, the plough was kept in the hands of the owner and she
consequently had a proper infantry. Henry had realized that landlords
had been turning arable land into pasture with the effect that yeomen
had been replaced by £a few herdsmen'. As Bacon carefully explained,
to change the course of this development, Henry in consultation with
parliament had decided that all farms of twenty acres or more, 'should
be maintained and kept up for ever'. This measure had guaranteed
that the farmer had not become 'a beggar or cottager', but had
remained 'a man of some substance, that might keep hinds and
servants, and set the plough on going'. As Bacon put it in the 'Of the
true greatnesse of kingdomes and estates', he could 'live in Convenient
Plenty'. Most of the land was thus held and occupied by 'the yeomanry
or middle people' which, according to 'the true principles of war and
the examples of other kingdoms', yielded the best soldiers. As he made
clear in De augments, Bacon mainly emphasized that the farmer could
either be the owner of the land or at least have its usufruct, but under no
circumstances should he be a hireling (conductius, mercenarius). The
reason was obvious. As soon as the farmer became a hireling, he would
lose his independence and by losing this he would lose sight of the
common good.
As we saw in the previous chapter, Bacon coupled this idea of free
and sturdy farmers with a further social argument to the effect that
sedentary and indoor arts were not conducive to a great state. As a
result, the majority of the people should abstain from direct involve-
ment in economic life. In the early 1620s, Bacon repeated the same
argument noting that 'the principall Bulke of the vulgar Natives' ought
to be 'Tillers of the Ground; Free Servants; and Handy-Crafts-Men, of

138
Bacon, The history of the raigne of Henry the seventh, in Works, vi, pp. 93-5; De augmentis, in Works, i,
pp. 796-7; Essayes, pp. 92-3. Cf. Markham, Five decades, p. 17; Trussell, The sovldier, p. 30.
According to Trussell, soldiers should be 'neither servant nor hireling ... but home-keepers of
good worth and ability'. In 1623 John Bingham published his translation of Xenophon and
appended to it portions from Justus Iipsius' De militia Romana where it was argued that militia
suited only a 'Free-estate' and that princes ought to follow 'what the Turke doth in his
Ianizar'; The historie of Xenophon: contaning the ascent of Cyrus into the higher countries, translated by
John Bingham (London, 1623), S^E- V 2 r v .
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 261

Strong, and manly Arts, as Smiths, Masons, Carpenters', but not, as

Bacon diligently remembered to add, 'Professed Souldiers'. Although
this list of manly professions with a martial inclination was common-
place, Bacon's argument carried with it an ideological dimension of
great importance. For if the majority of the people should avoid taking
part in economic acitivities, the question of how these activities were
looked after could be raised. With a view to answering this question,
Bacon pointed out that it had been a 'great Advantage, in the Ancient
States of Sparta, Athens, Rome, and others, that they had the use of
Slaves, which commonly did rid those Manufactures'. The success of
the ancient commonwealths was thus based on the extensive exploita-
tion of slavery. But this solution was not applicable in the Europe of his
own times since 'the Christian Law' had mostly abolished slavery. The
only way open was to leave sedentary occupations 'chiefly to Stran-
gers'. 139
Scott's discussion of the material basis of a commonwealth is in some
respects similar to Bacon's. But it bears even more striking similarity to
John Mair's earlier analysis of the ways in which the nobility could be
checked in Scotland.140 Scott began with the juxtaposition of a
corrupted and a healthy commonwealth. The former was dominated
by a peasantry which had lost its independence and freedom and had
become subjected to landlords. And by losing their liberty, the peasants
had lost their care for the common good which they now identified as
nothing but 'the Leavie burthen that presseth them'. 4 1
Although the material basis of the commonwealth could degenerate
because of the people's lack of moral vigilance, it occurred most often
because of the corruption of the nobility. Scott claimed that he had
witnessed this degeneration taking place in Scotland, where he had
seen 'the miserable Cottages of the poore Hindes; and I wondered
awhile at the cause'. According to his own testimony, he had first
thought, significantly, that this unhappy state of affairs was due to 'the
barrennesse of the soyle'. Then he had surmised that the unhealthy
state of the Scottish peasants should be attributed to their own moral
degeneration - to 'the lazie disposition of the Commons'. Nonetheless,
when he had 'looked up higher, and inquired diligently into the true
cause', he had found out that the land had been fertile and 'the poore
men painfulT. The true cause of their social decline was to be found in
139
Bacon, De augments, in Works, 1, pp. 798-9; Essayes, p. 95.
140
Williamson 1979, p . 100.
141
[Scott], TheBelgickepismire, pp. 31-2.
262 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

the actions of their social superiors; 'the lordly Owner', Scott argued,
'is in all the fault5. The primary objective of the nobility had been 'to
live at Court (not for action, but idlenesse)' and in order to be able to
afford a sumptuous courtly life, they had had to raise their rents 'to the
extreamest racke5. To increase his profits, the noble 'never lets out
Lease but from yeere to yeere; and he that gives most is the next new
Farmer for my next new master5. The situation had become worse
because the nobles5 idle course of life had forced them on many
occasions to sell their lands to 'the diligent tradesman5 who was even
more prone to maximize his profit. The fact that the peasant was often
driven from his farm gravely impoverished the country. But it also
prompted the farmer himself to fall 'to theft as well as beggerie5 and
thereby to a 'lazie kinde of life5 and, in a way, to imitate his former
landlord. Having reached this ultimate state of corruption, the peasant
no longer cared for the common good, since 'such as have nothing are
without care and fear', and instead he became the stuff from which
those desirous of'theft, ryot, or rebellion5 were made.142
This most unhappy state of affairs contrasted sharply with a healthy
commonwealth. The date of The Belgicke pismire (1622) might account for
the fact that Scott depicted a similarly disastrous development taking
place in England. 'And whilst I speake of Scotland,' he carefully
emphasized, 'because it is there a generall practise, I except not
England, as if this sinne were a stranger in any part of Brittaine.5 The
partial corruption of the English nobility could precipitate a similar
development amongst the common people. But in England there were
both 'some long Leases yet unexpired5 and 'some good men yet left'.
By and large, the English commonwealth was chiefly based on 'the
Yeomandrie'. They were 'one of the chiefe glories of our Nation, and
the principal base and foundation of the Common-wealth, at least of
the strength and libertie thereof. The only way to keep the external
corruption at bay and to uphold liberty was to secure the economic
position of the yeomen so that they would be willing to fight for their
country.
But as well as constituting the military strength of the common-
wealth, 'the ancient English yeomandrie' also helped to sustain its
political well-being. In politics corruption occurred when the active
people lost their freedom and thereby their dedication to the common-
wealth, and instead became dependent on others. It was exactly this
142
Ibid., pp. 32—3.
143
Ibid., pp. 28, 34.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 263

kind of decay which was infecting England. It occurred, in the first

place, at court. Scott opened his analysis by pointing out that men
thought that they 'must goe into the Countrey to heare the newes of
the Court: because in the Court men dare not speake what they know'.
At court men could not speak nor advise freely for fear that they would
lose their 'preferment'. Courtiers, in other words, had lost their
freedom and become the retainers of their superiors. 'And thus', Scott
wrote, 'there is such a generall conspiracie against Plainenesse in such
places, by reason of the necessarie dependancie that one man hath of
another; the Inferiour of his Superiour, and all of the highest, that it is
impossible, that Truth which is knowne to the lowest, should ever
arrive at the eares of the highest, though the knowledge of all,
concernes him above all.' 144
Even more importantly, the same kind of degeneration loomed large
in parliamentary elections. In addition to favouring Spain and to
crying 'the lawes down' and crying 'up the prerogative', the corrupt
politician tried to make sure that freeholders 'shal never choose their
sheere Knights and Burgesses freely' when summoned to parliament.
This is what often happened as landlords pressurized their tenants into
doing what they had been told. The freeholders lost their freedom, and
their voice was no longer theirs but their lord's; they no longer cared
for the common good but placed their own interest and particularly
that of their lord before everything else. The elections, as Scott wrote
in 1620, 'are caried which way the great persons who have lands in
those countries please, who by their letters command their tenants,
followers and friends to nominate such as adhere to them, and for the
most part are of one faction, and respect their owne benefit or grace
rather then their countries good, yea the country people themselves
will every one stand for the great man their Lord, or neighbour, or
master, without regard of his honesty, wisdome, or religion'.
In a sermon preached at Thetford in 1620, Scott told his listeners:
'Bee therefore wary, when you heare a Parliament summoned by his
Majestie, whom you choose Knights of the Shire, and Burgesses of
Corporations; that is, whom you constitute in your places to repaire or
make these high-wayes of the King, wherein you are bounde to walke
obediently for conscience sake.' In cases such as these it was important
that 'the Ministers prepare the people, and warne them of the worke in
hand'. But it was of even greater importance that freeholders consulted
144
[Scott], Vox regis, p p . 31-2.
145
[Scott], Voxpopvli, sig. B3V. See in general Sacks 1992, p p . 116-17.
264 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

with each other about the best choice. Their choice, Scott argued,
ought to fall upon such who sought no 'change of the State, Lawes, and
Religion' and not upon such who were 'ambitiously' looking for 'place,
honor, and preferment'. Most importantly, freeholders should neglect
'both their landlords, or great neighbours, or the Lord Iiftenants
themselves'. As freeholders they ought, in other words, to assert their
concomitant freedom from their superiors. They ought to 'looke upon
the wisest, stoutest, and most religious persons; and be carefull to
choose such as have no dependancie upon Greatnes'.
The final measure for preventing the decay of the commonwealth
and for restoring the community to its efflorescence involved its
political institutions. Corruption and slavery could infiltrate most
insidiously, we recall, when those in authority abused their position to
the point of becoming tyrannous. Although this menace was partly
solved by reorientating people's morality, it was also essential to look to
it that the political institutions of the commonwealth were such that
they stunted the growth of tyranny whilst at the same time securing the
people's and the nobility's role in virtuous public life. To restore 'a
decayed estate', Scott wrote in The Belgicke pismire, required not only
morality but also 'rule by vertuous Lawes'. 47 When Scott discussed
this issue of institutions, he put forward arguments for the mixed
republican form of government in general and for the Dutch version in
particular. His stubborn insistence that one should advise and act on
one's own initiative, his idea of the preeminent role of parliament in
decision-making and his scathing criticism of the court as a place of
subjection where genuine counsel is impossible; all point to republican
concepts of equality and of people themselves being the governors of
their commonwealth. His use of the ant as an example of 'a good
Commonwealths man' points in the same direction, for the anthill was
commonly seen as a republic.148 In The Belgicke pismire, he roundly
declared that the pismire's 'waies in the Politickes' taught us among
other things that 'what shee doth, is freely of herselfe without coaction,
or instruction, having no guide, governour, nor ruler'. 149
146
Scott, The high-waies of God, p p . 86-7. Cf. R[eynolds], Vox coeli, p . 40. This is not to imply that
Scott aimed at contested elections; cf. Kishlansky 1986, pp. 11, 62, 71-2. Gf. Hirst 1975, p p .
65-89-
147
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p. 39.
148
[Richard Brathwait], A strange metamorphosis of man, transformed into a wildernesse (London, 1634),
sigs. Fii v -Gi r . Brathwait argued that ants 'have n o King, because they will have none ...
T h e y like better of the Republiques, then of Monarchies, for so they may come happily to
shuffle their owne cards themselves.'
149
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p . 25. Cf. however, Vox regis, p p . 68, 6, sig. [..]2 r .
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement' 265

This tendency to set great store by republicanism had already

appeared in Alexander Leighton's as well as in Bacon's writings.
Pondering the qualities of counsellors, Leighton remarked that 'the
Romane Senate were pickt out as men of sufficiencie for counselP. The
importance of counsel was so great that, as Leighton put it, 'it is a
question amongst Humanists and Statesmen, Whether a weak Prince,
and a wise Councel, or a weak Councel and a wise King be better'. For
Leighton there was little doubt that 'both reason and experience doe
prove the former to be the better'. Many wise men, he argued in a
familiar manner, could guide a weak man better than one wise man
could guide many weak. Directing his words to parliament, he also
pointed out that 'you are the Eyes and Armes of our Sovereign, the
Body of the land, the Councell and Strength for warre, the Sword and
Shield of Gods distressed cause . . . and in a word the very Helm of the
State'. Because of their preponderant role, it was of overriding
importance that MPs discarded their private interest and determined
to serve the common good. As Leighton told them, 'as you look to have
honour here, and glory hereafter, Stand fast, and quit your selves like
men for God and your Country'. And to be able to perform their tasks,
they ought to be like 'the Greek Ephori, the Roman Senators, and the
States of Venice to this day'. They ought to 'lay down themselves, and
all private passions of fear, flattery, and the rest, before they enter the
Senate house, Vt Reipub. serviant. 'So you', Leighton wrote, spelling out
the moral of his examples, 'must be all the Common-wealths, and none
of your own.'150 j
It might occasion some surprise to find similarities between Francis
Bacon's ideas and the arguments of such puritans as Thomas Scott and
Alexander Leighton. Yet we have already seen in previous chapters that
Bacon's major political ideas formed an integral part of the English
humanist tradition, that republics earned his sincere respect and that
there were some similarities between him and George Wither. In the
early 1620s, in the De augmentis and in 'Of the true greatnesse of
kingdomes and estates', Bacon repeated the idea, first put forward in 'Of
the greatnesse of kingdomes' in 1612, that people overburdened with
taxes could not rise to civic greatness, since tributes diminished the
prowess and valour of the people. But he added that this degeneration
could be curbed, if taxes were 'levied by Consent of the Estate'. This was
evident in 'the Subsidies of England', but the instance of'the Excises of
150
[Leighton], Speculum belli sacri, pp. 90-1, 93, 97, sig. B2v-3r. Cf. Pjattenson], The image ofbothe
churches, p. 107, who denied the association of peers with 'Ephori'.
266 Classical humanism and republicanism i^yo—1640

the Low Countries' was most conspicuous.151 Furthermore, in the final

edition of the Essayes, Bacon made an important addition to the essay
'Of nobility'. Speaking of the nobility as ca Portion of an Estate', he
pointed out that a monarchy without a nobility was 'a pure, and
absolute Tyranny', since the nobility tempered the monarchy. This was
reminiscent of the more general argument for the mixed constitution
that the middle element of the nobility kept the monarchical element in
check so that it could not degenerate into tyranny. But the nobility
themselves posed a threat, since they were always prone to organize
factions. This was the reason why democracies, which did not need the
nobility, were 'more quiet, and lesse subject to Sedition'. There were,
however, even more noteworthy advantages to democracies. Since they
did not have the nobility as 'a Portion of an Estate', the idea of a
meritocracy could easily materialize in republics. Counsellors were not
selected on the basis of lineage but on merit. 'For mens Eyes', Bacon
wrote, 'are upon the Businesse, and not upon the Persons: Or if upon
the Persons, it is for the Businesse sake, as fittest, and not for Flags and
Pedegree.' This could already be seen in Switzerland; 'the Switzers last
well', because 'Utility is their Bond, and not Respects'. But for Bacon,
as for Scott, the advantages of a meritocracy were even more manifest
in 'the united Provinces of the Low Countries'. In 'Government', they
'excelT, since 'there is an Equality' and hence 'the Consultations are
more indifferent, and the Payments and tributes more cheerfull'.152
The claim for the special merits of the Dutch government was,
however, most forcefully advanced by Scott. It is of course true that
this has not been lost on historians. Nevertheless, the claim has been
almost exclusively linked with religion; the Dutch commonwealth was
'the very model of a godly commonwealth'.153 There is little doubt that
the strong religious element pervading Scott's writings was also
prevalent in his esteem for the Netherlands. But it is arguable that to
see Scott's admiration for the Dutch in purely religious terms is an
oversimplification; it is to overlook a quite different set of values which
Scott attributed to the Dutch commonwealth. Scott expressed his
admiration for more commonwealths than the United Provinces alone.
He referred to Roman examples, argued that in their frugality the

151
Bacon, De augmentis, in Works, 1, p. 795; Essayes, p. 92. For a similar remark, see Croft 1986, p.
167; Rabb 1981, pp. 63-4. Gf. John Yates, Ibid ad caesarem: or a svbmissiue appearance before Caesar
(London, 1626), pp. 39—40.
152
Bacon, ' O f nobility', in Essayes, p. 41.
153
Lake 1982, p . 811.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Governement3 267
Dutch were imitating 'the renowned Spartans' 154 and occasionally
used Athens and Venice as cases in point. 155 More importantly,
religion alone did not account for the excellence of the Netherlands.
According to Scott, the whole Dutch commonwealth was so prosperous
that it was difficult to decide whether to attribute this 'to the good
disposition of the people, and their care of posteritie, or to the
wisedome and diligence of the Magistrates, executing good lawes
strictly and impartially which tend and respect publique utility; or to
the people and Magistrates joyntly concurring and consenting in one
for the common good5.156
The most conspicuous feature of the Dutch commonwealth was,
however, its form of government. Scott opened his account of the
Dutch commonwealth in The Belgicke pismire as follows: CI should
conclude all with a touch of their Councel, and politique Government
in point of State, but that the businesse is too deepe and private for
my inquisition.' These scruples did not, however, restrain him from
making a few observations. In the Netherlands there was ca generall
freedom' which Scott took to amount to a constitution which allowed
every free man to take part in the government of the commonwealth.
The general freedom, Scott wrote, was permitted and used 'where
generall actions which concerned all, and are maintained by all, are
generally debated, argued, sifted and censured by all men without
contradiction'. This system yielded the best counsel. Scott believed
that the aim of the Dutch system was 'that ... the best and worst may
bee seene or heard, and all danger and advantages discovered which
are subject to the common eye'. Everyone was permitted 'freely to do
all the good they can with their tongues, without feare of punishment'.
Despite this extended system of counsel, the final power to decide
remained in the hands of a more exclusive council. When it was time
to decide matters, 'the resolution and conclusion is silent and sodaine'
and 'whilst they give all men libertie to informe, they themselves only
direct and dispose of the businesse'. The aim of the system, Scott
emphasized, was not to seek 'the satisfaction of their owne wils so
much, as the generall satisfaction of all, where in may be with the
good of all'. Scott conscientiously added that all this meant that the
Low Countries were 'a Common-wealth' and hence they did not have
154
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p. 81.
155
[Scott], An experimentall discoverie, pp. 25-6, see also pp. 3-4, 6-7; The Belgicke pismire, p p . 51, 8 7 -
8.
156
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, pp. 73-4, cf. p. 82.
268 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

'that absolute power over their members, which Monarchies have and
may use'.157
In A tongue-combat Scott presented a somewhat more detailed account
of the Dutch form of government. His advocate for the United
Provinces argued: 'I will briefly as I may, satisfie all your demands,
shewing first the true and naturall constitution of that mixed Governe-
ment ab initio.' He stressed that the Dutch 'first possest the Land which
they now hold'. This served as an important argument to prove that
the Low Countries had always been free. Explaining what he took the
freedom of a commonwealth to be, Scott wrote: 'Thus originally they
are free without forraine tenure for the place, or complaint of any
person for elbow-roome or intrusion.' But to be a free commonwealth
implied internal as well as external freedom. 'Their Government also',
Scott added, 'was as free as governement could possibly be.' This
meant that the people themselves were in charge of their government.
First of all, 'they chose their Governours themselves'. They were also
most careful to look to it that 'their Liberties and welfare should not
rest in the bosome or disposition of one man onely'. They imposed
such strict limits upon their governor that he was unable to ruin the
commonwealth irrespective of his personal qualities. The Dutch people
controlled the movements of their governor to the extent that he could
only 'profit them' but could not 'ruine them himselfe, or betray them
to be ruined by the Tyrannie of others'. To accomplish their aim, the
Dutch had a council; 'they chose', as Scott put it, 'a certaine mixed
number of the Nobles and Commons to sit in Councell, whom they
called States Generall'. It was this body which was invested with the
chief authority; 'these consisted a great part of the Soveraingtie'. 'States
Generall' had the power to curb 'the over-swelling torrent of Tyrannie
in the Superiour', but at the same time they made sure that the
popular element did not grow excessively. In this way 'States Generall'
acted 'as a Moderator betwixt Prince and people'. Just as in The Belgicke
pismire, Scott's mouthpiece in A tongue-combat argued that 'in these States
united, together with their Prince ... was the Soveraigne Power
included'. The people completed this picture of the 'mixed Governe-
ment'. It was again as advisers that they could actively participate.
'States Generall' and the prince 'had reference in all great affaires to
the people also'. This enabled Scott's spokesman to boast that in the
United Provinces the people 'were not shut out, (like beastes by

