Anatomy of the Endocrine System

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus (Hunger, Thirst, Body Temperature, hormone

secretions) is a part of the brain located superior and anterior to the brain
stem and inferior to the thalamus. It serves many different functions in
the nervous system, and is also responsible for the direct control of the
endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains
special cells called neurosecretory cells—neurons that secrete hormones:

 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
 Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
 Oxytocin
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

All of the releasing and inhibiting hormones affect the function of the
anterior pituitary gland. TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to
release thyroid-stimulating hormone. GHRH and GHIH work to regulate
the release of growth hormone—GHRH stimulates growth hormone
release, GHIH inhibits its release. GnRH stimulates the release of follicle
stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone while CRH stimulates the
release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (stimulating the adrenal cortex). The last
two hormones—oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone—are produced by the
hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary, where they are
stored and later released.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, (Growth, Sexual Development, metabolism, human
reproduction) also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea-sized lump of
tissue connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain.
Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to carry the hormones it
releases throughout the body. Situated in a small depression in
the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary gland is actually
made of 2 completely separate structures: the posterior and anterior
pituitary glands.
Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary gland is actually not glandular tissue at all, but
nervous tissue instead. The posterior pituitary is a small extension of the
hypothalamus through which the axons of some of the neurosecretory
cells of the hypothalamus extend. These neurosecretory cells create 2
hormones in the hypothalamus that are stored and released by the
posterior pituitary:

 Oxytocin triggers uterine contractions during childbirth and the

release of milk during breastfeeding.
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents water loss in the body by
increasing the re-uptake of water in the kidneys and reducing blood
flow to sweat glands.

ADH is a chemical produced in the brain that causes the kidneys to release less water,
decreasing the amount of urine produced. ... But if the levels of ADH remain low during
the night, the body will produce large amounts of urine, so urination during the night is
more likely

Anterior Pituitary

The anterior pituitary gland is the true glandular part of the pituitary gland.
The function of the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing
and inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary
produces 6 important hormones:

 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), as its name suggests, is a

tropic hormone responsible for the stimulation of the thyroid gland.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal
cortex, the outer part of the adrenal gland, to produce its hormones.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the follicle cells of
the gonads to produce gametes—ova in females and sperm in
males.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the gonads to produce the
sex hormones—estrogens in females and testosterone in males.
 Human growth hormone (HGH) affects many target cells
throughout the body by stimulating their growth, repair, and
reproduction.

Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin, also known as human growth

hormone (hGH or HGH) helps to regulate body composition, body fluids, muscle and
bone growth, mental function, and possibly heart function.

 Prolactin (PRL) has many effects on the body, chief of which is

that it stimulates the mammary glands of the breast to produce
milk.
Prolactin Disturbance:
Elevated levels of prolactin decrease the levels of sex hormones — estrogen in women
and testosterone in men.

One of the main regulators of the production of prolactin from the pituitary gland is the hormone
called dopamine, which is produced by the hypothalamus, the part of the brain directly above the
pituitary gland. Dopamine restrains prolactin production, so the more dopamine there is, the
less prolactin is released.

For women

 Irregular or no periods
 Infertility
  Breast milk discharge when you’re not pregnant or nursing
 Tenderness in your breast
 Menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness

For men

 Decreased sex drive
 Difficulty in getting an erection
 Breast tenderness or enlargement
 Breast milk production (very rare)

Causes of Abnormal Prolactin Levels

Normally, men and nonpregnant women have just small traces of prolactin in their blood. When
you have high levels, this could be caused by:

 Prolactinoma (a benign tumor in your pituitary gland that produces too much

prolactin)
 Diseases affecting the hypothalamus(the part of the brain that controls the pituitary
gland)
 Anorexia (an eating disorder)
 Drugs that are used to treat depression, psychosis, and high blood pressure
 Chest injury or irritation (for example, scars, shingles, or even a bra that’s too tight)

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland ( Sleep/Wake Cycle, body’sresponse to sunlight) is a

small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue found just posterior to the
thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin
that helps to regulate the human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian
rhythm. The activity of the pineal gland is inhibited by stimulation from the
photoreceptors of the retina. This light sensitivity causes melatonin to be
produced only in low light or darkness. Increased melatonin production
causes humans to feel drowsy at nighttime when the pineal gland is active.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the
neck and wrapped around the lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid
gland produces 3 major hormones: 

 Calcitonin
 Triiodothyronine (T3)
 Thyroxine (T4)

Calcitonin is released when calcium ion levels in the blood rise above a
certain set point. Calcitonin functions to reduce the concentration of
calcium ions in the blood by aiding the absorption of calcium into the matrix
of bones. The hormones T3 and T4 work together to regulate the body’s
metabolic rate. Increased levels of T3 and T4 lead to increased cellular
activity and energy usage in the body.

Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are 4 small masses of glandular tissue found on

the posterior side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce the
hormone parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in calcium ion
homeostasis. PTH is released from the parathyroid glands when calcium
ion levels in the blood drop below a set point. PTH stimulates the
osteoclasts to break down the calcium containing bone matrix to release
free calcium ions into the bloodstream. PTH also triggers the kidneys to
return calcium ions filtered out of the blood back to the bloodstream so that
it is conserved.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly triangular glands found

immediately superior to the kidneys. The adrenal glands are each made of
2 distinct layers, each with their own unique functions: the outer adrenal
cortex and inner adrenal medulla.
Adrenal cortex

The adrenal cortex produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes:

glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens.

 Glucocorticoids have many diverse functions, including the

breakdown of proteins and lipids to produce glucose. Glucocorticoids
also function to reduce inflammation and immune response.
 Mineralocorticoids, as their name suggests, are a group of
hormones that help to regulate the concentration of mineral ions in
the body. (Cortisol is a steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones).

Glucocorticoids, steroids occur naturally in your body. They have many functions.

One is to interrupt inflammation by moving into cells and suppressing the proteins that
go on to promote inflammation.

 Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low levels in

the adrenal cortex to regulate the growth and activity of cells that are
receptive to male hormones. In adult males, the amount of
androgens produced by the testes is many times greater than the
amount produced by the adrenal cortex, leading to the appearance
of male secondary sex characteristics.
Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla produces the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and

norepinephrine (nor adrenaline) under stimulation by the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system. Both of these hormones help to
increase the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve the “fight-or-
flight” response to stress. These hormones also work to increase heart
rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure while decreasing the flow of blood
to and function of organs that are not involved in responding to
emergencies.

Pancreas

The pancreas is a large gland located in the abdominal cavity just inferior

and posterior to the stomach. The pancreas is considered to be a
heterocrine gland as it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The
endocrine cells of the pancreas make up just about 1% of the total mass of
the pancreas and are found in small groups throughout the pancreas
called islets of Langerhans. Within these islets are 2 types of cells—alpha
and beta cells. The alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is
responsible for raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon triggers muscle and
liver cells to break down the polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose
into the bloodstream. The beta cells produce the hormone insulin, which is
responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after a meal. Insulin triggers
the absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, where it is added to
glycogen molecules for storage.

Gonads

The gonads—ovaries in females and testes in males—are responsible for

producing the sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine
the secondary sex characteristics of adult females and adult males.

 Testes: The testes are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the

scrotum of males that produce the androgen testosterone in males
after the start of puberty. Testosterone has effects on many parts of
the body, including the muscles, bones, sex organs, and hair
follicles. This hormone causes growth and increases in strength of
the bones and muscles, including the accelerated growth of long
 bones during adolescence. During puberty, testosterone controls the
growth and development of the sex organs and body hair of males,
including pubic, chest, and facial hair. In men who have inherited
genes for baldness testosterone triggers the onset of androgenic
alopecia, commonly known as male pattern baldness.
 Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located
in the pelvic body cavity lateral and superior to the uterus in females.
The ovaries produce the female sex hormones progesterone and
estrogens. Progesterone is most active in females during ovulation
and pregnancy where it maintains appropriate conditions in the
human body to support a developing fetus. Estrogens are a group of
related hormones that function as the primary female sex hormones.
The release of estrogen during puberty triggers the development of
female secondary sex characteristics such as uterine development,
breast development, and the growth of pubic hair. Estrogen also
triggers the increased growth of bones during adolescence that lead
to adult height and proportions.

Thymus

The thymus  (training and development of T-Lymphocytes) is a soft,

triangular-shaped organ found in the chest posterior to the sternum. The
thymus produces hormones called thymosins that help to train and
develop T-lymphocytes during fetal development and childhood. The T-
lymphocytes produced in the thymus go on to protect the body from
pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and worms) throughout a person’s
entire life. The thymus becomes inactive during puberty and is slowly
replaced by adipose tissue throughout a person’s life.

Other Hormone Producing Organs

In addition to the glands of the endocrine system, many other non-
glandular organs and tissues in the body produce hormones as well.  

