2015 - South Indian Images PDF

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-,N THE CONTINENT.
ER...,-F.:ST I Fr:nux, 23, 'lue Bonaparte, Paris.
MARTI","l'S IJHoFr, le Hague, Holland.
/
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SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF CODS AND

GODDESSES
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THE TANJORE TE)IPLJ:.

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SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
OF
GODS AND GODDESSES , r '
BY
H. KRISHNA SASTRI, ILA., RAO SAHEB,

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PRE FACE.
T H IS little book owes its origin to a :;u. ·p:estion made

by His Excellency Lord Carmichael, when he was
Governor of Madrac; in the year llJ 12. He felt that,
while there was a multitude of hrJoks dealing with Hindu
religion and incidentally with Hindu iconog-raphy, there
was no popular handbouk which would give information
about the images one commonly sees in temples or
museums in Southern India, and that it would be a
distinctly useful thing to supply that want. The
::\Iadras Government entrusted the task to me, presu-
mably because my official duties bring: me ,·ery often to
\'isit the ,·arim1s temples in the Prm·ince and to study
and classify the images found therein.
\\-hen I accepted the task. I was not fully aware of
the difficulties that lay before me. In the first place,
there were very fe,v printed books, in Sanskrit or in
translations, that gave the orthodox description and
significance of the images set up in temples. And when
I managed to collate notes from a few old manuscripts
treating of this subject, it was almost impossible in
several instances to reconcile the discrepancies which
they showed or even to understand the technical terms
which abounded in them. In some cases, the descrip-
tion of a particular image found in the local chronicles
or ,\llza!a-J >urdnas could not he traced in th(' ,}:J,amas.
I am not altr)gctlwr ,-,;u1guinc that I ha,·c -,tccred clear
f
:if these dif iet1ltit·s and succel'tkd in Jlresentin•.•,-. a cle,tr
and reada hle ac,n1 rnt to the ;n-erage reader.
VI PREFACE
My chief source of information in compiling this