157
Ibid., pp. 89-91.
 Thomas Scott: virtue, liberty and the 'mixed Govemement' 269

Butchers against the day of slaughter) but called to counsell, if the

businesse concerned them, and the generall welfare5.158
Even though Scott had carefully presented this ideal mixed constitu-
tion as the Dutch form of government, there is no doubt that he took it
to be an example for other commonwealths. In The Belgicke pismire he
hinted that it was highly desirable for every commonwealth to seek to
imitate the Netherlands at least in this respect.159 For England this was
relatively easy since there were striking similarities between the Dutch
and the English forms of government. England should simply look to
Norwich, which 'may be a mirror to all the Kingdome besides'.
According to Scott, 'the order and good governement of the Magis-
trates' and 'the diligence of the Citizens' in Norwich was 'principally
occasioned by the example of the Dutch' and had been brought about
'by a kinde of vertuous emulation, to which the English are excited by
their diligence'. Although England could perfect its government by
following the example of Norwich, which had imitated the Dutch,
Scott believed that it did not have to do so in every respect. There was
an English institution which already equalled that of the Dutch system.
If the 'States Generall' curbed the potentially tyrannous dispositions of
the prince as well as the subversive inclinations of the people, in
England this task could be accomplished by 'our Parliaments'.16 Scott
was fully convinced that imitating the United Provinces provided all
the answers and that it rendered the search 'for Plato his communities or
Sir Thomas More his Utopia! unnecessary since 'the realitie of their wishes
and best conceptions are brought into action; and the best of what they
fancied might bee, is' in the Low Countries 'seene truly to bee'. 161
Surely, the ideal commonwealths as depicted by Plato or More and
embodied in the United Provinces are not merely godly common-
wealths.
It is undoubtedly true to say that there was a pervasive religious
element in Scott's pamphlet campaign. But religious motives cannot
completely account for Scott's purposes. At the heart of his campaign
lay an unmistakable classical republican analysis of the English com-
158
[Scott], A tongve-combat, pp. 12-14; cf. in general Theproiector, p p . 9-10. See also A tongue-combat,
p. 88; Vox Dei, pp. 8 0 - 1 .
159
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p. 90.
160
[Scott], A tongue-combat, p. 13.
161
[Scott], The Belgicke pismire, p . 90. It was of course commonplace to argue that Plato's
commonwealth and More's Utopia were of no real value, because of their imaginary nature.
See e.g. [William Vaughan], The golden fleece diuided into three parts (London, 1626), 1, p . 148.
Francis Markham, The booke of honour: orfivedecads of epistles of honour (London, 1625), PP-
Howell, Dodona's grove, p. 28.
270 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

monwealth. The well-being of the English commonwealth was jeopar-

dized both from within and without. Scott stubbornly insisted that the
first way to avert this imminent danger was to remould the people's
morality so that they would be willing to pursue the common good and
to uphold their liberty. Their moral qualities were partly safeguarded
by maintaining their social independence. But the moral basis of the
commonwealth was also guaranteed by the retention of the classical
mixed constitution. In Scott's analysis, these were the essential char-
acteristics England needed to possess if it was to survive the crisis of the
early 1620s.
 CHAPTER 6

The continuity of the humanist tradition in

early Caroline England

After more than twenty years of peace, England finally entered the
European war in 1625. But m e ensuing campaigns — Mansfeld's expedi-
tion, the Cadiz, Re and La Rochelle expeditions - resulted in a series of
infamous defeats which do not rank particularly high in the list of English
martial achievements. As a result, England negotiated peace with France
and Spain in 1629 and 1630 respectively and this marked the end of
England's active involvement in the Thirty Years War, to the dismay of
many protestant subjects who were willing to support the protestant
cause, especially when Gustavus II Adolphus scored his victories.
War demands money, and Charles's war policy led to numerous
parliaments and heated disputes over supply. In 1625 ^ w a s mainly the
distrust and suspicion towards Buckingham that prompted the
Commons to decline the traditional lifelong grant of Tonnage and
Poundage. Charles summoned another parliament early in 1626 in order
to finance a renewed war effort. Although the Commons was willing to
contribute, it was resolved in its attempt to impeach Buckingham. The
king refused to abandon his favourite and instead dissolved parliament.
By 1626 Charles had radically altered his former favourable view of
parliament and sought to gain money by extra-parliamentary means, of
which the Forced Loan was the most successful and notorious. Although
he was still disinclined to summon a parliament, his ministers managed
to persuade him to do so in 1628. One of his aims seems to have been to
achieve a reconciliation with his subjects, but the outcome was quite the
contrary, as the session ended with the famous Petition of Right. The
second session of the same parliament met in January 1629 a n d although
a major obstacle to a more cooperative session, Buckingham, had been
removed, the session ended in a serious deadlock and the king refused to
summon another parliament for more than a decade. l

1
Russell, 1979; Lockyer 1989, pp. 217-31, 325-51; Gust 1987; Reeve 1989.

271
272 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

These years have naturally aroused keen interest and they have
provided abundant material for studies in political history and the
history of political thought alike.2 Although scholarly attention has
mostly focused on the absolutist, contractarian and juristic arguments,
it is of some interest to ask whether the vocabulary of the humanist
tradition was at all employed in these debates. There is indeed some
evidence that this was the case.
To begin with, Roman historians and moralists were used to level
criticism at the king and his politics. It is perhaps not without
significance that an edition of Sallust's histories was published in
English in 1629. ^n a prefatory poem addressed to the translator,
Francis Wortley sharply contrasted the virtue of the Romans with that
of his own times: 'Twas native love durst such a Genius raise, / To tell
Romes vertue in our Sluggish dayes.' By reading Sallust one could see
'the horrid plots of faithlesse Kings, / Whose jealous feares ne'r wanted
Instrument'.3 One author argued that though the emulation of
Demosthenes' and Cicero's speeches against tyrants 'would better fit
the times', he must imitate Solon 'and write rimes'. For such was 'the
malice of the age' that opinions voiced 'in presse, or pulpit' were
always censured although they aimed 'at the common good' and
strictly avoided 'blame'. The author was encouraged in his attempt by
the 'Councels, of old . . . Who boldly would, for publiq; safety utter /
What, now, the best, in private, dare not mutter'.4 He assured his
readers that he was himself one of the 'true Patriots' who sought
'publiq; preservation'. By carefully studying 'the monuments of former
ages', one could easily learn that 'No State, or Kingdome ever did
sustaine / Such fatall downfalls, gene'rall devastations, / Finall subver-
sions, and depopulations,' prompted either 'by open foes' or 'by
intestine civill broyles'. 'The Greacian Monarchy' and the Roman
'greatnes' had been destroyed by internal discord.5 The modern
'Catilines' were those who favoured 'Spaines designes'. They had been
corrupted by 'Indian gold' and they had, therefore, lost their proper
sense of the common good. These 'abused statesmen' made England
lose 'honour' and incur the 'contempt and hate' of 'all nations', as was
obvious for everyone to see in the case of 'RochelP and 'th' lie of Re'. 6

2
E.g. Judson 1949; SommerviUe 1986; Cust 1987.
3
The workes qfCaius Crispus Salustius, translated by William Crosse (London, 1629), s*8- M ^ -
J. R., The spy discovering the danger o/Arndnian heresie and Spanish trecherie (Strasburg, 1628), sig. Ai r .
5
J . R., The spy, sigs. A2r, C2r~b.
6
Ibid., sigs. D2 r, D3V, ET~ V .
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 273
The foolhardy foreign policy was thus an index of the total degenera-
tion of the English commonwealth:

Thus is our land made weake, our treasure wasted,

Our court corrupted, and our honour blasted,
Our lawes are broke, our justice sold: and they
That should reforme these mischiefes, give them way.
All symptomes of a Kingdome, that hath beene
Declining long, may be in England seene:
Our strength's decayd, theflow'reof all the land
Have perish'd under Buckinghams command.
Those that their lives, have ventur'd for their King,
Home, nought but labour for their paines can bring.7

Moreover, there is some evidence that the orthodox Ciceronian

ideals of true nobility and the vita activa were embraced in order to
assail Charles and his court. In their attempt to impeach Buckingham
in 1626, the Commons argued that the duke had perverted the ways in
which honour was bestowed. 'Tides of honor of the kingdom',
Christopher Sherland asserted, 'were not to be put upon such as are
rich, but upon such industrious persons as should merit them by its
services.' The Commons declared in their article of impeachment
against Buckingham that honour should be conferred 'as great rewards
upon such virtuous and industrious persons as has merited them by
their faithful service'. One author reiterated in 1628 that 'honour is
not to be valued according to the vulgar opinion of men, but priz'd
and esteemed, as the surname of virtue, ingendered in the mind'.
Arguing against 'the base and mercenary' system of selling tides, the
author claimed that if striving 'to be more honourable than others',
man 'ought to abandon passion, pride, and arrogancy, that so his
virtue may shine above others; for honour consists not in the title of a
lord, but in the opinion people have of his virtue; for it is a much more
honour to deserve and not to have it, than to have it and not deserve
it'.9 Advocating an honourable war, Ralph Knevet wrote the following
verse in 1628:
7
Ibid., sig. E4r. Later, in sigs. E4v-Fir, the author hinted that Buckingham was ultimately
aiming at becoming a king with the help of Spain. Gf. A. Ar., The practise of princes (n.p., 1630),
pp. 5-8-
Peck 1993a, pp. 194-5; PP1626, 1, p. 469, cf. pp. 446-7. Cf. P[ierre] Mfatthieu], The powerfvll
favorite: or the life ofAelius Seianus (Paris, 1628), pp. 29-30; Giovanni Manzini, Political observations:
upon thefall qfSeianvs, translated by Tfhomas] H[awkins] (London, 1634), pp. 3, 42—4.
9
'A letter written to the Lower House of Parliament' [1628?], in Somers tracts, iv, pp. 105-15,
especially pp. 108-9.
274 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

And by his proper actions doth descrive;

A Gentleman: for Fortune can't inherit
(By right) those graces, which pertaine to merit:
And wretched is that Gentrie, which is gotten
From their deedes, that long since be dead and rotten.
The favour of the Prince, and Fortune, arts,
And Ancestrie, are but the outward parts
Of true Nobilitie, for her soule is,
An harmonie, of vert'ous qualities.10

In the autumn of 1628, Alexander Leighton urged MPs to adopt a

more decisive role when parliament would be reassembled. He
dedicated his tract to parliament, calling MPs 'Right Honourable and
High Senators'. In order to emphasize his point, Leighton invoked the
idea of the vita activa. This mode of life was particularly pertinent to
MPs since, as Leighton told them, c y o u r choyce and place requireth
you to bee men of activitie'. This amounted to the knowledge as well as
the practice of virtues; a man of negotium was 'inwardly and outwardly
compleate with prudence, prowesse, valour and diligence'. The
purpose of this virtuous mode of life was, moreover, to act for the
common good. According to Leighton, 'hee is an unworthy man that
preferreth his own particular safetie to the saveinge of the common
weale'. Leighton again turned to the lesson of ancient history for an
example: 'Wee neede not tell you of the Roman Patriots, or the
Athenian Kings; who were willinge to dye that the glorie of their nation
might live.'11
Leighton's espousal of the idea of negotium enabled him to highlight
the political role of parliament. He argued that, according to 'the late
Lord Verulam', the 'office and place' of 'the howse of commons' was
'to vendicate the Soveraigne power, the good of State-government,
and the glorie of Gods worship from pollution, ruine, & Indignitie'.12
Paraphrasing Thomas Smith, he wrote: 'The Parliament hath in it the
power of the whole Kingdome, yea both of the head and of the body.'
In effect, parliament must assume the concomitant responsibilities and
be ready to exercise its authority. 'You', as Leighton addressed the
MPs, 'are the Elders of Israeli; you are an armie of Generals; that
supream Court, that may call any place, or person to an account,
10
Ralph Knevet, Stratwtikon: or a discourse qfmilitarie discipline (n.p., 1628), sig. F2V.
11
[Leighton], An appeal to the parliament: or Sionsplea against the prelade (n.p., n.d. [1628]), the epistle
dedicatory.
12
Ibid., p . 211, in general pp. 211—20; Bacon, Advancement of learning, in Works, in, p . 345; Essayes,
p . 48.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 275
whether they be for the glorie of God, the good of the King and State,
or no.' Leighton's argument implied that it was ultimately parliament's
duty to reform the ills of the English commonwealth; MPs were 'the
Physitians of State'. By placing his utmost emphasis on the importance
of parliament, Leighton was seriously curtailing the power of the king.
'In a word it were happie for our King and us, if you knew your power
practicallie.'13
More open evidence that classical history in general and Tacitus in
particular were used to bear out the excellence of the republican form
of government is to be found in the famous lectures in December 1627
by Isaac Dorislaus, the first incumbent of the history lectureship in
Cambridge founded by Fulke Greville. Greville had first endeavoured
to establish the history lectureship in 1615 but after a few years of
vacillation he abandoned the plan. He renewed his attempt in 1624
and this time the whole project materialized. It was Greville's idea that
Dorislaus should lecture on Tacitus' Annals. In his first lecture, delivered
on 7 December 1627, Dorislaus discussed the different types of
monarchies and argued that in some cases a tyrant could legitimately
be resisted. Five days later he continued and used Tarquinius
Superbus' tyrannical rule and Lucius Junius Brutus' liberation of his
country from this tyranny as his examples. At the instigation of
Matthew Wren, Master of Peterhouse, who thought that Dorislaus had
made statements which were 'applicable to the expectation of these
villainous times', the matter was investigated. Nothing was found, but
an order from the king prohibited Dorislaus from lecturing. It is
probable that Greville, who had suggested the topic of the lectures, also
approved of their contents. Although it remains uncertain whether the
lectures were intended, as Wren perhaps suspected, to criticize the
Forced Loan, it seems clear that Greville's ultimate aim had been to
remind his contemporaries of the centrality of virtuous public service to
the reform of the commonwealth.
In the course of 1627 Thomas May, the future official historian of
the Long Parliament, published his well-known translation of Lucan's
Pharsalia (the first three books had already appeared in 1626). The
13
[Leighton], An appeal to the parliament, p. 174, cf. p. 170. Attorney-general Robert Heath
detected this strand of Leighton's argument. In his speech against Leighton in the Star
Chamber, Heath reminded his listeners that although 'the Parliament is a great Court, a
great Counsell, the great Counsell of the Kinge', its members were 'but his Counsell, not his
governours', Robert Heath, 'Speech in the case of Alexander Leighton, in the Star Chamber,
June 4, 1630', ed. S. R. Gardiner, Camden Society, xiv, n.s., Camden miscellany, 7 (1875), p. 9.
14
This paragraph is based on Sharpe 1989, pp. 218-29.
276 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

whole volume was dedicated to the earl of Devonshire and separate

books to such magnates as the earls of Pembroke, Essex, lindsey,
Lincoln and Warwick. Many of them, as David Norbrook has recendy
observed, were widely seen as 'men of patriotic independence, which
had driven several of them into opposition to royal policies'.15 May
claimed that Rome's 'transcendent greatnes will admit no comparison
with other States'. Civic greatness had coincided with the period of
liberty and popular government, but the 'unhappy height' of Rome
had brought about luxury and pride, which had commenced deterior-
ating 'the Roman Vertue'. Consequendy, the people had lost
'fredome', whereas Caesar had assumed 'too absolute and undeter-
mined a power'. Caesar was, in other words, the villain of the story,
and May was reluctant to call Pompey a 'head of a faction'. He
would rather call him 'the true servant of the publike State'.
Pompey was identified with 'Romes vast power, her liberty &
Lawes'.17 If May was so impressed by Pompey, he felt equal admira-
tion for two other republican heroes - Cato and Brutus. They had
joined Pompey, but May carefully emphasized that they had 'favour'd
neither side' and that they had not 'engaged by a private cause': 'For
Rome, her state, her freedome, and her laws pride, / Their loyall
virtue stood.' For May, Cato was an embodiment of virtuous 'true
Nobility'.18 May had no qualms about applying these ideas to
contemporary politics. Dedicating the seventh book to Horace Vere,
May identified Vere with Pompey, extolling his eagerness to fight for
Dutch liberty and English fame. But it was the earl of Pembroke who
earned the most fulsome praise. He was not merely 'Free from
ambition, free from faction', he was also 'An honest Lord, a noble
Patriot', matching both Cato and Brutus.19
Perhaps the most extensive application of humanist notions to the
politics of the late 1620s is to be found in George Wither's long
commentary, Britains remembrancer published in 1628.2 In 1613 Wither
had found a solution to the political problems of the day in the
15
Norbrook 1994, pp. 58-60. My indebtness to this admirable analysis is obvious.
16
M. A. Lucan, Pharsalia: or the civill wanes of Rome, betweene Pompey the Great, and Ivlivs Caesar: ten
bookes, translated by Thomas May (London, 1627), sig. a2 v -a4 v .
17
Ibid., sig. Mi r; see also o i r .
18
Ibid., sig. B6 r ; see also oj2r.
19
Ibid., sig. B6 r .
20
George Wither, Britains remembrancer containing a narration of the plague lately past (n.p., 1628).
Although the work was published in 1628, Wither claimed that 'it is above two yeares since I
laboured to get this Booke printed, fo. [141]. Yet, he referred to the Re expedition, which
sailed in June 1627, f°- 22Ov.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 277
humanist concepts ofnegotium and vera nobilitas. In the 1620s the political
situation was much more serious, but many of the themes which we
have encountered in his Abvses stript, and whipt, also figured largely in his
Britains remembrancer. But Wither's analysis also bears a close resem-
blance to Thomas Scott's arguments. The main theme of Wither's
Britains remembrancer was a familiar one: to reveal the sickness - 'the
Pestilence' or 'the Plague' - ravaging England and to prescribe
remedies for it. In his dedication to the king, Wither revealed his
intentions:
Here, view you may (before too far they steale)
The sicknesses of Church and Gommonweale
What brings upon your Person, and the State,
Such care, and so much trouble as of late:
What marres your Counsels, and what undermines
Your most approved, and most wise designes.21
Later in the treatise Wither broadened his audience and addressed the
whole realm: 'I tell thee therefore, Britaine, thou art sick.'22 This decay
manifested itself in religion, foreign policy and trade: treaties, alliances,
'forraine enterprizes' and even naval expeditions had failed to produce
the desired results.23 Foreign trade depended on ships, 'which are the
walls, / By which thy temp'rall greatnesse, stands, or falls'. But now
most of the ships 'begin to sinke, for want of trade'.
The main reasons for corruption were hardly less familiar. First,
Wither endorsed the long-standing view that the corruption of the
court and the nobility had contaminated the whole commonwealth.
'The Court is fraught with bribery, with hate, / With envie, lust,
ambition, and debate.' Wither was convinced that 'True Vertue's
almost quite exiled thence.' 25 Although there still were 'Some Cour-
tiers, and some Nobles' who had retained 'their True Nobility', most of
them 'live luxuriously' and despise those who 'might advance the
publike weale'. The greatest favours were bestowed on those who knew
'how to ride a horse, or take the Ring, / Or hunt, or hawk, or caper'.
Offices were sold, but the king's coffers remained empty as long as the
luxurious habits of these 'Parasites' and 'Buffoones' were subsidized.26
Wither also endorsed the equally traditional belief that decay was
21
Ibid,fo.8v.
22
Ibid., 2i6 v ; see in general fos. gr, 391", 6 5 r - 6 6 r , io2 v , i o g v - n o r , 222 r .
23
Ibid., fos. 2i8 v ~22O v . F o r religion see e.g. fos. i6o, v -i73 v .
24
Ibid., fos. 2 i 6 v - 2 i 8 r , i g 8 r .
25
Ibid., fo. 1 9 6 ^ , in general, fos. i g 6 r - i 9 8 r .
26
Ibid., fos. I 8 O V - I 8 9 V .
278 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