 Heart: The cardiac muscle tissue of the heart is capable of

producing the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response
to high blood pressure levels. ANP works to reduce blood
pressure by triggering vasodilation to provide more space for the
blood to travel through. ANP also reduces blood volume and
pressure by causing water and salt to be excreted out of the blood
by the kidneys.
 Kidneys: The kidneys produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
in response to low levels of oxygen in the blood. EPO released by
the kidneys travels to the red bone marrow where it stimulates an
increased production of red blood cells. The number of red blood
cells increases the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, eventually
ending the production of EPO.
 Digestive System: The hormones cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin,
and gastrin are all produced by the organs of the gastrointestinal
tract. CCK, secretin, and gastrin all help to regulate the secretion of
pancreatic juice, bile, and gastric juice in response to the presence of
food in the stomach. CCK is also instrumental in the sensation of
satiety or “fullness” after eating a meal.
 Adipose: Adipose tissue produces the hormone leptin that is
involved in the management of appetite and energy usage by the
body. Leptin is produced at levels relative to the amount of adipose
tissue in the body, allowing the brain to monitor the body’s energy
storage condition. When the body contains a sufficient level of
adipose for energy storage, the level of leptin in the blood tells the
brain that the body is not starving and may work normally. If the level
of adipose or leptin decreases below a certain threshold, the body
 enters starvation mode and attempts to conserve energy through
increased hunger and food intake and decreased energy usage.
Adipose tissue also produces very low levels of estrogens in both
men and women. In obese people the large volume of adipose
tissue may lead to abnormal estrogen levels.
 Placenta: In pregnant women, the placenta produces several
hormones that help to maintain pregnancy. Progesterone is
produced to relax the uterus, protect the fetus from the
mother’s immune system, and prevent premature delivery of the
fetus. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) assists progesterone by
signaling the ovaries to maintain the production of estrogen and
progesterone throughout pregnancy.
 Local Hormones: Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are produced
by every tissue in the body (except for blood tissue) in response to
damaging stimuli. These two hormones mainly affect the cells that
are local to the source of damage, leaving the rest of the body free to
function normally.
1. Prostaglandins cause swelling, inflammation, increased pain
sensitivity, and increased local body temperature to help block
damaged regions of the body from infection or further damage.
They act as the body’s natural bandages to keep pathogens
out and swell around damaged joints like a natural cast to limit
movement.
2. Leukotrienes help the body heal after prostaglandins have
taken effect by reducing inflammation while helping white
blood cells to move into the region to clean up pathogens and
damaged tissues.

Physiology of the Endocrine System

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System Function
The endocrine system works alongside of the nervous system to form the
control systems of the body. The nervous system provides a very fast and
narrowly targeted system to turn on specific glands and muscles
throughout the body. The endocrine system, on the other hand, is much
slower acting, but has very widespread, long lasting, and powerful effects.
Hormones are distributed by glands through the bloodstream to the entire
body, affecting any cell with a receptor for a particular hormone. Most
hormones affect cells in several organs or throughout the entire body,
leading to many diverse and powerful responses.  

Hormone Properties

Once hormones have been produced by glands, they are distributed

through the body via the bloodstream. As hormones travel through the
body, they pass through cells or along the plasma membranes of cells until
they encounter a receptor for that particular hormone. Hormones can only
affect target cells that have the appropriate receptors. This property of
hormones is known as specificity. Hormone specificity explains how each
hormone can have specific effects in widespread parts of the body.

Many hormones produced by the endocrine system are classified as tropic

hormones. A tropic hormone is a hormone that is able to trigger the
release of another hormone in another gland. Tropic hormones provide a
pathway of control for hormone production as well as a way for glands to
be controlled in distant regions of the body. Many of the hormones
produced by the pituitary gland, such as TSH, ACTH, and FSH are tropic
hormones.

Hormonal Regulation
The levels of hormones in the body can be regulated by several factors.
The nervous system can control hormone levels through the action of the
hypothalamus and its releasing and inhibiting hormones. For example,
TRH produced by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to
produce TSH. Tropic hormones provide another level of control for the
release of hormones. For example, TSH is a tropic hormone that
stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4. Nutrition can also
control the levels of hormones in the body. For example, the thyroid
hormones T3 and T4 require 3 or 4 iodine atoms, respectively, to be
produced. In people lacking iodine in their diet, they will fail to produce
sufficient levels of thyroid hormones to maintain a healthy metabolic rate.
Finally, the number of receptors present in cells can be varied by cells in
response to hormones. Cells that are exposed to high levels of hormones
for extended periods of time can begin to reduce the number of receptors
that they produce, leading to reduced hormonal control of the cell.

Classes of Hormones

Hormones are classified into 2 categories depending on their chemical

make-up and solubility: water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones. Each of
these classes of hormones has specific mechanisms for their function that
dictate how they affect their target cells.

 Water-soluble hormones: Water-soluble hormones include the

peptide and amino-acid hormones such as insulin, epinephrine,
HGH, and oxytocin. As their name indicates, these hormones are
soluble in water. Water-soluble hormones are unable to pass
through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and are
therefore dependent upon receptor molecules on the surface of
cells. When a water-soluble hormone binds to a receptor molecule
on the surface of a cell, it triggers a reaction inside of the cell. This
reaction may change a factor inside of the cell such as the
permeability of the membrane or the activation of another molecule.
A common reaction is to cause molecules of cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP) to be synthesized from adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) present in the cell. cAMP acts as a second
messenger within the cell where it binds to a second receptor to
change the function of the cell’s physiology.
 Lipid-soluble hormones: Lipid-soluble hormones include the
steroid hormones such as testosterone, estrogens, glucocorticoids,
and mineralocorticoids. Because they are  soluble in lipids, these
hormones are able to pass directly through the phospholipid bilayer
of the plasma membrane and bind directly to receptors inside the cell
nucleus. Lipid-soluble hormones are able to directly control the
function of a cell from these receptors, often triggering the
transcription of particular genes in the DNA to produce “messenger
RNAs (mRNAs)” that are used to make proteins that affect the cell’s
growth and function.