caused by a more general lack of virtue and a universal pursuit of one's

own private good. Finally, he believed that corruption manifested itself
in the arena of politics, which had turned into 'The Closet-Counsels, and
the Chamber work'. No news spread any longer from St Paul's Cathe-
dral; there was 'scarce a Walker in her middle He', as Wither put it.28
The remedies which Wither prescribed to this sickness were also
largely dependent on traditional arguments. But before embarking on
the project of suggesting his remedies, he pointed out that decay and
corruption were to an extent inescapable:
I saw how Cities, Common-wealths, and Men,
Did rise and fall, and rise and fall agen.
I saw the reason, why all Times and States,
Have such vicissitudes, and various fates.
I saw what doth occasion War, and Peace;
What causeth Dearth, and what doth bring Encrease.
I saw what hardens, and what mollifies.29
First of all, Wither's withering criticism the private life implied an
unqualified endorsement of negotium. Trejudicate opinions, faction,
pride' should be laid aside, and everyone should 'serve the Publike'.
Virtuous vera nobilitas was another time-honoured remedy to which
Wither resorted. In the first canto, he exhorted the king to abandon
'base Officer' and advance men of 'true Honor'. 31 The same issue
emerged even more clearly in the sixth canto, where Wither reproved
'The course in which our Nobles move'. The only way to change the
course of events was to dispense with 'Parasites' and 'Buffoones' and
to promote those who exhibited 'ancient Vertues'. Wither's argu-
ment implied that virtue was to be found amongst ancient families,
but in the next canto he reminded his readers that true virtue could
also repose amongst merchants.33 He strongly supported the anti-
Spanish foreign policy, extolling England's maritime position, and
praised Queen Elizabeth and the heroes of her reign, including again
Walter Ralegh.34
27
Ibid., fos. 114!"", 222 r -233 v .
28
I b i d , fos. I O 7 V - I O 8 V .
29
I b i d , fo. i52 v .
30
I b i d , fos. 234V, 67 r -7i r .
31
I b i d , fo. 2 8 V .
32
I b i d , fos. 1681", i8o v -ig8 r , quotations i84 r , i85 v . Cf. George Wither, A collection of emblemes,
ancient and moderne (London, 1635), p . 5.
33
Wither, Britains remembrancer, fo. 209/.
34
Ibid, fos. 2i8 v -22O v , i68 v , i65 v -i66 r , i2O v -i2i v , i82 v . For a balanced account of the queen's
memory, see Woolf 1985.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 279
According to Wither, parliament played an important role in
repairing the decay of the commonwealth. It was above all in
parliament that men should lay aside their private thoughts and focus
on serving the public good. In order to ensure this, meticulous care
should be exercised in parliamentary elections. First, too many people
thought that
The Common-wealth would surely come to nought,
Unlesse his knowledge, or his vertues, were
Elected, to be exercised there.
Moreover, too many elections were 'out of order' (i.e. contested). In
such cases MPs were inclined to serve 'meere private ends' of their
'Cruisers', rather than the good of the whole community. Most
importantly, however, people should make their choices free:
they that should have past
A free election, have their voices cast
By force, constraint, or for some by-respect,
On those, whom others, for their ends elect.
There be in Court, and bordring round about
Thy Burroughs, many wiser men, no doubt,
Then some that in Elections have their voice;
And, by their ayd, there is sometime a choice
Of good and able men: yet, best it were,
That all men left to their just freedomes were.36

Given Wither's belief in the crucial importance of the virtuous active

life, it comes as no surprise that he criticized the king in an only thinly
veiled manner, that he believed the Council could control the king and
that he was inclined to give the people a significant role in the political
life of the commonwealth.
A King is for a blessing, or a curse:
And therefore (though a Foole he were, or worse,
A Tyrant, or an Ethnick) no man may
So much as in their private clossets, pray
Against his person; though they may petition
Against the wickednesse of his condition.
Wither called the Council 'An Aristocracy', claiming that sometimes
'they over-rule' the King 'in ev'rything'. But 'the pop'lar voice' did
35
Wither, Britains remembrancer, fo.
36
Ibid., fos. 23o r -23i v .
280 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

sometimes 'awe the Counsell', so much so that God often made 'much
alteration / in formes of Government'.37
There is thus little doubt that humanist parlance was used to level
criticism at the king and his government: the present state of the realm
was depicted in terms of corruption, the court was seen as a place
devoid of true nobility and it was possible to seek the solution in the
qualities of negotium and vera nobilitas. Nevertheless, it seems to be the
case that no extensive analysis of England as a virtuous commonwealth,
let alone as a mixed state, was developed in the late 1620s. The
importance of parliament and of more effective parliamentary control
was often stressed but without any reference to a humanist vocabu-
lary. There seemed to be, in other words, a partial decline in the
popularity of Ciceronian humanist concepts in the English political
discourse of the 1620s.39
If Ciceronian ideals were receding, Tacitean values were, to an
extent, taking their place, though again they often appeared together.
As is well known, Buckingham's opponents invoked Tacitus' analysis of
imperial Rome in their accusations against the duke. John Eliot
compared Buckingham with Tiberius' corrupt favourite L. Aelius
Sejanus in the 1626 parliament when the Commons endeavoured to
impeach the duke.40 Writing immediately after Buckingham's assassi-
nation in 1628, Alexander Leighton went even further and claimed
that 'Sejanus' had never been as 'ungratefull, nor perfidious to his
Master' as Buckingham. In 1628 too, two separate translations of
Pierre Matthieu's The powerfvll favorite, or the life of Aelius Seianus were
published as an attack on Buckingham. Matthieu did not confine
himself to a mere description of Sejanus' infamous life; he claimed that
37
Ibid., fo. 2 6 5 ™
38
See e.g. Henry Burton, Israels fast: or, a meditation vpon the seuenth chapter qfjoshuah; a faire precedent
for these times (London, 1628), sigs. A4r~v, Bi r ~4 r , p . 13; and especially idem, An apology of an
appeale: also an epistle to the true-hearted nobility (n.p., 1636), pp. 20-3; idem, A plea to an appeale:
trauersed dialogue wise (London, 1626), p . 2. See Cust 1987, p p . 302—3. For examples of non-
puritan views, see e.g. [Robert Cotton], The danger wherein the kingdom, now standeth & the remedie
(n.p., 1628), p p . 7—12; [Ralph Starkey], The priviledges and practice of parliaments in England: collected
out of the common lawes of this land (n.p., 1628). For the prevalent tendency to contrast the
corruption of one's own time with the healthy commonwealth of Elizabeth's reign, see e.g.
T h o m a s Gataker, An anniuersarie memoriall ofEnglands delivery from the Spanish inuasion: deliuered in a
sermon on Psal. 48.7,8 (London, 1626); Walter Cary, The present state of England (London, 1627).
Gf. in general Lake 1982, pp. 815-18; Gust and Lake 1981, pp. 4 4 - 8 ; Cust 1987, p . 181; Cust
1986; Clark 1978; Fielding 1988; Hughes 1986; Cope 1987, pp. 116-17, I2O 5 T h o m p s o n 1972;
Zaller 1983.
39
This has been suggested by Mendle 1989a, p p . 116-17.
40
PP1626,1, p . 462; Tenney 1941, p. 160. See in general Butler 1985, pp. 143—6.
41
[Alexander Leighton], An appeal to the parliament, pp. 160-2.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 281
the whole age had been 'so corrupted' that it had been 'then a vertue
to doe no evill, and piety not to be impious'. An absolute ruler's court
was full of obsequiousness and flattery. It was sheer madness to oppose
'the will of the Prince', for when the prince said 'I will have it so, he
renders reason enough of his actions'.42 Autocracy had abandoned
both the commonwealth and the court to Fortune. It was ultimately
her fickle nature which had caused Sejanus' ruin. He had been 'a
prodigious example of extreame insolencie and unfortunate ambi-
tion'. Matthieu was careful to point out that some people who had
been accustomed to live in the court had in the end found 'no other
defence against the violence of the time then a solitary life' and had
withdrawn to the country. 'The solitary life', he announced, 'was the
most assured, the civill more perillous, and the Country more
pleasing.'44
A new version of Matthieu's tract was published in 1632 (reprinted
in 1639),45 a n d t n e same story was retold in the translation of
Giovanni Manzini's Politicall observations: upon the fall of Seianvs in 1634.
Sejanus' tragic end was rehearsed 'rather for example then delight'.
'Let the Courtier', Manzini pointed out, 'learne true politike arts,
from the History of this wretched forlorne creature', for he 'who
studieth prudence on anothers bookes' would be happy. Manzini's
was also a story about the unsteady and fickle nature of Fortune
especially in princely courts. The reader learned how little man
'should confide in the vanity of that Fortune, which knowes not how
to be stable, even in marble'. 46 Explaining the courtier's rules,
Manzini emphasized that he ought to ascribe nothing to his own
abilities but 'all to the vertue, to merit, to the fortune of the Prince'.
Disaster was around the corner when 'the prince hath given all'
favours to the courtier, since as soon as 'the Favorite can desire no
more', he and the prince 'quickly grow weary one of another'. 47
Stoic forbearance was the best defence, for although the courtier
42
Mfatthieu], The powetfvllfavorite, pp. 30-1, for flattery, see especially pp. 40-1, 48; Sommerville
1986, p. 58.
43
Mfatthieu], The powerfulfavorite, pp. 61-2; in general pp. 43-4, 48; for autocracy and fortune,
see p. 26.
44
Ibid., pp. 25-6.
45
Pperre] Matthieu, Vnhappy prosperitie expressed in the histories of Aelius Seianus and Philipppa the
Catanian, translated by T[homas] Hawkins (n.p., [London], 1632).
46
Manzini, Politicall observations, pp. 2, 36,1, 14.
47
Ibid., pp. 37-8. Gf. T[homas] Powell, The art of thriving: or the plaine path-way to preferment
(London, 1635), sig. A5r~v; Anon., Satyrae seriae: or, the secrets of things (London, 1640), pp. 13-15,
22-3, 47—8, 94-133: John Saltmarsh, The patience ofpolicie in a Christian life (London, 1639).
282 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

could never be Tree from the effects' of fortune, yet he could

'exempt from the occasions'.48
Thomas May's interpretation of the Roman republic was also highly
ambivalent. In addition to Lucan's Pharsalia, he translated Virgil's
Georgics and Martial's Epigrams?9 In his two Roman tragedies Cleopata
(acted in 1626) and Julia Agrippina (acted in 1628), May again depicted
the corruption of late republican and early imperial Rome. But
whereas his translation of Lucan's Pharsalia contained glowing tributes
to the virtues of republican Rome, in his Roman tragedies of the same
period liberty has been lost for ever:
A show of liberty
When wee have lost the substance, is best kept
By seeming not to understand those faults
Which wee want power to mend.50
Cato is now presented as a point of contrast rather than identifica-
tion.51 The thoroughness of corruption is graphically illustrated by the
fact that the hope of recovering freedom was placed in Cleopatra on
Antonius, for whom politics disturbed the pleasures of love (the
epitome of the private life), and who was most easily defeated.
Similarly, The tragedy ofJulia Agrippina presents the imperial court as a
place of wholesale decay: 'Let Vertue lurke among the rurall Swaines,
/ Whilest Vice in Romes Imperiall Palace reignes.' 53 The only remedy
available was to withdraw from the public life, to 'tast the sweetes of
privaty' and to 'Enjoy our lives free from the glorious noise, / And
troubles of a Court'. 54
In 1630 May published his well-known continuation of Lucan's
Pharsalia, the tone of which is markedly different from the comments
in the translation. Brutus is still called 'The vindicatour of lost libertie'
and Caesar's 'power' is described as 'DistastfulT 'to Cities borne free'.
But the Romans are now said to have been happy to forgive the loss
Manzini, Politicall observations, pp. 43—4. Cf. Arthur Warwick, Spare-minutes: or, resolved meditations
and premeditated resolutions, 2nd edn (London, 1634), sigs. F3v-~5r, G8 r -g v ; Enrico Gaetani,
Instructionsfor yovng gentlemen, translated by anon. (Oxford, 1633), pp. 23-4; N[icolas] C[aussin],
The unfortunate politique, translated by G. P. (London, 1638).
49
For May's outlook, see Norbrook 1994, pp. 60-3.
50
Thomas May, The tragoedy of Cleopatra queene of Aegypt, ed. Denzell S. Smith (New York:
Garland, 1979), i.i.i 13-16.
51
Ibid., i.ii.166-71.
52
Ibid., i.ii.153-6, 162—5.
53
Thomas May, The tragedy of Julia Agrippina; empresse of Rome, ed. F. Ernst Schmid, Materialen
zur Kunde des alteren Englischen Dramas, 43 (1914), p. 5.
54
May, Julia Agrippina, 11.151—6; iv.84-5, 121-2.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 283
of their liberty and glad to adore 'A safe and peacefull Scepter', for
the real 'substance3 of their freedom had been overthrown long time
ago. Peace was the most fervent hope of 'plebeians' and 'the weary'd
Senate' alike. Their allegiance to Caesar's absolute power was
unswerving: 'Making his power so great, there's nothing now / But he
himselfe may on himselfe bestow.'55 And when May published a
'corrected' translation of Lucan's poem in 1631, the praises of the
republican heroes had become weaker, and the identifications of
May's contemporaries with the Roman republican heroes had dis-
appeared altogether.56 May's novel interpretation bore fruit - Charles
commissioned him to write historical poems on the reigns of Henry II
and Edward III.57
Tacitean themes and stoic forbearance were thus supplanting
Ciceronian ideals. In 1624 J o n n Reynolds had published two tracts,
in which he advocated an aggressive foreign policy in no uncertain
terms. Five years later, however, he published a translation of
Leonard de Marande's The ivdgement of humane actions which was
permeated by values of tranquillity and endurance. De Marande had
endorsed scepticism, regarded virtues as the battery against passions
and preferred, at least to an extent, the contemplative life.5 In his
dedication to the earl of Dorset, Reynolds wrote that although
France was now an enemy of England, he did not renounce his
translation, 'considering that Peace is the gift and blessing of God'.
He, therefore, wished for a permanent peace in 'the whole Christian

Thomas May, A continuation of Lucan's historicall poem till the death oflvlivs Caesar (London, 1630),
sigs. i8 r " v , i 5 r - 6 v , K 3 r .
M. A. Lucan, Pharsalia: or the civill wane of Rome, betweene Pompey the Great, and Ivlivs
Caesar: ten boohs: the second edition, corrected, and the annotations inlarged, translated by
Thomas May (London 1631). The dedication to the earl of Devonshire was the same,
but all the dedications of the individual books had been withdrawn. According to
Norbrook (1994, p. 60), the dedications of the individual books in most surviving copies
of the 1627 edition had already been tampered with. It should be noted that May's
translation of John Barclay's Icon animorum (originally printed in 1614) was published in
1631. Barclay not only argued for a strong monarchy but also pointed out that 'those
people, who subject themselves to no Scepter, though they abhorre the name of
servitude, yet doe not enjoy true liberty. For they must needs elect Magistrates, to
whom they give jurisdiction over themselves; and the publike power, which they glory
to be in the whole Nations, is adorned in a few men; so that in those Countries,
where you would think all did reigne, the greatest part are Servants'; John Barclay,
The mirrour of mindes: or Barclays Icon animorum, translated by Thomas May (1614)
(London, 1631), sig. Ee2r~v; in general sig. Ee2 r-ior.
Norbrook 1994, p. 61.
Leonard de Marande, The ivdgement of humane actions, translated by John Reynolds (London,
1629), PP- 38~9> 44-67> 114-22, 193-4, 232-49,196-8.
284 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

world', because 'Learning is universally to be cherished'. He placed the

aims of the otium before those of negotium.59
The same idea emerged even more forcefully in John Eliot's case.
Scholars have mostly been preoccupied with the possible inconsistency
between Eliot's parliamentary practice and his theoretical works
written during his final imprisonment, on the one hand, and with the
possible incongruity between Dejure majestatis and The monarchie of man,
on the other. ° Much less attention has been given to the tension
within his own work - The monarchie of man. The tract starts off as a
treatise on the nature of monarchy. Eliot first assumed that the king
exercised authority alone, but reached the crux of his argument when
he pointed out that the prince was always liable to become corrupt.
In order to protect the commonwealth from this, laws had been
established.61 Although it was nowadays common 'to make Mon-
archie unlimited, an absolutenes of government without rule', Eliot
gave a staggering list of classical authors to prove that 'lawes have an
influence on kings'.62
So far Eliot had employed a juristic vocabulary, but changing his
theme, he also changed his vocabulary. The chief way in which the
king could foster the common good was to embrace the cardinal
virtues. Again, however, the king's virtuous character was always
susceptible to moral decline. This time, though, Eliot did not seek the
solution in laws but claimed instead that the only conceivable way of
solving the inadequacies of one-man rule was to be found in counsel.63
Although 'many arguments' had been put forward in order to prove
that 'to admitt this authorittie of this Senate' was to make 'a competi-
tion for the government' and 'to divide the State', it was beyond doubt
that virtuous counsellors provided the best safeguard against tyranny,
as the example of Tarquinius Superbus made plain. 64 In England the
chief arena where counselling took place was parliament. Alongside the
humanist line of argument Eliot thus maintained that the only possible
means of bringing about the common good was not to leave the
59
de Marande, The ivdgement, sig. A3r~v, cf. sig. A6r~v. Gf. Reynolds's preface to his translation of
Eustache D u Refuge, A treatise of the court: or instruction for courtiers (London, 1622), where he
advocated a virtuous public service.
60
See e.g. Ball 1985; Sommerville 1986, pp. 157—8. For a brief discussion, see Hulme 1957, p p .

J o h n Eliot, The monarchie of man 2 vols., ed. A. B. Grossart (London: privately printed, 1879), n>
pp. 41-4.
Ibid., n, pp. 44-52; cf. pp. 58—9, where he referred to J o h n Fortescue.
63
Ibid., 11, pp. 65-70.
64
Ibid., 11, pp. 75-7, 81-3.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 285
governance of the commonwealth solely to the king but to assert the
values of the vita activa.
He firmly proclaimed that 'to the publike both our words & actions
must first move without respect, without retraction for our private, they
must first intend the common good and benefitt'.65 Virtues must 'be
profytable to many: not to our selves alone, not to the advancement of
our families, not to our friends & allies ... but generally to all for the
common benefitt & commoditie, the publike utilitie & good5. Cicero
had called those 'optimates & nobles' who, irrespective of their birth,
'defend their Contrey to the utmost of their powers, those that are
ready to rescue from all dangers the Commonwealth'. 66 Eliot enquired,
moreover, whether we should be ready to forsake the sweetness of
tranquillity and quietness and to adopt negotium which necessarily
involved 'troubles & perplexities'. 'Shall wee neglect', he asked, 'that
fattnes of our peace ... for the publicke use & service; for the profitt &
comodity of others?' His immediate and unconditional answer was:
'yes, noe difficulties may retard us, no troubles may divert us, noe
exception is admitted to this rule, but where the greater good is extant,
the duty & office there is absolute, without caution or respect.' 67
Eliot's account was essentially stoic. He invoked Cicero's and
Seneca's authority and drew the stoic conclusion that 'vertue', which
was 'the reward of her selfe', was the 'summum bonum\ His definition
of virtue as 'agreeable to nature' was equally stoic. And when he
explained the qualities of virtue, he began by saying that there were
four cardinal virtues, but proceeded to point out that 'each must
participate of all to make a true vertue'. All of them must 'be
contemperate', they 'must be compounded' so that in the end they
were but one.69 True honour came 'by vertue'; it was 'the crowne of
vertue' and was attained by being 'a servant unto vertue'. 70 In a
completely stoic argument, Eliot further maintained that the cardinal
virtues would eradicate the 'impediments & corruptions' of felicity -
passions. These were four in number: 'feare, hope, joy, & sorrow', and
a great part of Eliot's treatise was devoted to explaining the ways in
which virtues could eliminate these passions.71
65
Ibid., 11, p p . 207-8.
66
Ibid., 11, p p . 182-4.
67
Ibid., 11, p p . 208-11.
68
Ibid., 11, p . 100; in general p p . 95-105.
69
Ibid., 11, p p . 108-9, 64.
70
Ibid., 11, p p . 176-86.
71
Ibid., 11, p p . 107-8, 138-205.
286 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Contradicting his analysis ofnegotium, Eliot maintained that, as virtue

eradicated passions, it enabled the mind to build 'a tranquilitie, &
calm-nes free from all trouble & distemper in the contemplation of all
accidents'. To live 'in privacie and leisure' was more 'pleasant than any
dignitie'. When a man's life was 'vacant of busines & imployment', it
was 'the freer from distractions'.72 Contemplation was wholly depen-
dent on wisdom but this was 'not that wisedome of the vertues, that
wisedome which wee reckon'd in our lawes, but another wisedome'.
Defining the difference between prudence and sapience, Eliot claimed
that the latter was 'a wisedome of more excellence, of more excellencie
in the facultie; of more excellence in the object'.73 Sapience surpassed
prudence on the grounds that whereas 'men & actions onely are the
entertainement of the other', sapience 'ha's it's conversation in the
Heavens, & is verst in the high misteries of Divinity'. This contempla-
tion was commended not solely by divines but also 'by the Ethicks'. 4
The question which Eliot thus addressed was whether action or
contemplation was of greater weight. 'But here', he wrote, 'a
question may arise, whether of these is chiefe, whither is more
principle in the vertue.' He admitted that this issue had 'bene
frequently discust' and that 'with varietie of arguments on both
sides'. However, he had no hesitation in maintaining that 'contem-
plation is the chiefe'. It was Marsilio Ficino from whom Eliot
derived his argument at this point. Contemplation was more
valuable than action because it provided the latter both with the end
and with the beginning. Action was 'but a derivative from' contem-
plation and, moreover, as soon as action came to its end, contempla-
tion began again.75 Although Eliot could assert the central values of
Ciceronian humanism, in the final analysis he abandoned them and
wholeheartedly embraced the idea of otium. He confessed that, in
principle, the virtuous active life in public service was most precious,
but the verdict which he gave from his confinement was that the
noblest way of life must be one of contemplative leisure. During his
imprisonment Eliot obtained a copy of Iipsius' De constantia.76
The conclusion that the humanist tradition did not have as strong an
ideological significance in the latter part of the 1620s as in the late
72
Ibid., 11, pp. 102, 104-5.
73
Ibid., 11, p . 216.
74
Ibid., 11, p p . 216-221.
75
Ibid., 11, p p . 222-3. Cf. William Jeffray, The picture of patience: or, direction to perfection (London,
1629), p p . 1-2, 9. F o r Ficino, see e.g. Rice 1958, p p . 58—68.
76
S h a r p e 1979, p . 106.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 287
sixteenth century and the first two decades of the seventeenth might
appear, at first glance, somewhat surprising. One might have thought
that the turbulent and politically troubled years of the late 1620s would
have created the right circumstances for a fully developed ideology of
the mixed state, of true nobility and of the active life. As we have seen,
this had happened several times during an acute crisis. And although
some of these humanist concepts were employed in the late 1620s, no-
one formulated or advanced a full-blooded humanist theory of a
virtuous commonwealth. This can partly be explained, as Margo Todd
has pointed out, by the growing Anglican and Laudian reaction against
puritanism and its social ethics based mainly on Christian humanism. 77
More importantly, a sense of frustration with politics, so obvious in
Eliot's case, had something to do with this decline. Alexander Leighton
wrote: 'When all things were so farre out of frame, that we are becom
the prey of our enimies, the mockerie of our friends, a shame to our
selves, and the fotestoole of a favourite: then nothing but a Parliament,
Oh! a Parliament would men all; But Parliament we had after Parlia-
ment, and what was amended?' 78 Similar expressions of frustration can
be found from George Wither's writings of the 1620s. As early as 1621
Wither said that he was not interested in 'the Bohemian state' or 'The
Palatinate', nor in 'Eighty-eight', 'the Powder-plot, or any thing of
Spaines'. He was 'not much inquisitive to know' about 'newes from
France, or Spaine', or about 'For what brave Action our last Fleet did
go'. He claimed that he could 'accord' 'with ajewe, or Spaniard' as long
as they had 'a Vertuous, and Heroicke minde'. 79 In 1625 parliament
had two sessions, but to Wither it looked 'That all the time, the labour,
and the cost, / Which had bestowed beene, was wholly lost'.

We wisht for Parliaments; and them we made

Our God: for, all the hope that many had
To remedy the publike discontent,
Was by the wisdome of a Parliament
Well; Parliaments we had; and what in being,
Succeedeth yet, but greater disagreeing,
With greater grievances then heretofore?80

T o d d 1987, pp. 206-60; cf. Reeve 1989, pp. 62-71.

Cf. Reeve 1989, pp. 209—10; Leighton, An appeal to the parliament, pp. 172-3.
George Wither, Wither's motto: nee habeo, nee careo, nee euro (n.p. [London], 1621), sigs. A6 V , D21"
B4V.
Wither, Britains remembrancer, fo. io6 r v , sig. z 8 r .
288 Classical humanism and republicanism 15*70-1640

A frustration with politics might to some extent account for the

partial submergence of a humanist vocabulary, but there is little doubt
that the main reason for this lies in the precise nature of the issues
involved. Although criticism of the court offered ample opportunities
for the development of the concept of corruption, the real issues at
stake - religion, taxation, the Forced Loan, arbitrary imprisonment
and the conduct of war - were such that a juristic vocabulary and more
particularly one of the ancient constitution proved perhaps more
efficacious in countering the king's policy. The lofty yet somewhat
general ideal of the active life and true nobility had few answers to the
practical problems of warfare or to the constitutional or legal disputes
over taxation and the Forced Loan. Appeals to the reason of state and
the claims of the divine rights of kings made in favour of the Forced
Loan, were answered by arguments based on the common law or to a
lesser extent on the resistance theories developed within the natural law
tradition. Edward Coke's proposed solution to the problems engen-
dered by the Forced Loan - the Petition of Right - was a question of
rights and the law rather than of virtue, true nobility and the vita
activa.82 For George Wither, parliament had proved unable to solve the
pressing problems, and his belief in the humanist concepts had
markedly abated. Instead, he turned to the language of body politic,
emphasizing the 'blessed union' of the people and the king 'as the Body
and the Head'. As to 'the Infringement of our lawfull Liberties', they
were secured by the principles of the ancient constitution, which
guaranteed both the king's authority and 'all just freedomes of the
Land'. Although Wither asserted that they who claim that 'no law doth
bound' the king were making him 'a Tyrant', he also admitted that the
king could in certain cases flout the law.

They, who deny the King free pow'r to do

What his Republikes weale conduceth to,
Because some Law gainsayes; ev'n those deprive
Their Soveraigne of a due prerogative;
Since, for the common good, it just may be,
That some injustice may be done to me.83
81
Cust 1987, pp. 157-85.
82
T h e same seems to be true in so far as the circumstances leading to the Bishops' war are
concerned, see e.g. John Corbet, The vngirding of the Scottish armour: or, an answer to the informations
for defensive armes against the kings majestie (Dublin, 1639); Henry Valentine, God save the king: a
sermon preached in St Pauls church the 27th. ofMarch. i6jg (London, 1639).
83
Wither, Britains remembrancer, fos. 2$r, 227 v -228 r , 234 v -235 r , 236 v -237 r . Cf. idem, Wither's motto,
sig. BI V , where the argument is directed against any use of the reason of state.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 289
The partial decline of the classical humanist tradition does not
mean, however, that it disappeared altogether during the late 1620s
and the 1630s. At the beginning of the 1630s Thomas May may have
described Rome's liberty as irrevocably lost, but by the time he
published his continuation of Lucan's Pharsalia in Latin in 1640, he had
again strengthened the republican emphases of the work: Caesar
appears now more arbitrary; the problems caused by freedom have
disappeared, as has the eulogy of Augustus.84 The political disputes of
the late 1620s may have lacked a fully fledged humanist response, but
three distinct themes of humanist tradition were continuously restated
during the 1630s. The first one was the issue of the militia. Although
the northern humanists - mainly following Cicero - had opposed the
use of brute force, we have seen that the idea of the citizen carrying
arms, so central in Italian republican humanism, had also made a
lasting impact in England. Essentially similar arguments, often based
on Bacon's pioneering analysis, were already rehearsed in the late
1620s but also in the 1630s.
As soon as Charles ascended the throne, he was committed to
reforming the English militia and to leading England into the
European war. Where the reformation of the English army was
concerned, it was Charles's aim to create a perfect militia. Early in
1626 he recalled some English sergeants from the Netherlands to train
it. A general assessment is difficult to give because of the great variation
between counties, but it seems plausible to say that Charles's efforts
improved the quality of the militia although it failed to provide Charles
with strong troops when he needed them in 1638.85
Partly because of Charles's attempts to create a disciplined militia
but mainly because of the adoption of a more belligerent policy, the
later years of the 1620s witnessed the publication of a number of
tracts and treatises about warfare.86 The idea of professional and
mercenary soldiers received occasional endorsement. John Hagthorpe
argued in 1625 that 'he that hath coyne shal have strangers to fight
for him, but he that hath none though peradventure he number
84
Bruere 1949; Norbrook 1994, p. 63.
85
Boynton 1967, pp. 244-97; Fletcher 1986, pp. 286-316.
86
E.g. W[illiam] N[eade], The double-armed man, by the new invention: briefly shewing some famous
exploits atchieued by our Brittish bowmen (n.p., [London], 1625); W. C , The Dutch svrvay (London,
1625); J o n n Roberts, Compendium belli: or the tovchstone of martiall discipline (London, 1626);
E[dward] C[ooke], The prospective glasse of wane (London, 1628); Thomas Taylor, The valew of
true valour: or, the probation and approbation of a right military man (London, 1629); [George] Lauder,
The Scottish sovldier (Edinburgh, 1629).
290 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

many subjects, yet in his need hee shall finde but few souldiers'.87
Richard Bernard, a puritan cleric from Somerset, discussed 'souldiers
honoureable calling and imployment' and asserted that 'the profes-
sion of armes5 had raised many from mean conditions to great
honour.88 The new armies of the Netherlands and especially Sweden
commanded admiration. The Swedish defence was partly based, as
one author put it, on the fact that 'the maritane parts not of
Swethland onlye, but of Finland also, are for the most part
environed with high and steepe rocky hils & Hands', which made it
difficult for strangers 'to saile neere their shore'. But it derived its
main strength from military organization. 'The military forces' of
Sweden were not 'forreine mercenary forces' but were 'culled and
pickt out from among the choicest youth of the kingdome, by
decimation, or taking every tenth man'. Becoming soldiers radically
changed the status of Swedes, since as soon as they were enrolled
'they are not onely freed from all subsidies, impositions, or other
payments whatsoever, but have also a yeerely stipend allowed them
of the king'. That is to say, they were professional soldiers, exempt
from taxation, constantly employed and paid by the king.89
But the traditional idea of the citizen militia received the widest
acceptance. Robert Cotton insisted that 'for a safetie of a
Common-wealth, the wisedome of all times did never interesse the
publique cause to any other, then such as have a portion in the
publique adventure',90 whilst William Gouge maintained that 'Free-
men, Freeborne, Native Subjects, Naturall Citizens' were also true
soldiers. According to John Davenport, soldiers must not be like
'Hannibals Army, gathered of riff-raff, the reffuse, and dregs of the
7
John Hagthorpe, Englands-Exchequer: or a discourse of the sea and navigation (London, 1625), p. 7, cf.
pp. 13-14, 21. Gf. William Hampton's sermon in favour of the benevolence, A proclamation of
wane from the lord of hosts . . . a sermon at Pauls Crosse Iuly the 23. 1626 ( L o n d o n , 1627), p . 3 6 .
According to Hampton, money was the lneruus Belli, without which Warre cannot subsist'; it
was the subject's duty to 'part with a penny to enioy a pound'.
88
Richard Bernard, The Bibk-battells: or the sacred art military (n.p. [London], 1629), pp. 31-7, see
also p p . 63-5, 69-71, 152. Cf. e.g. Thomas Barnes, Vox belli: or, an alarum to warre (London,
1626), p. 33; Edward Cooke, The character of warre (London, 1626), sig. B2 r ~3 r .
89
Anon., A short survey of the kingdome of Sweden (London, 1632), pp. 6, 36-8, 50-3. It was as early
as 1627 that the English first took interest in Sweden's success. Anon., A trumpet to call sovldiers
on to noble actions (London, 1627); [Alexander Gil], The new starr of the north shining upon the
victorious king of Sweden (1631) (London, 1632), pp. 25-9; John Russell, The two famous pitcht battels
of Lypsich and Lutzen (Cambridge, 1634), pp. 11-12, 23; and especially Anon., The Swedish
discipline, religious, duile, and military (London, 1632); Henry Hexham, The principles of the art
militarie (n.p. 1637); idem, The second part of the principle of the art militarie (London, 1638); idem,
The third part of the principle of the art militarie (The Hague, 1640).
90
[Cotton], The danger, p . 7; Burton, Israelsfast, p. 3.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 291
people, but a Company of worthy Cittizens5. Moreover, warfare
should not become a separate trade or occupation. 'Whereas in
other places, some are for Armes, some Artizans, some labourers,'
in Switzerland 'all are Souldiers.' Men must not forget their
'particular callings' although they spend some time in training: 'So
minde the exercises in the field, that you forget not necessary
businesse in your shop.'
The idea of the citizen militia was treated even more fully in
Walter Ralegh's The prerogatives of parliaments in England, first published
'in these distracted Times' in 1628. If the king was not content with
parliamentary subsidies, he might, like the French king, have to face
numerous rebellions and would need foreign mercenary troops to
suppress them. But imitating France implied giving up a strong army
since 'the strength of England doth consist of the People and
Yeomanry'. The fact that English yeomen owned their land and that
their property could not be alienated without their consent rendered
them economically independent. Although this made it somewhat
more difficult for the king to raise taxes, at the same time it made
Englishmen able soldiers. The same argument was used in the 1628
parliament to criticize the Forced Loan. Nathaniel Rich said that if
the subject did not have his property, there would be neither
'industry' nor 'valor'. For Dudley Digges, 'that king that is not limited
rules slaves that cannot serve him' and he claimed in his famous
example that because of their arbitrary government 'Muscovites' were
no match for Englishmen. 'Let us', Edward Kirton asserted, 'be free
Englishmen at home and valorous abroad.'93
When Charles informed the House of Commons on 4 June 1628
that he was determined to stick to his former answer to the Petition
of Right, which the House had found unacceptable, and that he was
going to dissolve parliament within a week, the king stung the MPs
into an outburst.94 On 5 June, John Eliot expressed fears of
employing foreign mercenaries. 'We are weakened not only in our
friends abroad but at home also. And there are drawn hither
1
William Gouge, Gods three arrowes:plague, famine, sword, in three treatises (London, 1631), pp. 410-11;
John Davenport, A rqyall edictfor military exercises: published in a sermon preached ...in Saint Andrewes
Vndershqft, in London, Iune2j. i62g (London, 1629), PP- 1 3~ 1 ^; Knevet, Stratiotikon, sig. E^T.
92
Walter Ralegh, The prerogatives of parliaments in England (Middelburg, 1628), p p . 6-7. Cf.
Thomas Overbury, His observations in his travailes vpon the state of the xvn provinces as they stood anno
dom. i6og (n.p., 1626), pp. 12—16.
93
CD1628, 11, p p . 124, 66, 71, 299; cf. p . 334, i n , pp. 187, 193. See e.g. G u y 1982; Reeve 1986;
Cust 1987, p p . 4, 331-3; Reeve 1989, pp. 16-19.
94
Cf. Russell 1979, p . 378.
292 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

praetorian bands and placed amongst us, and are drawn near this
city.'95 Although Eliot refrained from spelling out the implications of
his speech, he was arguing that foreign mercenaries could become a
dangerous weapon of arbitrary government. Next day John Strange-
ways expressed the same fear and told the Commons that scattering
billeted soldiers and importing 'troops of Germany horse9 would not
contribute to the defence of the kingdom since 'England is not so
weak as to need such succor.' He was backed by many of his
colleagues. According to Eliot, 'the drawing on of foreign horses'
was utterly useless since 'our English are not of so poor heart and
courage but that we are able to make our King great at home and
abroad'. When Sir Humphrey May told the Commons that 'the
Germany horses were not for England' but 'for a foreign service',
Eliot bluntly replied that 'no man doubts of his Majesty. But our
fear is that, contrary to his good thoughts, the horses may be
brought to his prejudice and the prejudice of the kingdom.'96 The
defence of the kingdom could only be entrusted to her citizens.
This way of thinking about the militia and mercenaries emerges
clearly when Sir John Maynard, who had close relations with Buck-
ingham, spoke on 7 June. Relying on Machiavelli, 'an author in
fashion', he said that all armies were composed either of countrymen
or strangers. In the former case there were two possibilities: they were
either 'trained bands' or 'mercenary' and, as he said, according to
Machiavelli it was 'absolutely a destruction of a country to entertain
mercenaries'. This rule also applied to foreign troops in general since
they were useless regardless of whether they were 'valiant or coward'. If
they were cowards, 'all is lost' and if they were valiant, the prince
would become their 'prisoner'. Maynard drew the conclusion that 'this
nation [is] never happy to employ strangers: the King has brave
soldiers of his own subjects'.97
The same idea found its way into the Commons' Remonstrance - a
report of the present state of the realm addressed to the king in case he
had been systematically misled. Most menacing, the Commons told
Charles, was 'the report of the strange and dangerous purpose of
bringing in German horse and riders'. Although the Commons grate-
95
CD1628, iv, p . 117; 11, 62. Cf. in general 'A letter', in Somers tracts, iv, p p . 111-12. See also
M[atthieu], The powerfvll favorite, p . 2; Virgilio Malvezzi, Romvlvs and Tarqvin, translated by
[Henry Carey] (London, 1637), p p . 160-1, where the ' G u a r d ' is linked with tyranny. Cf.
Schoewerer 1974, p p . 19-32.
96
CD1628, iv, 145-9, 244; Reeve 1989, p . 27.
97
CD1628, iv, p p . 188-9.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 293
fully acknowledged the king's assurances that these foreign troops were
not intended for use in England, they wanted to point out that the very
idea of employing foreign troops was totally at odds with the freedom
of the English people. It was not easy to 'be ignorant that the bringing
in of strangers for aid has been pernicious to most states where they
have been admitted, but to England fated'. The only way to defend the
kingdom was to have an army of countrymen. 'We', the Commons told
the king, 'are bold to declare to your Majesty and the whole world that
we hold it far beneath the heart of any free Englishman to think that
this victorious nation should now stand in need of German soldiers to
defend their own King and kingdom.'98
In Thomas May's The tragedy of Julia Agrippina, acted in 1628, the
praetorian guard, 'The German souldiers', played a central role in the
corrupt intrigues of the imperial court.9 Later in autumn 1628,
Alexander Leighton asked: 'Why are the strangers within us gott up
above us ... a sort of rude, Barbarous, needlesse, and uselesse souldiers
(without Example in a free nation?).'100
England's withdrawal from the European war in 1630 did not
terminate the furious debate over the issues of war and militia.101
Robert Johnson argued against Bacon when he noted in his 1630
edition of Botero's Relations that 'although some men will not suffer
money to be called the sinewes of warre', there were cases where
money alone would carry the day. But he also appended to his
account (though without acknowledgement) several passages from
Bacon's essay on the greatness of states. Most importantly, he cited
Bacon to the effect that a warlike disposition required freedom and a
light burden of taxes. Moreover, the strength of the Englishman was
grounded on Henry VII's prudent land policy.103
A similar argument was presented by George Tooke in The legend of
98
Ibid., iv, p p . 314-15.
May, Julia Agrippina, 1, 12-13, 537—9; iv, 294—7, 3°5~ I2 > 7^9~94I v> 5~ x o -
100
Leighton, An appeal to the parliament, pp. 146-7.
101
E.g. G[ervase] M[arkham], T h e muster-master' [1630?], ed. Charles L. Hamilton, Camden
Society, 4th ser., x i v Camden miscellany, 26 (1975); Xenophon, Cyrupaedia: the institution and life of
Cyrus, translated by Philemon Holland (London, 1632), the dedication to the king by Henry
Holland, sig. pp8 r ; Gerratt Barry, A discourse of military discipline, devided into three boohs (Brussels,
1634); William BarrifFe, Military discipline: or, theyong artillery man (London, 1635); idem, Mars his
triumph: or, the description of an exercise performed the xuii. of October, 1638 in Merchant-Taylors Hall
(London, 1639); Gervase Markham, The souldiers accidence: or an introduction into military discipline
(London, 1635); see also Henry Hexham's treatises mentioned above in n.52.
102
Giovanni Botero, Relations of the most famous kingdomes and common-wealths thorowout the world,
translated by R[obert] Jfohnson], (London, 1630), p . 34.
103
Botero, Relations, p p . 28-9; see pp. 21, 25-6, 27, 29, 30, 39-41.
294 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

Brita-mart published in 1635. Tooke began the tract, organized as a

dialogue, by asserting that the soldier was a central 'complexion' in the
'body politicke', as the example of 'illustrious Sparta' and the accounts
of 'our moderne critickes' easily proved. If one examined 'the facility
and open site of our present England; respecting her want of fatnesse,
or fortification', it was easy to decide that she did not have an 'other
refuge' than 'the Souldiers brest'. It was useless and fatal to assume that
'ambition and the thirst of Empire' had become 'extinct' or that it had
been 'transplanted farre away to the Antipodes'. The urgent need for
soldiers was due to the profound imperial aspirations of states and the
only method of adapting oneself to these conditions was to have a
powerful army. 'Are wee not', Tooke wrote, 'daily surrounded with a
further accesse of power, and more compact then formerly?' If the state
did not want to 'lie at the devotion of every hungry pretender', the only
solution was to rely 'rather upon our owne abilities'.104
The importance of one's own army was put across by two
arguments. First, it was extremely dangerous to rely on foreign
help.105 But in England it was equally fatal to rely on the sea and the
navy alone. Tooke confessed that it was possible to argue that 'the
sea' was 'our moate' and that 'our armado' had been 'such a wall as
hitherto has bin invincible'.106 But this argument, he was convinced,
did not stand up to scrutiny. Bacon had demonstrated that 'the foot-
combatant' was superior in comparison with 'the horseman' and to
the navy. The navy in particular was vulnerable to the blind forces of
fortune. As Tooke put it in a rhetorical question, 'must our maine rest
be set up, I say, upon such uncertainties'? Since the 'wooden wall'
was 'so tickle' it was much more 'expedient' to place trust in 'our
yron one, our infantery'.107 The infantry should consist of free
farmers. According to Tooke, 'my Lord of S. Alban' had convincingly
demonstrated the warlike capacities of 'this midle people, betweene
Cottagers and gentlemen'.108
It is of some importance to note that Tooke was at pains to
refute the central role of the navy in the defence of England just
at the time when a propaganda campaign for the navy and the
104
George Tooke, The legend of Brita-mart (London, 1635), sig. B2r~v.
105
Ibid., sigs. B 4 v - 5 r , B 7 r -<n v .
106
Ibid., sig. B3 r .
107
Ibid., sig. B3 r ~ v , B6 V .
108
Ibid., sig. C3V. See also Robert Powell, Depopulation arraigned, convicted and condemned, by the lawes
of God and man (London, 1636), pp. 6-8, 20-30, 32, 35, 40—6, 60—1, 96, 104—5; Thomas Nash,
Qvaternio: or afovrefold way to a happie life (London, 1633), pp. 4—6.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 295
urgent need of maritime supremacy was launched in support of
ship money.109 According to Henry Valentine, 'shipping is the
very nerves, and sinewes, the strength and security of a nation'
and particularly 'our ships are (and so they may well be) called
the walls of our Kingdome'. Thomas Powell pointed out that
since England was an island, ca Sea-Soldier' was 'more usefull to
his Country' than 'a Land Soldier'.110 Preaching in Bristol in
1635, Thomas Palmer told his listeners that 'it is lawfull for a
prince to defend the Title and Jurisdiction of his Seas: and offend
those who would intrench upon them'. This was of particular
importance to England not only since 'the sea is our Wall' but
also since 'our best (though wooden) Battlements is our navy'. As
a result, it was 'a provident care of our gratious Soveraigne to
incircle our Band with a stately Royall Navy', and it was the
subject's duty to be 'thankfull unto him in our Loyal and liberall
asisstance'. Repeating the old commonplace that treasures were
'the sinewes of war', Palmer exhorted his countrymen as follows:
'Let not our purse bee narrow, because our seas are so.'111
Although the ideas of the citizen militia and its social foundation
were thus elaborated with occasional reference to the republican
tradition, a word of caution is in place here. For all the insistence on
the free husbandman carrying arms, it is clear that these accounts
stopped short of a fully fledged republican argument. This becomes
clear in the authors' willingness to employ a conspicuously different
repertoire of instances.112 An English militia, Tooke wrote, had already
appeared in Saxon times when King Etheldred had been 'miserably
harassed by the Dane'. He had, therefore, decided that 'every eight
109
J o h n Boroughs, The sovereignty of the British seas (1633), ed. T . C . W a d e (Edinburgh,
1920), p p . 41, 454—6, 49, 76-7; J o h n Selden, Mare clausum sea de dominio maris (London,
1635), sig. b2 r , p p . 185-6; see the translation, Of the dominion, or, ownership of the sea,
translated by Marchamont N e d h a m (London, 1652), sig. e2 v , p p . 128—9; °f- Barrett
1964. See also S. R. Gardiner, The constitutional documents of the Puritan Revolution 1628—
1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1889), pp. 37-9; Giovanni Botero, The cavse of the
greatness of cities: with certain observations concerning the sea, translated by Sir T. H. (London,
1635), pp. 179—236; Marcotte 1975, p. 164, n.3; Adams 1983, pp. 84, 100; Loomie 1986,
pp. 39-42; Swales 1977; Gordon 1910; Andrews 1991, pp. 128-59; Woolf 1990, p. 244.
For the opposition, see Rowe 1962; Bard 1977.
110
Henry Valentine, Fovre sea-sermons, preached at the annuall meeting of the Triniik Companie, in the
parish church ofDeptford (London, 1635), P* 9- Powell, The art of thriving, p. 101.
111
Thomas Palmer, Bristolls military garden: a sermon preached unto the worthy comparty qfpractisers in the
military garden of the well governed citie ofBristoll (London, 1635), pp. 15-16; Thomas Heywood, A
true description of his majesties royall ship, built this yere 1637 at Wolwitch (London, 1637), especially
P P 2 4 5
112 ' ~ '
Schwoerer 1974, pp. 12—15.
296 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

hides of land throughout the Kingdome5 should provide 'a corselet5.113

Bacon had strongly emphasized the value of free and sturdy farmers,
but even he had readily argued that 'Servants and Attendants upon
Noblemen and Gentlemen' were 'no waies inferiour, unto the Yeo-
manry', in so far as they were 'Free'. 114 Robert Johnson quoted this
passage from Bacon, pointing out that when 'the Lord of the Mannor'
had been called 'to serve the King', he had taken 'his Tenants' with
him.115 Englishmen blended, in other words, the classical republican
tradition with their indigenous medieval and feudal inheritance.
The second way in which the humanist tradition still exercised some
influence on the early Caroline England of the 1630s was in the terms
of the vita activa. To Daniel Tuvill, 'Contemplation' was 'but a glorious
title invented onely, to set a glosse uppon a base and idle disposition'. It
was in 'action' alone that 'a man doth better him-selfe, and benefite
others'. Whereas philosophers' labours were mostly useless 'sophisticall
Elenches' (i.e. sophisms) tending 'to outward pompe and ostentation',
truly wise was only he 'whose Knowledge is more for Profit, them for
Show'.116 William Gouge wondered whether it was the same man he
saw in a forenoon 'sitting, and giving advice among the wise Senators
of our City, and in an afternoone marching before the Martiall
Gentlemen'. But before long he recalled that the best amongst the
Romans, such as Brutus and Scipio, had been 'both Togati and Armati,
prudent Consuls, potent Captaines'.
A particular form of presenting the values of the active life and true
nobility had been the highly polished manuals for a gentleman's
education. Although this genre had a long history, it was particularly
popular in England from Thomas Elyot to Henry Peacham. In the
early Caroline period, this tradition was vigorously continued by
Richard Brathwait. He first treated these issues in his long but popular
The English gentleman, published in 1630 and reprinted three years later.
113
Tooke, The legend of Brita-mart, sig. B5V. It should be noted that ship money was associated with
Etheldred's Danegeld; Boroughs, The soverevngty, pp. 50-2; Selden, Of the dominion, pp. 260,
262-3, 296-7. Cf. [William Prynne], An humble remonstrance to his maiesty, against the tax of ship-
money (n.p., 1641), pp. 35-46; J o h n Rusworth, Historical collections (London, 1682), 1, p. 362.
114
Bacon, ' O f the true greatnesse of kingdomes and estates', in Essayes, p . 93.
115
Botero, Relations, p. 29.
Daniel Tuvill, Vade mecum: a manuall of essay es morrall, theologicall (London, 1629), pp. 4-5, 10-11,
22—3. Cf. e.g. J o h n Taylor, An armado, or nauye, of 103 ships & other vessels (London, 1627), sig.
A7r~v; Bartenio Holyday, Philosophiae polito-barbarae specimen (Oxford, 1633), pp. 170—3, 137-42;
Anon., Vertves reward wherein the living are incouraged unto good workes (n.p. [Amsterdam], 1639), pp.
2-3, 4 - 5 , 6; Anon., Satyrae seriae, pp. 16-17, 45-7. William Pemble, A svmme of morallphilosophy
(Oxford, 1632), pp. 1-2, 5-7.
William Gouge, Gods three arrowes, pp. 406—7.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 297

The same set of values was further endorsed in his enlarged edition of
the The schollers medley, entitled A survey of history: or, a nursery for gentry,
which appeared in 1638.
Brathwait's avowed intention in The English gentleman was to explain
what belonged 'to the making up of an Accomplished Gentleman'. This
goal was of great significance, since 'the Gentry of this age' was
effeminate and depraved.118 Brathwait opened the treatise with a
definition: 'vertue the greatest Signall and Symbol of Gentry: is rather
expressed by goodnesse of Person, than greatnesse of Place'. He
contrasted true nobility with the perverted idea of nobility maintained
by 'the bleere-ey'd vulgar'. Whilst the latter was based on 'the purple',
'descent' and 'title', true nobility consisted of 'the person', 'desert' and
'merit'.119 It was virtue alone which led the way 'to the true sight and
light of glory'.120
The same conclusion also emerged in A svrvey of history. In The
schollers medley, we recall, Brathwait gave an account of virtue in
which he emphasized the values of patience, moderation and
forbearance. He continued in A svrvey of history to offer an
essentially stoic account, maintaining that a man ought to learn
'to be a Soveraigne over his owne passions: and to restraine the
surging billowes of an over-flowing will, to the command of
Reason'. He lamented, moreover, that it was 'the misery' of his
times that due respect was not always fixed 'upon Merit', that
singularly equipped persons 'sleepe many times in silence, unre-
garded, at least unrewarded: while more sterile Conceipts receive
advancement'. But he still repeated the conviction, already put
forward in The schollers medley, that true honour derived from one's
own meritorous deeds and added that honour was only won 'by
passing through Vertues Temple'. Perusing 'the lives of many
of those eminent Orators, Athenian & Roman pleaders', it was
easy to see that 'their beginnings [had been] obscure; their
Meanes of rising small; and for their outward parts' they had
been 'weakely promised' but yet 'their inward abilities' had been
118
Richard Brathwait, The English gentleman (London, 1630), sig. ^[2r. It is of some significance to
note that Brathwait explicitly compared his own treatise with that of Henry Peacham a n d
found Peacham's account much wanting, sig. f 2V.
119
Ibid., the epistle dedicatory. Cf. e.g. Anthony Stafford, Honour and vertue, triumphing over the grave
(London, 1640), pp. 9—11, 15-16, 18; Rfichard] H[erne], Ros coeli: or a miscellany of ejaculations,
divine, morall, &c (London, 1640), pp. 185-6.
120
Brathwait, The English gentleman, p. 113.
121
Richard Brathwait, A svrvey of history: or, a nursery for gentry (London, 1638), pp. 63, 96, 257-8,
119; cf. The English gentleman, pp. 110-13.
298 Classical humanism and republicanism 15J0-1640

such that they had soon become 'a glory to their Countrey; a
renowne to themselves and their surviving posterity'.122
This notion of true nobility was closely linked with another familiar
concept - the active life. It is perhaps fair to say that a central theme in
The English gentleman was the exposition of this idea. Brathwait opened
his assessment in the customary way, by extolling the merits of
contemplation. 'It is', he assured his readers, 'rare and wonderfull to
observe what admirable Contemplations the Heathen Philosophers
enjoyed.' But the chief benefits of otium were closely associated with
Christianity. If the heathens could enjoy contemplation without being
'partakers of the least glimpse of that glorious light which is to us
revealed', it was almost impossible to describe the happiness of
Christian contemplation. In order to be free from the hindrances of
'any wordly objects', it was best 'to with-draw our eye from the
Creature, and fix it wholly upon our Creator'. 123
Pursuing the topic further, Brathwait adopted quintessentially
'civic' humanist tactics and quickly changed his priorities. There was
little doubt that otium was 'sweet and delightfull' for its practioners;
but 'in respect of humanity' it was 'too unsociable'.124 Although it
had sometimes been regarded more valuable than action by virtue of
its difficulty, Brathwait was fully convinced that as a matter of fact
this was not the case. For as he pointed out, things are 'easier to
discourse of than to finde: for men naturally have a desire to know
all things, but to doe nothing; so easie is the Contemplative in
respect of the Active, so hard the Practicke in respect of the
Speculative'. We do not attain our perfection 'by knowledge only, or
Contemplation', but mainly 'by seconding or making good our
knowledge by Action'. 'Wee are therefore', Brathwait reiterated a
little later, 'not only to know, but to doe' and he added that 'it is
little or to no purpose, that wee know, conceive, or apprehend,
unlesse we make a fruitfull use of that knowledge by serious practice,
to the benefit of our selves and others'.125 It was his principal aim to
demonstrate that although 'those, who continued in a Contemplative
and solitary life, sequestring themselves from the cares and company
of this world doubtlesly conceived ineffable comfort in that sweet
122
Brathwait, A survey of history, p p . 259-61, see also p p . 23, 67-8, 381-2, 297-8; The English
gentleman, p. 70.
123
Brathwait, The English gentleman, pp. 382-6.
124
Ibid., p. 387. Cf. however, idem, Essaies upon the Jive senses, revived by a new supplement, 2nd edn
(London, 1635), P- J575 idem, Whimzies: or, a new cast of characters (London, 1631), pp. 98—104.
125
Brathwait, The English gentleman, pp. 391-2, 400; cf. pp. 135, 403, 91-3.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 299
retirement: yet in regard they lived not in the world, the world was
not bettered by their example'.
Brathwait singled out three reasons for the superiority of the active
life. On the most general level, he argued that since the ultimate aim of
man's pursuits was virtue, this had immediate bearing upon his choice
between otium and negotium. This was so because Vertue consisteth in
Action'. It was hence impossible 'to be favourers, followers, or
furtherers of vertue', as long as 'wee surcease from Action, which is the
life, light, and subsistence of vertue'. 127 Secondly, the active life
enabled men to avoid idleness and to embrace labour and diligence.
Whereas idleness was the cause of 'all vices', labour was the 'supporter
ofallvertues'. 128
Finally and most importantly, negotium made it possible to be of
benefit to one's fellow men. The man of negotium could be a homofaber
but he was still chiefly a homo politicus. Whereas 'a private or retired life
estranged [a man] from humane societie' and 'deprived others of the
benefit', an active life tended 'to the common good' and the 'benefit or
utilitie of humane societie'.129 It was man's highest duty - the point of
perfection in his life - to act in a way which profited the public good.
The solitary life of the otium, Brathwait pointed out, was 'fitter for a
Cell then a Court'. He would have young gentlemen become not
'Hermits' but active members of their community; he wanted them to
address themselves 'to those studies, exercises and labours, which may
benefit the Church or Common-wealth'. It followed that the vita
activa was mainly associated with political activities. The gentleman's
public vocation was employment 'in affaires of State, either at home or
abroad'. 131 His duty was to minister matters 'unto others' and he
needed to be well versed in rhetoric, in order to be able to perform his
duty 'in publike assemblies'.132 The Athenian and Roman orators, as
Brathwait wrote in A survey of history, had been most steadfast 'in their
Opposition to the greatest Enemies of State, they [had] stood constant
for the liberty of their Countrey, and suppressing all such ... as [had]
fished in troubled Waters, or [had] inclined to mutiny'. This meant

126
Ibid., p . 407. F o r a different interpretation, see Wright 1958, p p . 126-8, where Brathwait's
ideas are accounted for puritanism. Cf. Walzer 1965, p p . 250—3.
127
Brathwait, The English gentleman, p. 400.
128
Ibid., p p . 103-7, cf- PP- 46—7; A survey of history, p p . 165-6. Gf. e.g. Nash, Qyatemio, sig. )(3 r .
129
Brathwait, The English gentleman, p p . 407—9.
130
Ibid., p p . 3 8 8 - 9 , 397.
131
Ibid., p p . 136, 47.
132
Ibid., p p . 397, 88.
300 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

that it was 'Merit' which had held sway 'in the Court of Justice' and
that 'Corruption' had been 'a stranger to the hand or heart of a
Counsellour'. In their undertakings, Brathwait emphasized, they had
aimed 'neither at publique fame, nor private safety' but had geared all
their actions and 'the whole bent of their Councels to the improvement
and security of their Countrey'.133 Cicero, 'that Prince of Oratory',
had given a preeminent place to 'The Gowne', to those who excelled
'in Elegancy of Speech, mannaging of judiciall Causes, and steering
State-affaires'.134
Faithful to the tradition, Brathwait argued in both The English
gentleman and A svrvey of history that the chief means of inculcating the
young with a proper sense of virtue, honour and the common good
was to pay close attention to their education. The English gentleman was,
of course, cast in the form of an educational treatise and a central
chapter dealt with these issues in more detail. In youth a man was like
'the Philosophers rasa tabula', he was like clay in the hands of his tutor.
This pointed, in the first place, to the idea of meritocracy. For if men
were like tabulae rasae in their youth, it followed, of course, that it was
not so much their lineage or ancient wealth as their ensuing life which
determined their place in the commonwealth. Secondly, and more
importantly, the conviction that a man's mind was like an empty
canvas at birth demonstrated the overriding importance of education;
the mind was 'apt to receive any good impressure'. As a result, it
was relatively easy to demonstrate the 'absolute power' of education.
'For shall wee not see some,' Brathwait wrote, 'whose faire outsides
promise assured arguments of singular worth, for want of breeding
meere painted Trunks, glorious features, yet shallow Creatures? and
whence commeth this, but through want of that which makes man
accomplished, seconding nature with such exquisite ornaments, as
they enable him for all managements publike or private?'136 The
chief aim of education was not merely to impart knowledge but also
to teach how to put this knowledge into action. Knowledge gained in
education was but 'barren, fruitlesse and livelesse', if it was not
'reduced to Action'.137
Although Brathwait claimed in The English gentleman in a somewhat

133
Brathwait, A svrvey of history, p p . 260-2.
134
Ibid., pp. 259, 263-6.
135
Brathwait, The English gentleman, p. 4.
136
Ibid., p . 92.
137
Ibid., pp. 99-101.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 301
platitudinous and stereotyped manner that peace, plenty and ambition
endangered the pursuit of virtues and the public good, 138 it ought to
be remembered that the treatise appeared just after the serious
deadlock between the king and parliament in the spring of 1629 and
just when Charles was leading England away from the European
war.139 If we interpret Brathwait's treatise, to a certain extent, as a
response to the political events and circumstances of the early years of
Charles's reign, it would be possible to say that his solution to the
internal problems of England was a vigorous defence of the traditional
humanist idea of implanting virtues in the political nation which
would enable its serious involvement in a virtuous negotium for the
good of the commonwealth.
A survey of history, with its strong emphasis on the values of the active
life, was likewise published after a decade of personal rule. Brathwait
declared that 'even those Republicks' which 'promised to themselves
most security, were enforced to runne into other channels' and had
ultimately met their destruction. To provide a more tangible instance,
Brathwait resorted to the history of the Roman republic. Before the
destruction of Carthage, the republic had been almost like 'a brave
Platonicke Common-weale'. At that time, Rome had 'both quietly and
modestly govern'd her affaires'. This amounted, according to
Brathwait, to a state of affairs, where 'there was no contending nor
contesting for glory nor command amongst her Citizens; they guided
all things peaceably, and succeeded in all things prosperously'. These
blissful circumstances had, however, been destroyed as soon as the
'antient Kings-evill', ambition, or the 'desire of raigning and invading'
had begun to hold sway. The point he stressed was that these ancient
instances were applicable to 'these present times', but apart from
briefly mentioning the ills of private property, he did not elaborate on
this point.140
In addition to the idea of the militia and the virtuous civic life, it is
possible to find traces of a more distinctively republican outlook in the
1630s.141 It is of course true that a number of continental treatises
138
Ibid, pp. 30-2, 34-9.
See e.g. Reeve 1989, pp. 99-117.
140
Brathwait, A survey of history, pp. 4, 336; cf. pp. 44-5, 166-7, pp. 274-7, where Brathwait
censured 'vicious Pamphletters' who advanced anything 'noxious or malignant' 'to the State',
'our Statizing Pamphletters' who 'under borrowed names have strucke at high Personages'
and those who condemned 'Recreations of indifferency, for no other cause, but because they
are countenanc'd by Majesty'. See Butler 1984, for Brathwait's career in the early 1640s.
41
For the American puritan colonies, see Kupperman 1989.
302 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

emphasizing monarchical authority were translated into English in the

1630s,142 but to concentrate exclusively upon these is to overlook a
different series of translations.143 Polybius was translated into English
in 1633 and was twice reprinted during the next two years. 144 Edward
Dacres's well-known translation of Machiavelli's Discorsi appeared in
1636 and a year later Henry Carey published his translation of Virgilio
Malvezzi's somewhat more aristocratic and sceptical treatises // Romvlo
a n d / / Tarqvinio svperbo.145
Dacres had no difficulty in tracing the central argument of the
Discorsi. Machiavelli had aimed, he wrote, at discovering 'the first
foundations' and 'the very grounds, upon which the Romane
Commonwealth was built, and afterwards rose to such glory and
power, that neither before nor after all the ages of the world ever
afforded the like example5. Dacres claimed that the Discorsi
would present the duke of Lennox, to whom he dedicated the
translation, with 'a good seacard' and would make him fully
equipped to assume an active role 'neare the helme' 'in this our
ship of State'. In times of peace and quiet, it was mainly 'allyance,
bloud, and favour' which counted when it came to preferments;
'yet when the times grow perplex'd with perills and difficulties, true
worth and experience are sought after'. And since 'no climate is so
benigne, as to afford a perpetuall calme', it was safest to be
prepared for more stormy weather. Dacres thus wanted to remind
the duke that more 'turbulent times' were ahead and that Machia-
velli would teach him how to provide for them. 147 Dacres was not,
however, unaware of the weaknesses and even outright errors of
the Discorsi. He wrote: 'Notwithstanding however my Author in
what he hath done well, hath farre excell'd others, yet is he not
without his blemishes and errours too.' In consequence, to make
142
Philippe de Bethune, The counsellor of estate: contayning the greatest and most remarkeable considerations
sewing for the managing ofpubticke affaires, translated by E[dward] Gfrimeston] (London, 1634);
Etienne Molinier, A mirrovr for Christian states: or, a table of politick vertues considerable amongst
Christians, translated by William Tyrwhit (London, 1635); J u a n de Santa Maria, Christian polide:
or, the Christian common-wealth, translated by [Edward Blount] (London, 1632), pp. 6—7; Nicholas
Faret, The honest man: or the art to please in court, translated by Edward Grimestone (London,
1632).
143
Sharpe 1989, p p . 17-18.
144
Polybius, The history of Polybius the Megalopolitan, translated from French by Edward Grimeston
(London, 1634). Cf. Worden 1991a, p. 445.
145
Malvezzi, Romvlvs and Tarqvin.
146
Niccolo Machiavelli, Discourses upon the first decade of T. Livius, translated by Edward Dacres
(London, 1636), sig. A4 r ~ v .
147 v r
Ibid., sig.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 303
the Discorsi even better, Dacres noted all Machiavelli's 'notorious
errors' and 'added some observations'.148
Not surprisingly, the bulk of Dacres's misgivings concerned the role
of religion in the Discorsi. It had been Machiavelli's error to bring 'the
mistresse to serve the handmaid, religion to serve policy'.149 Dacres
also criticized Machiavelli for having discarded the cardinal virtue of
justice. He had erroneously stated that promises need not be kept and
that a prince must have 'guile', using both the lion's force and the fox's
craft. These convictions could easily be countered, Dacres believed, on
the authority of Cicero.150 Moreover, Dacres did not accept Machia-
velli's contention that whereas persuasiveness could easily reduce 'a
licentious and tumultuous people' 'to reason', 'a mischeivous Prince'
could be remedied by 'the sword' alone. Dacres saw this as an attempt
to justify resistance for which he found 'no warrant from divine or
humane lawes'.151
Dacres's final scruple concerned Machiavelli's argument that the
good of the community and that of the prince were often irreconcil-
able. In his own conception, grounded on the hierarchic view of
society, the prince and the people made 'onely one politique body' and
their aims, in most cases, overlapped. For Dacres, problems arose not
because the king had a wholly different set of goals from that of the
people, but because of a possible disequilibrium in the balance of the
body politic, as in the case when 'a Princes exchequer . . . excessively
abounds' and in the end 'beggers the whole country'.152 Dacres did not
disagree with Machiavelli as much about the danger of the prince's
possible greed as about the way to conceptualize this.
There are two conclusions to be drawn from Dacres's commentary
on Machiavelli. Firstly, in 1636 he was willing to endorse the view that
the prince's covetousness could ultimately ruin the whole country.
Secondly and more importantly, he did not censure Machiavelli's
republicanism. Even when Dacres commented on those chapters where
Machiavelli had stated his republicanism most openly, he was totally
silent about this and instead concentrated on minor points of detail.
Despite Dacres's reticence, some theorists argued that far from being
disastrous, the republican form of government could in fact turn out to

148
Ibid., sig. A 6 ™
149
Ibid., pp. 567-8; 1.12,11.2, 5,11.30, pp. 66-8, 265-6, 284-5, 581-3.
150
Ibid., pp. 318-19; 11.13, cf. pp. 48-50; 1.19, 18.
151
Ibid., pp. 234-6; 1.58.
152
Ibid., pp. 260-2.
304 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

be, to some extent, highly beneficial. One author pointed out that the
excellence of Sweden was based not simply on her system of forming a
professional army but also on the peculiar fact that in the Swedish
parliament the peasants had their own estate; coming somewhat
inadvertently to the crux of the idea of Nordic liberty, an anonymous
author wrote: 'the countrye people' had 'a voyce as well as any of the
others' in their 'Parliaments'. It was mainly because of this that the idea
of meritocracy had flourished in Sweden; 'the meanest or lowest degree
is not neglected, nor no well deserving subject hindered to climbe to as
high a pitch of honour, as his vertues can attaine unto'. 153
Even more relevant to the English context was Francis Rous's use
of republican examples in his description of the government of
England in the Archaeobgiae Atticae in 1637. He not only described the
Polybian cycles of governments, but he also argued that the English
form of government matched those of Athens and Venice. Rous
began by giving a detailed account of the Athenian great council.
'The authority of this CounceP, he explained, 'was great, for it
handled causes of war, tributes making of Lawes, civill businesses and
events, affaires of confederates, collections of money, performance of
sacred rites' and a number of minor tasks. This council was reminis-
cent, in the first place, of 'the Venetian Gran Consiglio, or Senate' as
portrayed by Contarini. But it no less resembled the way in which
England was governed. Resorting to the authority of Thomas Smith,
Rous asserted that by the consent of 'our Court of Parliament in
England' 'all Lawes are abrogated, new made, right and possessions
of private men changed, formes of religion established, Subsidies,
Tailes, Taxes, and impositions appointed, waights and measures
altered, &c'. 154
At one point in A survey of history Brathwait maintained that,
whereas under the 'Democratick Government or headlesse Monster'
merits were not properly rewarded, a knowing Prince' could
measure 'the value of mens actions' and was, therefore, capable of
offering just rewards.155 But in his exposition of the merits and
honours of the ancient orators he drew an opposite conclusion. Like
a number of Englishmen before him, we recall, Brathwait argued

153
Anon., A short survey, p. 41, in general see pp. 34-46.
154
Francis Rous [Jr], Archaologiae Atticae libri tres: three bookes of the Attkk antiquities (Oxford, 1637),
pp. 28-35, IO 4~9- Cf. in general John Randol, Noble Blastus: the honor of a Lord Chamberlaine: and
of a good bedchamber-man: a sermon preacht the 27. ofMarch, 1631 (London, 1633), p. 19.
155
Brathwait, A survey of history, p. 54.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 305
that the idea of true nobility had materialized most successfully in
republics. 'The Athenians' had conferred the greatest amount of
honour 'upon their Consuls, Orators and Philosophers'. Similarly, in
Sparta 'the Ephori', who were equivalent to the Roman tribunes,
'were elected not in respect of their descent but of their desert:
which made a flourishing State; seeing, there was none, were he
never so ignoble by birth, but he received grace, if his inward
abilities deserved such respect'. But the most remarkable example
was provided by Rome. Discoursing 'of the Civill government of the
Romans', Brathwait observed that the Romans had reached the
pinnacle of greatness 'during their Democracy', and they 'delighted
in nothing more then advancing such, who employed their tongues
or penns in defence of the publique liberty', for 'that victorious
State' was most grateful 'to deserving men'.
Perhaps a proper conclusion to this chapter is, however, a note of
caution. Although the prevalent ways of speaking about politics in
absolutist circles were to emphasize the divine nature of the king's
earthly authority, to point to the necessity of the king's undertakings
and to belittle the role of the subject,157 the humanist vocabulary could
also be manipulated for strongly absolutist ends. In his Tacitean
treatise, Augustus, which was similar to Joseph Wybarne's account as
well as to 'A discourse upon the beginning of Tacitus' in the Horae
subseciuae, Peter Heylyn examined 'those meanes and counsels, whereby
the common-wealth of Rome was altered, and reduced unto a
monarchy'. He depicted the constitutional history of Rome essentially
in terms of Polybian cycles. But he did not draw the Polybian
conclusion about the merits of the mixed constitution. In theory it was
possible to argue that if the people had acquired their proper share in
government, the commonwealth would have become immortal. But in
practice it had turned out to be impossible to achieve an 'equall
mixture of Plebeians and Patritians'. Confusion had, in effect, con-
tinued to hold sway, until the Roman commonwealth had regressed to
a monarchy.158 The bulk of Heylyn's treatise was devoted to demon-
strating the methods which Octavian had employed to consolidate his
156
ibid, P . 263.
157
Robert Sibthorpe, Apostolike obedience: shewing the duty ofsubiects to pay tribute and taxes to their princes
...a sermon preached at Northampton, at the assises,for the countie, Feb. 22. 1626 (London, 1627), s ig-
A2V, pp. 9-15; John Featley, Obedience and submission: a sermon preached at St Saviours-church in
South-warke, at a visitation, on Tuesday, the eight day of December: anno dom. 1635 (London, 1636). Cf.
in general H a m p t o n , A proclamation of wane, especially p . 36; Mendle 1989b.
158
Peter Heylyn, Augustus (London, 1632), p p . 7-10, 13-22.
306 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

authority. By and large, he had done this pardy by force and pardy
with guile.1 9 Octavian had 'assumed to himselfe the Imperiall,
Censoriall, and Tribunitian authority together with the Sacerdotall
dignity'. Since he had made himself'Emperor and Generall of the men
of Warre', he had been in a position to 'presse Soldiers, raise Taxes,
proclaime wars, make peace; yea and put to death the very best and
stoutest of the Senators'. But in order to establish and secure his power,
Octavian had organized Rome as a mixed state. The consuls had
continued to discuss 'Matters of State' and the commons had 'as-
sembled in Comitia, to enact Lawes, and elect Magistrates'. Never-
theless, Heylyn made it clear that the purpose of these arrangements
had been to sweeten the pill of Octavian's absolute authority. Nothing
had been done without his consent and he had prescribed 'Lawes and
Orders as himselfe [had] listed'.160
A more openly political use of similar issues can be found in Henry
Peacham's The dvty of all true svbiects to their king, published in the spring
of 1639. In the episde to the reader, Peacham claimed that, according
to Plato, the ideal commonwealth included three elements: the king,
the nobility and the commons. The most precious value of common-
wealths was thus unity; 'every Common-wealth is in hazard to be
ruined, when of a third joyned with a first are made two severall or
disagreeing harmonies'. The unity of'those three Estates' was essential
for the subsistence of the commonwealth. Peacham also referred to
the 'glorious acts and noble achievements' of the ancients both 'for the
preservation and defence' and 'for the enlargement' of their countries,
such as those of Marcus Brutus who had risked his life 'to set his
Countrie at libertie' and 'Junius Brutus' who had defended the
commonwealth against his own sons and witnessed their beheading. 162
He invoked the most cherished exponents of the Roman republic so as
to argue that the subject's crucial duties were loyalty and obedience. 163
Everyone should be most willing to defend their country against
'forreigne enemies or domesticke, and homebred Traytors and Rebels',
159
Ibid., see especially pp. 35-8, 4 0 - 1 , 49-51, 89-90, 93, 107-9, H I > " 2 - 1 6 , 1 5 7 - 6 0 , 1 6 3 .
160
Ibid., pp. 116-19, 120-4, X42> !47> I 5°- Woolf 1990, pp. 183—6. See also Mendle 1985, p . 112,
and more generally Smuts 1987, pp. 258—60.
161
H[enry] P[eacham], The dvty of all true svbiects to their king: as also to their native counfrey, in time of
extremity and danger (London, 1639), sig. *3 r ~4 r . Cf. Lord Ellesmere's use of a similar vocabulary
against the enlargement of 'the Popular state' in 1611: T h o m a s Egerton, 'Speciall
observacions touching all the sessions of the last parlement' (1611), in Louis A. Knafla, Law and
politics in Jacobean England (Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 254.
162
Peacham, The dvty of all trve subiects, pp. 7—8, 39—40, 55. See in general also pp. 27-48.
163
Ibid., pp. 4, 8.
 The continuity of the humanist tradition 307
and the best way to contribute was 'to open our purses, with the widest,
for the common good5, not 'coldly' but 'freely and cheerefully'.164
Whereas the idea of the mixed state testified to the necessity of unity,
the two greatest heroes of the Roman republic, Lucius Junius Brutus
and Marcus Brutus were used to demonstrate that Englishmen should
fight for their monarch against the rebellious Scots.
Ibid., pp. 33, 62. Cf. in general idem, The truth of our times: revealed out of one mans experience, by
way of essay (London, 1638), pp. 42—9; idem, The valley ofvarietie: or, discoursefittingfor the times
(London, 1638), pp. 107-28. Cf. Robert Ward, Anima'dversions of wane: or, a militarie magazine of
the truest and ablest instruction, for the managing of wane (London, 1639), the epistle dedicatory, pp.
28, 161-4, 167; Miles Sandys, The first part of a small worke (London, 1634), pp. 3—5, 119—20;
James Howell, Dendrologia: Dodona'sgrove, or thefocallforest (n.p. [London], 1640), pp. 5-6, 2 0 9 -
 Epilogue

Sixty years separated the treatises of Roger Baynes, John Barston and
John Foord from Richard Brathwait's A survey of history. It would be
wrong to deny the numerous differences between them, but it would be
equally misleading to dispute their striking similarities. There is little
doubt that humanism as political parlance was not completely over-
shadowed by other vocabularies in the mid sixteenth century. On the
contrary, its central convictions were forcefully rehearsed throughout
the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The English showed
complete familiarity with such deeply entrenched notions of the
humanist tradition as the virtuous civic life and vera nobilitas. These
notions enabled them to portray themselves as citizens and to char-
acterize their life as one of participation rather than subjection. From
Thomas Rogers to Richard Brathwait it was argued that, before
everything else, a virtuous negotium made an Englishman capable of
acting as a magistrate of his local community or of the community of
the whole realm and of performing his duty in public assemblies
whether local or national in composition. And to lead such a life
guaranteed the well-being of the whole commonwealth.
As well as subscribing to the notions of the vita activa and vera nobilitas
in their attempt to conceive of themselves as active citizens, early
modern Englishmen many a time resorted to more openly republican
themes. Ancient and contemporary republics not merely aroused
curiosity and captured attention; they also commanded sincere admira-
tion. This is not to say that those who expressed their admiration were
republicans. Nevertheless, as we have seen, Englishmen were perfectly
capable of employing at least three central characteristics of classical
republicanism. In the first place, it was often maintained that a
republican form of government implemented in a highly successful
manner the idea of meritocracy. Such was the view shared by Robert
Ashley, Francis Bacon, Alexander Leighton and Richard Brathwait.
308
 Epibgue 309
They all argued that republics had succeeded in securing the rule of
the most virtuous men.
The second and more important aspect of the republican tradition
to exert profound influence was the classical idea of the mixed
constitution. Although historians have generally claimed that this
concept played no positive role in the political debate of the late
sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, it is clear that the English
never lost sight of this republican notion. It loomed large in numerous
republican translations. Even more importantly, it was voiced every
now and then in treatises composed by the English themselves. This
happened both in the context of urban communities and in that of the
situation in Ireland. But the idea of the mixed constitution was also
developed in the context of English politics: together with the notion of
virtuous citizenship it enabled the English to promote an image of the
centrality of parliament for the English commonwealth.
Thirdly, and most importantly, some of the theorists we have
examined in this study felt no qualms about employing the central
notion of republicanism - that governors should be elected rather than
inherited. John Foord stated succinctly that the princely office should
be elective. But even more to the point of English politics in the early
1580s, he espoused the view that in the case of the sudden demise of the
prince, a regent should be elected by parliament. John Barston,
Richard Beacon and the author of the Organon reipvblicae put forward an
even more genuinely republican argument. They all maintained that
power and authority had the unavoidable tendency to corrupt their
possessor(s). It followed that this corruption could only be held at bay
by setting certain limits on those in authority. One of the most effective
checks was to restrict the duration of the governor's term in office.
That is to say, the republican device that governors and magistrates
should continuously be rotated was taken to be the most effective
solution to the looming problem of corruption.
A central aim of this study has also been to locate the uses of these
arguments in their proper historical circumstances. We have seen that
the humanist and republican vocabularies were used in numerous
different contexts and with numerous different intentions. When
humanist and republican arguments were strongly reiterated in the
1570s and 1580s, one of the aims which their proponents endeavoured
to achieve was to remind the English of the importance of a virtuous
negotium in preventing the political turmoils of the continent from
reaching England. At the same time John Barston articulated the civic
310 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570-1640

nature of local community in his Sqfegarde of societie and sought to

criticize the oligarchy of Tewkesbury. Towards the end of the sixteenth
century foreign republican treatises were translated with a view to
suggesting that they had an important lesson to teach. The ideas of
civic life and the mixed constitution were used by Jacobeans to argue
for a limited kingship.
Another aim of this study has been to trace the reception of
Machiavelli's republicanism in England. It first caught serious attention
in England in the 1580s, when Alberico Gentili argued that the
Florentine had been 'a eulogist of democracy' and when John Wolfe
printed // principe as well as the Discorsi in London and drew a similar
conclusion to Gentili's from the Discorsi. Nevertheless, these brief
remarks were a far cry from an extensive use of Machiavellian
republicanism. This occurred in 1594, when Richard Beacon system-
atically employed Machiavelli's republican concepts in his attempt to
lay new foundations for the Irish commonwealth. Some central
Machiavellian notions were also embraced by Walter Ralegh and even
more so by Francis Bacon. Both of them evinced a profound interest in
republican and aristocratic forms of government and sometimes even
showed a sincere respect for them. Likewise, they both displayed even
greater enthusiasm for the distinctively Machiavellian issue of civic
greatness. In particular, Bacon invoked Machiavellian notions ofgrand-
ezza in his defence of the Anglo-Scottish union and in his attempt to
demonstrate the means by which Britain would become a truly great
state. Ralegh was more willing to endorse some of the doctrines of the
newer theory of civic greatness put forward by Justus Lipsius and
Giovanni Botero, but even he readily acknowledged (with a direct
reference to Bacon) the crucial importance of civic virtue as well as 'the
moderate use of sovereigne power' in the attainment of grandezza. The
idea of the armed citizen, so central in Bacon's concept of civic
greatness, was further developed by Thomas Hedley (who borrowed it
from Bacon), when he argued in 1610 against the new impositions. A
number of theorists also used the concept of the armed citizen in the
political debates of the late 1620s and the 1630s, with similar intentions,
and often invoking the authority of Bacon.
One of the most common ways in which humanist and republican
notions were articulated was to show how a decayed commonwealth
could be reformed. This line of argument is clearly discernible in the
writings of the 1570s and 1580s and becomes more prominent in John
Barston's analysis and especially in Richard Beacon's reform pro-
 Epilogue 311

gramme for the Irish commonwealth. But the most forceful use of the
humanist and republican vocabularies against corruption emerges in
Thomas Scott's pamphlet campaign in the early 1620s. A distinctively
classical republican argument runs through his whole attempt to stave
off any corruption - be it internal or external - of the English
commonwealth.
Although classical humanist and republican arguments were voiced
throughout the period from the 1570s to the 1630s, there is little doubt
that, with the passage of time, the tradition lost some of its force. The
first signs of exhaustion could perhaps be discerned already at the turn
of the century, as neostoic and Tacitean ideas made their appearance,
although this did not mean, as some scholars have claimed, that
Ciceronian humanism was totally displaced. These signs of erosion of
the humanist tradition became somewhat clearer during the 1620s and
1630s, but some of the foremost values of the tradition were still
repeated in the 1630s when Machiavelli's Discorsi was published in
English for the first time.
At about the time the classical humanist tradition was drawing to a
close, England faced a crisis of unprecedented seriousness. Although it
took a decade before republican concepts were stated afresh, it was
above all the Civil War and its aftermath which prompted this revival
of classical republicanism. It is essential to an understanding of the
classical republicanism of the 1650s, however, to recognize that John
Milton, James Harrington, Algernon Sidney and their epigoni did not
invent the republican tradition completely anew. There are of course
marked dissimilarities between their arguments and those of the late-
sixteenth- and early-seventeenth-century exponents of classical hu-
manism and republicanism. But it would be strange indeed if there had
been none after the upheavals of the 1640s. Nonetheless, these
differences should not completely overshadow the fact that Harrington,
Milton and Sidney were, to some extent, direct followers of the earlier
generations of humanist and republican writers. George Wither and
Thomas May, who had used humanist parlance and demonstrated a
keen interest in republican issues, became avowed republicans during
the Civil War and form thus a direct link between our period and the
mid-century. 1 It is a well-known fact that James Harrington cited
Francis Bacon's Essays several times in his Oceana, but the striking
similarities between Bacon and Harrington have not been adequately

1
Worden 1981, pp. 191-2.
312 Classical humanism and republicanism 1570—1640

appreciated. They both agreed with Machiavelli that the pursuit of

civic greatness was a principal duty of every state.2 And they claimed
that the greatness of a state depended on its military strength, which in
turn hinged on the people's virtuous character rather than on the
treasure of the state. Furthermore, both contended that the Roman
method of establishing colonies and of forming 'unequal leagues', as
Harrington put it, should be imitated. And they also agreed that the
new inhabitants acquired by these Roman methods should be natur-
alized.4 It is of course true that, whereas Harrington was an avowed
republican, Bacon's respect for the republican form of government was
much more restricted. Nevertheless, they both insisted that democra-
cies were 'lesse subject to sedition', as Bacon put it.5 Most importantly,
Harrington grounded the social analysis of his republican theory on
Bacon's account of the social conditions of a great state,6 and Bacon's
'Of the true greatnesse of kingdomes and estates' provided together
with Machiavelli the whole point of departure of his book. It is thus
arguable that the commonwealth of Oceana was Bacon's Great Britain
writ large. The unearthing of the predecessors of the mid-century
classical republicans helps us understand both how the English articu-
lated their civic nature before the Civil War and why the classical
republicans of the 1650s could expect that their arguments would be
understood as well as adopted.
2
James Harrington, The common-wealth of Oceana (London, 1656), p. 266.
3
Ibid., pp. 81, 308, 44.
4
Ibid., Oceana, pp. 261-2.
5
Bacon, 'Of nobility', in Essays, p. 41; Harrington, Oceana, pp. 21-2.
6
Harrington, Oceana, sig. Bir~v, pp. 39-40.
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 Index

absolutism, 119—21 on free farmers, 212—13, 259—61, 296

Adams, Thomas, 2511197 on geography, 207
Agis, 85 on government, 213—14, 216-17
Allen, William, 57 on Henry VII, 260
ancient constitution, 56,119, 122—4, 221—2, 288 on history, 197-8
Andrewes, Lancelot, 249 n8g on humanism, 8
Anglo, Sidney, 75-6 on large population, 207-8
Anglo-Scottish union, 190-2,193, 207-8, 209, on liberty, 214-15, 216-17
213-16, 229, 310 on manufactures, 211-12, 260
Antonius, Marcus, 183, 240, 282 on military valour, 202—5
architecture of fortune, Bacon's concept of, on milita, 201, 202-3, 209, 210-11
129,139,145 on natural philosophy, 206 and n76
Aristotle, 25, 34, 37, 41, 45, 49, 60, 63, 65, no, on naturalization, 207—8
112 and n228,141, 168,197-8, 246 on the navy, 207
Ascham, Roger, 8 on peace, 205-6
Ashley, Robert, on republics, 113—14, 308 on reason of state, 157
Athens, 92,100,101,109,181, 188, 267, 304, on republics, 48, 179, 265-6, 308
on riches, 199—200, 200-1, 203—5, 256-7
Augustus, 125-6, 127,183, 289, 305—6 on scholasticism, 169
Avity, Pierre, d', 178 on slavery, 260
Aylmer, John, 10, 47 on war, 205—6, 256—7
quoted by Harrington, 199, 311—12; Thomas
Bachiler, Samuel, 252 Hedley, 220-1, 221, 224-5; Robert
Bacon, Francis, 14,15, 151,157,165, 249 n8g, Johnson, 293, 296; Alexander Leighton,
289 274; Ralegh, 217; Thomas Scott, 248;
ideological context of political writings, 16, Thomas Scott of Canterbury, 161;
194-5 George Tooke, 294; Daniel Tuvill, 157
interpreter of Machiavelli, 195 n24,196, Bacon, Nicholas, 254—5
198-9, 200-1, 204—5, 207—8, 211, 213, 310 Bargrave, Isaac, 121,125,129
on ancient constitution, 123—4 Barnes, Barnabe
on Anglo-Scottish union, 194, 207-8, interpreter of Machiavelli, 210
213-15, 218—19 on civic greatness, 193
on architecture of fortune, 129, 139,145 on civic life, 153, 209-10
on Aristotle, 141,197-8 on counsellors, 172,175
on citizenship, 209, 210—13, 214—15, 216-17 on education, 168
on civic greatness, 193—8,206,216,218,254—7 on government, 180—1
on civic life, 139-45,17° on mercenaries, 209
on civil knowledge, 205-6 on militia, 201, 209—10
on commerce, 199, 200—1, 211—12 on nobility, 164
on the common good, 141 on riches, 205
on court, 128, 139 on virtue, 153—4

348
 Index 349
Barnes, John, 75 Boccalini, Trajano, 235
Barston, John, 13, 59, 308, 309-10 Bodin, Jean, 93, 94 ni6i, 180
biographical details, 59 Bohemia, 229
on civic life, 60, 61—4 Bond of Association, 6,48, 52
on corruption, 64—5, 310 BookeqfS.Albans, The, 111-12
on education, 66 Botero, Giovanni, 201, 203 n62, 293, 310
on law, 66-7 on civic greatness, 193
on liberty, 60-1, 62, 63, 68-9 on commerce, 200
on magistrates, 69-71, 309 on riches, 200, 204
on mixed constitution, 68-72 Bradshaw, Brendan, 75
on monarchy, 67—8 Braham, Humfrey, 11
on nobility, 64, 70—1 Brathwait, Richard, 308
on religion, 65 on corruption, 300—1 and ni4O
on virtue, 63-4 on education, 300
Bate's case, 221 on negotium, 147-8, 298-300, 308
Baynes, Roger, 20, 308 on nobility, 163—4, 296-8
on otium and negotium, 26-30, 44 on republics, 304-5, 308
on virtue, 30—1, 32, 33 on Tacitus, 128
Beacon, Richard, 14, 75,103,196,198 on virtue, 151-2
on the aims of commonwealths, 99—102 Brinsley, John, on negotium, 148—9
on animosity between rich and poor, 88-9, Browne, Thomas, 19
96-8 Brutus, Lucius, Junius, 76-7, 80, 87-8, 90—1,
on civic greatness, 99-102
on colonies, 82—3 Brutus, Marcus, 276, 282, 296, 306-7
on the common good, 85 Bryskett, Lodovick, 20
on the conquest of Ireland, 81—4, 89, 97, on education, 47
101—2 on honour, 35
on corruption, 77-81, 99, 100 on negotium, 25
on education, 83 ni23 on virtues, 33-4
on government, 91—8 Buchanan, George, 130,185
on laws, 85-91 Buckeridge,John, 120
on liberty, 98 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, 229-30,
on local governors, 95-6 231, 255, 257 ni24, 271, 273, 280
on magistrates, 94-6, 309 Buonaccorso da Montemagna, 8, 11
on militia, 100,102 Burghley, William Cecil, Baron, 48,49
on misgovernment, 79—80
on mixed constitution, 92—8 Cade, Anthony, 173
on private riches, 79 Cadiz, 271
on reformation of corruption, 81, 84—91, Caesar, Julius, 31, 35,51, 70, 79, 80, 95, 183-4,
310-11 276, 282-3, 2 89
on religion, 83 ni23 Calvinism, 12—13
on rhetoric, 88-9 Calvin's case, 194, 208, 214, 218-19
on sovereignty, 93 Cambridge, University of, colleges in, 20 n5,
on Sparta, 99, 100,101 59, 275
on Venice, 95, 97, 99,101 Canny, Nicholas, 75
use of Machiavelli, 75—6, 80—1, 81—2, 85, Carey, Henry, 302
86-7, 90-1, 92, 94-5, 96-7, 99-100, 310 Cartwright, Thomas, 50
Becon, Thomas, 8 Cassius Vecellinus, Spurius, 80
Bedingfield, Thomas, 106 nig6 Castiglione, Baldassare, 19
Bellarmine, Robert, 120 Cato, Marcus Procius, 85, 237, 239-40, 276,
Bernard, Richard, 290 282
Bingham, John, 260 ni38 Cavendish, William, see Devonshire, William
Blandy, William, 19, 20, 37, 44, 56 Cavendish, earl of
Blount, Edmund, 129 Charles I, 271, 273, 289, 291, 292
Blundeville, Thomas, 19 as prince, 229-30, 230, 255
35° Index
Charlton, John, 19 Clark, Peter, on urban ideology, 56
Charron, Pierre, 125 classical humanism
Churchyard, Thomas, 41 appearance in England, 2, 7-8
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 8,15, 22, 25, 28, 35, as intellectual basis of theory of citizenship,
60, 63, 65, 71,134,135,157,161, 168,173, 7, 10-n, 12,13,14-15
183,185, 215, 222-3, 240, 252, 289, 303 defined, 7-11
as guide against tyrants, 272 classical republicanism
as guide to mixed state, 107-8 as urban ideology, 54,57, 61—2
as guide to negotium, 10, 22, 24, 25-7, 29—31, denned, 2
32-3, 34,43,44,45, 5®, 61, 62, 85,138-9, Claudius, 238
148-9,166, 242, 248, 285, 300 Claudius, Appius, 94-5, 97
as guide to true nobility, 11, 36, 37, 38, 64, Cleland, James
no, 160,163 on education, 167,169,170
Pro Balbo, 215 on governors, 174
Brutus, 221 ni37 on negotium, 147
De amicitia, 8 on nobility, 162
De legibus, 45 on virtue, 152
De qfficiis, 9,19, 24, 45, 60, 62,138-9,148, Cleomenes, 85
222-3 Codes, Horatius, 44
De republica, 50 Cogswell, Thomas, 230, 231
Tusculan disputations, 31 Coke, Edward. 288
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, 42 colonies, Beacon on, 82—3
citizenship, 7, 10-n, 12,13,14-15, 39—40 Collinson, Patrick, on civic consciousness in
and arms, 40-3,113, 209-13, 216-17, 222-4, England, 6, 48, 55, 56
248-53, 259-61, 262, 289-96; and Contarini, Gasparo, 102,103, 105, 304
governance of commonwealth, 43—5, 70, on citizenship, 109—10
71-2, IIO-II, 113-14,172-7, 214-15, on civic life, 109
216-17, 247-8, 257-9, 264, 274-5, 279-80, on magistrates, 110-11
284-5, 299-300, 308 on Venetian constitution, 106-7
Bacon on, 209, 210-13, 214—15, 216-17 contract, original, 122—3
Foord on, 45 Cornwallis, William, on Anglo-Scottish union,
Roman idea of, 214—17 190-1
social basis of, 211-13, 259-64, 294, 295-6 corruption, 126-7, 128—9, 132—3, 234—5, 261—3,
civic greatness 272-3, 310-11
and armed citizen, 209-13, 224, 227, 253—4, and religion, 235
310 and slavery, 61, 64-5, 69, 237
and Anglo-Scottish union, 190—3 caused by government, 79-80, 237—9
and civic virtue, 216-17, 312 caused by wealth, 64-5, 79, 235-6, 237, 240,
and governance of commonwealth, 213-17 272, 276
and large population, 100, 102, 207-8 caused by nobility, 166-7, 236-7, 277
and liberty, 101-2, 213—14, 216, 276 equated with lack of public concern, 78—9,
and military valour, 102, 201-6, 223—4, 227, 166, 235-6, 237, 272, 277-8
256, 312 reformation of, 76-7, 81, 84-5, 90-2, 98,
and the navy, 207, 226-8 239-45
and poverty, 201 Cotton, Robert, 165, 290
and riches, 199-201, 203-5, 224-5, 256-7, courtier, skills of, 128, 129, 136-7,138, 280-2
312 see also architecture of fortune, Bacon's
attacked, 193 concept of
Bacon on, 193-8, 206, 216, 218, 254-7 Court of James, the first, The, 151
Beacon on, 99-102 on courtiers, 136-7, 165
contrasted with happiness, 196, 201 on nobility, 163
contrasted with peace, 205-6 on otium and negotium, 137—9
Civil War, 5,12,16, 53, 74, 196, 311 Cowell, John, 159
as turning point in history of political Craig, Thomas, 191
thought, 1, 4, 6 on naturalization, 215
 Index
Crassus, Marcus Iicinius, 183 Everard, John, 250
Crosse, Henry
on education, 167 Felltham, Owen, on retired life, 131
on negotium, 149 Ferdinand, Archduke, 229
on nobility, 163 Ferguson, Arthur, 10
on virtue, 151 Feme, John, 20, 24-5, 34, 37
Cyuile and vncyuile life, 20 Ficino, Marsilio, 286
on otium and negotium, 23-4, 32 Fink, Zera, 3
on nobility, 37-8 Finland, 290
Florence, 81, 86, 88,101
Dacres, Edward, 302—3 Foord, John, 20, 308
Dallington, Robert, 130,157 biographical details, 20 n5
Davenport, John, 290-1 on citizenship, 45
David, 81 on civic life, 25-6, 32
Davies, Edward, 250 on education, 47
Demosthenes, 144, 272 on nobility, 37
Denison, John, 249 on prince, 49, 309
Description of the vnited Prouinces, A, 179 on regent, 49
Devon, 58 Forced Loan, 271, 275, 288, 291
Devonshire, William Cavendish, earl of, 126, Ford, John
146-7,173, 276 on education, 167
Dickinson, William, 120 on governors, 174
Digges, Dudley, 291 on negotium, 150
Digges, Leonard, 42 Forset, Edward, 193, 201
Digges, Thomas, on militia, 41, 42—3 Fortescue,John, 183
Diogenes, 131 Fougasses, Thomas de, 178
dissimulation, 125-6,157 France, 103, 105, 271
Doddridge, John, 215 Frederick, elector Palatine, 229
Donaldson, Peter S., 73 Fuller, Nicholas, 123, 208 n84
Dorislaus, Isaac, 275 Fullwood, William, 56
Dorset, Edward Sackville, earl of, 283 Furio Ceriol, Federico, 19
Draco, 181, 238 on counsellors, 45
Ducci, Lorenzo, 129, 139-40 on nobility, 36
Du Vair, Guillaume, 125,129,135 on mixed constitution, 50
on virtue, 31, 33
education, 46-7, 66,167—70, 300
Edward III, 283 Gainsford, Thomas
Edward VI, 73 on Anglo-Scottish union, 191-2, 215
Egypt, 87 on court, 128
Eliot, John, 287 on retired life, 131
compares Buckingham with Sejanus, 280 Gardiner, Stephen, 73
on mercenaries, 291-2 Garey, Samuel, 121
on monarchy, 284 Gentili, Alberico, 73, 215, 310
on negotium, 284—5 'German horse', 291—3
on otium, 286 Giacomini, Antonio, 90
on virtues, 284, 285-6 Gibson, Abraham, 249—50
Elizabeth I, 10, 18, 48, 76-7, 103, 254, 278 Gloucester, 56, 58
Elizabeth, Princess, 229 Gloucestershire, 58
Elyot, Thomas, 8,10, 11, 19, 26, 175, 296 Gondomar, count of, 235
Epictetus, 142 Goslicius, Laurentius Grimalius, 102, 103,105,
Erasmus, Desiderius, 8, 26, 148,161 178
Essex, Robert Devereux, second earl of, 104, on civic life, 109
111-12, 205 on England as a mixed state, 115
Essex, Robert Devereux, third earl of, 276 on mixed state, 107-8, 115
Etheldred, 295-6 on magistrates, 110-11
352 Index
Goslicius, Laurentius Grimalius (cont.) on negotium, 21-2, 44
on nobility, 109-10 on nobility, 36, 38
Gouge, William, 290, 296 on virtues, 32—3
Gray's Inn, 197,198 Heylyn, Peter, on Roman constitution, 305-6
Greneway, Richard, 124 Heywood,John, 8,11
Greville, Fulke, 12, 275 Hexham, Henry, 242
on negotiant, 145 Hill, Christopher, 195
on otium, 127 Hitchcock, John, 14, n53,128 n36,165
on Philip Sidney, 23, 38, 47 on negotium, 149-50
Grimeston, Edward, 178 on reason of state, 158
Guazzo, Stefano, 19, 57 on treasure, 200
on honour, 34 on virtue, 151
on negotium, 21 Hitchcock, Robert, 103
on nobility, 35—6 Hobbes, Thomas, 12,126-7,130, 146-7
Guicciardini, Francesco, 76 Holies, John, 131
Gustavus II Adolphus, 271 honour, reward of virtue, 34-5, 113—14
Horae subseciuae
Hagthorpe, John, 289-90 on governors, 173-4, 174-5
Hall, Arthur, 48 on negotium, 146-7
Halljoseph on otium, 130
on nobility, 163 on Roman constitution, 126-7
on otium, 131-2 Hull, William, 240-1
Hannibal, 290 Hume, David, 191
Hanson, Donald W., 3 Humphrey, Lawrence, 3
Harrington, James, 1, 3, 195, 199, 311—12
Harvey, Gabriel, 125,129—30 impositions, 221—7
on negotium, 26, 43, 135 Ireland, 54, 103
Hatton, Christopher, 104 as context for Machiavellian republicanism,
Hayward, John, 215 74
on civic greatness, 191 corruption of, 77, 78, 91
Hedley, Thomas English conquest of, 74, 77, 81—4
argument against Bacon, 220-1 English governance in, 74, 95-6, 309
on armed citizen, 222, 223—4, 22 5~6, 310 reform of, 77, 81, 92—3
on balanced constitution, 222 Italy, 47
on civic greatness, 224
on commerce, 226-8 James I, 15, 50, 121, 127, 155,161, 165,179,181,
on common law, 221 190,193, 220, 229, 230, 250, 251 n9§, 252,
on impositions, 221, 225, 226 254, 258
on liberty, 221—2, 224 on Anglo-Scottish union, 190
on mercenaries, 227 on civic greatness, 192, 219
on the navy, 226, 228 on money as sinews of war, 225
on private property, 223 on peace, 249, 251
quotation of Bacon, 220-1, 221, 222, 224-5, Johnson, Robert, 293, 296
310; Cicero, 222-3; Tacitus, 124, 222 Jones, William, 112
Henry II, 283 Jonson, Ben
Henry V, 18 Catiline, 145—6, 160, 177
Henry VII, 260, 293 Sejanus, 132—4
Henry VIII, 74 Juvenal, 38, 161
Henry, prince of Wales, 122
Henry IV, king of France, 254 Kildare, Gerald FitzGerald, ninth earl of,
Herbert, William, 74, 75 95~ 6
Herillus, 142, 143 Kildare, Thomas FitzGerald, tenth earl of,
Heron, Haly, 20, 52-3 95-6
on education, 46 Kirton, Edward, 291
on honour, 34-5 Knevet, Ralph, 273-4
 Index 353
Lake, Peter, on Thomas Scott, 231—2, 234, 258 Mair, John, 261
La Primaudaye, Pierre, 121 Malvezzi, Virgilio, 302
La Rochelle, 271, 272 Malynes, Gerard de, 208 n87
Latini, Brunetto, 57 Manlius, Marcus, 80
laws Mansfeld, count, 271
as means to civic life, 66-7 Manzini, Giovanni, 281-2
as means to reform of corrupt Marande, Leonard de, 283
commonwealth, 85-91 Marius, Caius, 80
Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, 59,104 Marseilles, 69
Leighton, Alexander Martial, 60, 65, 282
comparison ofBuckingham with Sejanus, 280 Martyn, William
on mercenaries, 293 on education, 170
on negotium, 274 on negotium, 147
on parliament, 274—5, 2 ^7 on nobility, 162
on republics, 265, 308 on virtue, 152—3
Lennox, James Stuart, duke of, 302 Mary 1,10
Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius, 183 Mary, queen of Scots, 48
Le Roy, Louis, 112 and n228,113 Matthieu, Pierre, 280-1
Lever, Christopher, 193 May, Humphrey, 291
Lewkenor, Lewes, 102, 106,107 May, Thomas, 275, 311
on Venice, 115—18 on liberty, 276, 282-3, 2 ^9
liberty, 96-8 on praetorian guard, 293
and civic life, 60-3, 68-9, 214-15, 216-17, on Roman greatness, 276
245, 267, 268 Maynard, John, 292
and property, 122-4, 222-4, 226 Medici, family of, 88
Lincoln, Theophilus Fiennes, earl of, 276 Medici, Piero de, 193
lindsey, Robert Bertie, earl of, 276 Mendle, Michael
Lipsius, Justus, 125, 129,135, 144,157, 215, 260 on absence of mixed constituion in England,
ni38, 286, 310 182 n26i
on riches, 203—4 on presbyterianism, 50
Iivy, Titus, 40, 60, 130, 135, 185 on Thomas Hedley, 220
Lodge, Thomas, 125,130 Meriton, George, 120
Loe, William, on mixed constitution, 182-3 on nobility, 159
Lucan, 275, 282, 283, 289 Middleton, Richard, 123 m 2
Lucinge, Rene de, 203, 218 ni24 militia, see citizenship
on civic greatness, 192 Milton, John, 1, 3, 311
on Ottoman empire, 201—2, 217—18 mixed constitution, 2, 9—10, 47—8,50-1, 91-8,
on professional army, 201—2, 210 n98, 106-8, 112-13,115,178-89, 267-70
217-18 balance between one, few and many, 94-7
onriches,204 in England, 9-10,47-8, 68,115,179-80,
Ludgershall, Wiltshire, 119 181-5,188-9, 2 ^9-7o, 304, 309
Lupset, Thomas, 8 in urban communities, 69-72
Lycurgus, 180 used for absolutist ends, 305-7
Lyly, John, 20 Moffet, Thomas, 23
on education, 47 monopolies, 103—4
on negotium, 22, 32 Montaigne, Michel de, 125
on nobility, 38 More, George, 122—3
Lysander, 81, 82 More, Thomas, 8, 9, 10, 11, 269
Morison, Richard, 8
Machiavelli, Noccolo, 157,193, 200, 209 Morrice, Thomas, 168, 173,175
reception in England, 16—17, 40, 73-4, 75-6, Moses, 90
80-1, 81-2, 85, 86-7, 90-1, 92, 94-5, 96- Mulcaster, Richard, 36, 37
7, 99-100,103, 195,196, 210, 215, 225,
241—2, 253-4, 2 9 2 J 3O2~~3> 3 I O J 3n> 3 1 2 Nabis, 97
see also Bacon, Francis Nedham, Marchamont, 1
354 Index
negotium, 21-31, 63-4,109,137-9,139-50, on civic life, 21, 31, 33,43
153-6,166,170, 239-40, 240-3, 273, 274, on education, 46
278-80, 284-5, 296-7, 298-301 on militia, 40
as hallmark of English humanism, 10,11 on mixed constitution, 50—1
Nenna, Giovanni, 112 on nobility, 35, 36
Nero, 238 on republic, 51
Netherlands, 103, 238, 239, 246, 254, 266, 289, Peacham, Henry, 296
290 on education, 167—8
government of, 267—9 on family of Brutus, 306-7
Nimrod, 61,183 on mixed constitution, 306-7
Nixon, Anthony on nobility, 159-60
on mixed constitution, 184—5 Peck, Linda Levy, 5-6
on negotiwn, 149 Pembroke, William Herbert, earl of, 276
on nobility, 162—3 Petition of Right, 271, 288, 291
on virtue, 151,156 Petrarch, Francesco, 161
nobility Pettie, George, 57
equated with riches and lineage, in—12,158, Philip II, king of Spain, 73
160—1, 223 Pisa, 101
equated with virtues, 35-9, 64, 109—10, Plato, 60, 63, 64,138,149, 269, 306
111-12,159^-65, 245-7, 273-4, 297~8 Plutarch, 20, 25,46,135,164
Norbrook, David, 5, 22,106,127, 276 Pocock, J. G. A., on classical republicanism in
Nordic liberty, idea of, 304 England, 4-5, 6, 10,56, 124
North, Thomas, 19-20, 25,46 Poland, 47,102, 105
Northampton, Henry Howard, earl of, 222—3, Pole, Reginald, 73
225 Polybius, 107, 302, 304, 305
Norwich, 242, 269 Pompey the Great, 35, 276
Numa, Pompilius, 85, 87, 89, 92 Ponet, John, 9-10,47
Pont, Robert
Octavian, see Augustus on Anglo-Scottish union, 181-2,191
Organon reipvblicae on mixed constitution, 181—2
on civic life, 154-5 Powell, Thomas, 295
on counsellors, 172—3 prince, election of
on education, 168—9 Contarini on, 107
on magistrates, 175-7 Foord on, 49
on mixed constitution, 183-4 Goslicius on, 108
on nobility, 164-5 Pritchard, Thomas, 20
on rotation of magistrates, 176-7, 309 on armed citizen, 40
on virtue, 155-6 on education, 46
Osorio, Hieronymus, 19 on governors, 44
on armed citizen, 40 on negotium, 24, 33, 34
on negotium, 32 Procter, Thomas, on militia, 41—2, 43
on nobility, 35, 36 puritanism
on virtue, 33 and active citizenship, 12-13, 232, 240-1
otium, preferred to negotium, 120-1, 127,129-32, and republicanism, 13
133—4, 282—4, 286 as urban idealogy, 56
Oxford, University of, 36, 43, 75,105,147,192 purveyance, 104
Pyrrho, 142
Palatinate, 229, 230 Pythagoras, 88
Palmer, Thomas, 295
Panaetius, 31 Rainolds, John, 20, 25, 38
Panizza, Diego, 74 Ralegh, Walter, 201, 203 n64, 215, 241, 278,
Pareus, David, 120 310
Parsons, Bartholomew, 119—20 on aristocracy, 179-80
Parsons, Robert, 105 on common good, 217
Patrizi, Francesco, 19, 34, 52, 57, 58 on commerce, 200, 204
 Index 355
on mercenaries, 210, 217 on Dutch government, 266-70
on militia, 217, 291 on free farmers, 261-2
on the navy, 204, 228 on frugality, 240
on nobility, 164 on history, 233
Randol John, 234, 235, 258 ni2g on learning, 243
reason of state, 156-8 on liberty, 240, 245, 268
Re expedition, 271, 272 on mixed constitution, 264, 268—9
republics, approved of by Englishmen, 48, on negotium, 240-3, 244, 245, 257
113-14,179-80,181, 217, 265-70, 301, on nobility, 245-7
304-5, 308-9, 310, 312 on Norwich, 269
Reynolds, John, 251, 254, 283—4 on parliament, 258—9, 269
rhetoric, as means of enforcing good laws, on parliamentary elections, 263-4
88-9 on private good, 235-6, 239
Rich, Barnaby, 173 on religion, 232—3
Rich, Nathaniel, 291 on republics, 264, 266-70
Robinson, Richard, 19, 34, 50,51—2, 57 on slavery, 237
Rogers, Thomas, 20 on tyranny, 237-9
on ambition, 35 on virtue, 243-4
on civic life, 22, 32, 34, 39, 40, 44, 308 on war, 251—2
on nobility, 37 Scott, Thomas, of Canterbury
Rome on education, 167
constitution of, 67, 71, 72, 92, 93—4,125-7, on governors, 173
180,183, 215, 276, 301 on nobility, 160-1
importance for republicanism, 2, 9 Sejanus, Lucius Aelius, 280-1
Romulus, 58, 76—7, 87, 92, 93—4 Seneca, 60,125,127,128—9, I 3°J ! 6 I , 168, 285
Rous, Francis Severus, Alexander, 145
on negotium, 241 Shakespeare, William
on republics, 304 Coriolanus, 171—2
quotation of Machiavelli, 241—2 Sherland, Christopher, 273
Russell, John, 191 ship money, 295
Rutland, Roger Manners, earl of, 205 Sidney, Algernon, 1,18, 311
Sidney, Henry, 74
Sadler, Edmund, 154 Sidney, Philip, 18
Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, 225 on mixed constitution, 47—8
Sallust, 26, 58, 60, 135,161,185, 240, 272 on nobility, 38
Sansovino, Francesco, 103 on otium and negotium, 22—3, 32, 33
Sarum, Wiltshire, 120 on Tacitus, 125
Savile, Henry, 124 Old Arcadia, 22
Savonarola, Girolamo, 90 Sidney, Robert, 47
Scaevola, Mucius, 245 Skinner, Quentin, 13
scepticism, 127,134 Smith, Thomas, 8, 47, 275, 304
attacked by Bacon, 141—5 Smythe,John, 112-13
Scipio, family of, 44, 245, 296 Socrates, 141
Scot, Patrick, on nobility, 161—2 Soderini, Piero, 90
Scotland, 261 Solon, 85,181, 272
humanism and republicanism in, 233—4 Somerset, Robert Carr, earl of, 131
see also Anglo-Scottish union Spain, 47, 103, 105, 229, 230, 238, 251, 255,
Scott, Thomas, 13, 231-2, 277 271
on armed citizen, 248—9, 252—3 Sparta, 57, 95, 97, 100,101, 107,109, 180, 185,
on civic greatness, 253-4 188, 198-9, 208, 294, 305
on common good, 239—40 Spenser, Edmund, 18, 74—5, 83 ni22,115,116
on 'commonwealth-men', 247—8 on counsellors 43, 46
on counsellors, 257—9 on nobility, 38-9
on corruption, 234-7, 311 Spy discouering the danger ofArminian heresie, The,
on court, 263 272-3
356 Index
Stafford, Anthony on civic life, 44
on corruption, 128-9,131 on mixed constitution, 50
on Diogenes, 131 on virtue, 31-2, 33
on otium, 131 Vegetius, 212
on Philip Sidney, 130-1 Venice, 47, 61,101,102,109,180, 267
Starkey, Thomas, 8, 9,10,11, 47,54 government of, 41, 67,95, 97, 99,106-7, IQ8>
Stoughton, William, on mixed constitution, 112-13, 115-18,178,179,185, 265, 304
182 and n26i Vere, Horace, 276
Strabo, 69, 72 Verheyden, Willem, 240
Strangeways, John, 292 Vvndicae contratyrannos,120
Stubbes, Philip, 20, 38 Virgil, 282
on negotiwn, 26—7 virtue, centrality in negotvum, 30-4, 63—4,150-3,
J
Sturm, Johannes, 19 53> !55-6> 243-4, 285-6
Styward, Thomas, 43 Vives, Juan Luis, 25, 26,164
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, 80, 81, 82,183 Vowell alias Hooker, John
Sweden on the beginning of civil society, 57—8
army of, 290 on Exeter, 58
parliament of, 304 on parliament, 47
Switzerland, 100, 112, 113, 188, 266, 291
Walsingham, Francis, 49, 104
Tacitus, Cornelius, 35, 60,123-4, 139, 144, Walzer, Michael, on puritanism, 12
168,185, 305 Warwick, Anne Dudley, countess of, 115
guide to republicanism, 275 Warwick, Robert Rich, earl of, 276
Tacitism, 15,124-7,J 28-31,132-5, 137,157, Webster, Charles, 195
280, 311 Wentworth, Peter, 45, 105
Tarquinius Superbus, 77, 80, 87, 90-1,183, White, Christopher, 130
238-^9, 253, 275 Whittinton, Robert, 9
Taylor, Thomas, 241 Willan, Robert, 249
Tewkesbury, 54, 58, 64, 72, 310 Willymat, William, 121
incorporation of, 59 Wilson, Thomas, 55-6, 105
Thetford, Norfolk, 242-3 Wither, George, 230, 265, 311
Thirty Years War, 271 on ancient constitution, 288
Thomas, William, 73 on corruption, 165-6, 277—8
Thornborough, John, 191, 215 on foreign policy, 219-20
Tiberius, 125-6, 276 on government, 279—80
Tiptoft, John, earl of Worcester, 8,11 on monarchy, 288
Todd, Margo, 14 on negotium, 166, 278
on Christian humanism, 13, 241, 287 on nobility, 166-7, 247, 277, 278
Tom tell troath, 230, 234, 235, 250—1 on parliament, 278—9, 287
Tooke, George, on militia, 293—5, 295—6 Wolfe, John, 73, 310
Topsell, Edward, 162 Wortley, Francis, 272
Torquatus, Manlius, 71 Wren, Matthew, 275
Travers, Walter, 50 Wright, Henry
Trigge, Francis, 209 on civic greatness, 193
Trussell, Thomas, 250, 260 ni38 on court, 128
Tuvill, Daniel on mixed constitution, 185—9
on negotium, 296 Wybarne,John
on reason of state, 157-8 on aristocracy, 180
on Augustus, 125-6, 305
Valentine, Henry, 295
Valerius Publicola, Publius, 80, 90, 253 Xenophon, 211
Valerius, Cornelius, 19
on armed citizen, 40 Zeno, 141,144
 IDEAS IN CONTEXT

Edited by Quentin Skinner (general editor), Lorraine Daston, Wolf Lepenies,

Richard Rorty and J. B. Schneewind

1 RICHARD RORTY, J. B. SCHNEEWIND and QUENTIN SKINNER (eds.'

Philosophy in history
Essays in the historiography of philosophy*
2 J. G. A. POCOCK
Virtue, commerce and history
Essays on political thought and history, chiefly in the eighteenth century*
3 M. M. GOLDSMITH
Private vices, public benefits
Bernard Mandeville's social and political thought
4 ANTHONY PAGDEN (ed.)
The languages of political theory in early modern Europe*
5 DAVID SUMMERS
The judgment of sense
Renaissance nationalism and the rise of aesthetics*
6 LAURENCE DICKEY
Hegel: religion, economics and the politics of spirit, 1770-1807*
7 MARGOTODD
Christian humanism and the puritan social order
8 LYNN SUMIDA JOY
Gassendi the atomist
Advocate of history in an age ofscience
9 EDMUND LEITES (ed.)
Conscience and casuistry in early modern Europe
10 WOLF LEPENIES
Between literature and science: the rise of sociology*
11 TERENCE BALL, JAMES FARR and RUSSELL L. HANSON (eds.)
Political innovation and conceptual change*
12 GERDGIGERENZER et al.
The Empire of Chance
How probability changed science and everyday life*
13 PETER NOVICK
That noble dream
The 'objectivity question' and the American historical profession*
 Series list
14 DAVID LIEBERMAN
The province of legislation determined
Legal theory in eighteenth-century Britain
15 DANIEL PICK
Faces of degeneration
A European disorder, c. 1848-c. igi8
16 KEITH BAKER
Approaching the French Revolution
Essays on French political culture in the eighteenth century*
17 IAN HACKING
The taming of Chance*
18 GISELA BOCK, QJJENTIN SKINNER a n d MAURIZIO VIROLI (eds.)
Machiavelli and republicanism*
19 DOROTHY ROSS
The origins of American social science*
20 KLAUS CHRISTIAN KOHNKE
The rise of neo-Kantianism
German academic philosophy between idealism and positivism
21 IAN MACLEAN
Interpretation and meaning in the renaissance
The case of law
22 MAURIZIO VIROLI
From politics to reason of state
The acquisition and transformation of the language of politics 1250—1600
23 MARTIN VAN GELDEREN
The political thought of the Dutch revolt 1555-1590
24 NICHOLAS PHILLIPSON a n d QUENTIN SKINNER (eds.)
Political discourse in early modern Britain
25 JAMES TULLY
An approach to political philosophy: Locke in contexts*
26 RICHARD TUCK
Philosophy and government 1572-1651*
27 RICHARD R. YEO
Defining science
William Whewell, natural knowledge and public debate in early Victorian Britain
28 MARTIN WARNKE
The court artist
The ancestry of the modem artist
 Series list
29 PETER N. MILLER
Defining the common good
Empire, religion and philosophy in eighteenth-century Britain
30 GHRISTOPHERJ. BERRY
The idea of luxury
A conceptual and historical investigation*
31 E. J. HUNDERT
The Enlightenment's Fable
Bernard Mandeville and the discovery ofsociety
32 JULIE STAPLETON
Englishness and the study of politics
The social and political thought ofErnest Barker
33 KEITH TRIBE
German economic thought from the Enlightenment to the social market
34 SACHIKO KUSUKAWA
The transformation of natural philosophy
The case of Philip Melancthon
35 DAVID ARMITAGE, JACQUES HIMY and QUENTIN SKINNER (eds.)
Milton and republicanism
36 MARKKU PELTONEN

Classical humanism and republicanism in English political thought 1570-1640

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