book has been an excellent work entitled "Tattvanidhi,"
published by the Sri-Yenkatesvara Steam Press at
Bombay, and compiled by His Highness the :\Iaharaja
Mummadi Krishnaraja Vodcyar Bahadur of l\Iysore.
A short bibliography of other Sanskrit works consulted
by me is given at page xv.
, mong the many friends who have kindly helped
me in this task, my special thanks are due to Sir J. H .
Marshall, A't., c . r . E . , :--r.A., LITT.D., F.s.A., Director-General
of Arch ology, Simla, and his assistant l\Ir. V . Natesa
Aiyar, R.A .. for extracts from ancient manuscripts on the
subject of Indian iconography; to Mr. A H . Longhur t,
Arch ological Superintendent, Southern Circle, for the
numerous illustrations without which the book would
be almost unintelligible; and to l\Ir. C. S. Anantarama
Aiyar, the Under Secretary to the Government of
Madras, for much valuable criticism which has been of
great assistance to me. My thanks are also due to l\Ir.
T . Fisher, Superintendent, Government Press, Madras,
for his many kind suggestions about the get-up of
the book and a practical arrangement _of the numerous
illustrations.
OuT.\CA rn;,.; n,
ISi .-lpril 1916. H. K R I S H N , SASTRI.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
PAl,l,;o
Temples and images, the subject of . ,:amas and .)i!fa-. Zistras; ongin of
,lone temples in the Pallava period (page 1f.)-Their development
in the Chola penod (2)-Signs to d1sunguish a a11a temple from a
\'aishnava temple; ritual geneully full,med in tem1,les; annual
festivals (3f. )-Ritual in temples of village-de1t1c, (7) 1-9
CHAPTER IL
1/IlRAlL\IA,
Not worshipped as the chief deity m a temple; his images and general
descnption (ro)-Vanous forms; illustrat10ns (11) ... 10--16
CHAPTER Ill.
VISHNU.
His general description (17)-lncamations (22)-Boar mcarnation and
the re,·erence paid to it by the early South•Ind1an kmgs (22f.)-\lan-
lion incarnation and its v:1riet1es (24I.) --Dv.arf inc,1rnation (3of.)-
R.irna mcarnation (35f)-Krishna incarnation and varieties (37f.)-
B11ddha and Kalki incarnat10ns (47)-Anantas.iym, Fadman:ibha or
Rangan:i,tha (5of. )-Jalasayana, \'aikuntha-N iir.iyana, Lakshmi-
X .ir.iyana, 1;aruda-.'.\.irayana and Yoges,ara-\ ishnu (52f.)-The 24
general !onus of \'ishnu ; Panrluranga, Ha0agriva and \'enkatesa
(55f.)-Pradyumna 01 :\Ianmatha, Vishvaksena and Garuda (62f.)-
Hanurniin (64f.J-Sudarsana(66f.)-Saligrama stones (7of.) 17-71
CHAPTER IV.
SIVA.
His temples and their non-sectanan nature, li11ga, symbol of Sh·a;
its significance, description and Yariet1es (72f. )-Subsidiary images
in a Siva temple ; importance attached to his sportive forms (7 4 f . ) -
Thc g<.:ncral fo1111 Rudramiirti; its description and varieties; l'ancha·
dehamilrti and Mahii-Sad.isiva (76f.l Natariija and his ,everal ,lan-
cing postures (77f.)-The Chidambaram temple; its history (8Sf.)-
Dakshiniimiirti and his various:fomis (89f.) -Lingiidbha,a (93f.)-
Bhikshiitana and Miihini (97f.)--KankiilamGrti (103)-Kaly:in:1•
sundaramiirti (103f.)---Siimiiskand.i. and allied forms (107f.)-
viii TABLE OF CO:\TEYfS
f'.\(,1-..
Vri,h.irii,lha (I 13f.)-Chan<lrasekh,uamiirt1 ( r r4f. 1-Ardhana1i
(12of.)-llanh,11a (:25)---(;,1_1ahcimiirti (1251.: t;ang,idh,,u (1291)
-- kil,1haramiirt1 112f. )-1\ ibkantha ( r,7f )-- Tnpur,intakamiirti
( qof.) Kir,iLir_1un,tmii, t1 ( q I f,)-Chandcs,inu raha111iirt1 ( I 43f ) -
Sar,1hha111iirti ( q 7 f )-P.isupatamiirti, RaLshoghnamiirti, Agh6ra-
mU1ti, BhaiLl \ a .1ni::l r.is v.uiuus fonns, :\Iahakala and Kj.l:igni-
1,udra (qSf.)-\'iral,hadra ,rnd his ,arious forms (155f.)- Kshetra-
p;il,1 (15<1f.)-Ch,rndesa, :'\andisa, Bhringisa and Jvaraden (r6rf.)--
t;anapati and his vanous forms ; his populanty (r65f.)-Skanda and
his different forms; the antiquit1 of his "orship (177f.) 72--1S3
CHAPTER V.
SAKTl-t,ODDESSES.
Thei1 significance ( 184) Then division into three classes and their
\\Orship nn ,-/,a/.-1,1s, _,,,11tras anrl fit/ms (185)-Saras,ati ,rnd her
,hfferent forms (185f.)-Lakshmi and her difk1cnt forms (187f.)--
The e1ght energies of \'1shnu personified (189)--General description
uf <;,,uri or Piirvati (190)-The Saptamc'itnkiis (r9of.)-Sakti god-
desses holding Yaishnavite s1mhoh: Chamnnda, l>nr6ii, l\fah1shiisura-
mard111i and Maha-Lakshmi (196-211)-Kalariitri, T,aritii, Tripura-
Bh.1ira\i, VaJr.1pr.tst8.nni, Sur:i, Surapri y a. , Sriv1d):idev1, Prana.sakti,
Svasthavesini, Satnn 1dhvamsini, Ugra-Tarii, Dhiimravati, Siilini,
l'ratJangnii, Sitaliide\i, Trikantakidevi, Bhiitamiitii and S1vadiiti
(2 I 1f. ) - J) e,hthii-Lakshmi ( 216f. )--Ba\a-Tnpurasundari, Saul,hiig-
y«bhuvanewari, Annapurna, t,ijatri, Savitri and Sarasvati, TulaJii-
lJhavani, Ra_1arn.itangi, Laghusy.imala, \'iiruni, Kurukulla and
\'mdh1 avasini \ZISf. )-Laht.i, Tripurasundari and RiiJariijesrnri;
t h e n " ur,hip on Biilii-y,111tr,1 and .)ri-c/z,1kra (22of.) 184-- -22z
CHAPTER VI.
VILLA(;E DEITIES.
Their ungin tr,tceab1e Io T,tntnk guddcsse") ; name."., of a fc," of them
(223f.)- Their " l ' " h i p and "orsh1ppers (220 J-Cercu1urncs peculiar
t,, temples of village deities ; I lraupadi tern pies and kara;.;am (226f. ) -
SatI-worship and the tire-\>alkmg cerenwny (229)-Village gods:
Ai1an r and Karuppannasam1 (229f.) -Hero-\>orsh1p; de,il-dances
(234) ... 223-234
CHAPTER VIL
l\IISCELLA EOUS DEITIES.
The nine Planets (235)-The S u n ; his description and the !:>ii1;a-ya11t1,1
(235f.)--The l\loon and the other P!anets (239f.)-The Dikpalakas:
Indra, Agni, \"arna, Nairrita, Varuna, \'iiyu and Kubera (241f.) The
:',aga, (24St.)-The demi-god,: \'ak,ha,, Vid)iidharas, etc., and
l>viirap;i.\a,; (251f.)--Saints an,i ,ages (254f.)- -The three religious
reformers; Sana and \'aishna,a saints (259f.)---Jaina images
(262f.) --Pedestals, postures, , 1mbols, \>eapons and jewellery of
im,tg,·s ( 26:;f ) . . 235-272
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAC,E
FRONTISl'IEClc. The Tanjore temple.
F1G, I. Gup11ra, Narasimha temple; .\langalagiri 4
2. Back view of central shri1w, Siva temple; (;ang:ukonda-
solapuram 5
" 3. Haridriinadi tank; l\Iannargndi 6
, 4. l'roc,·a,i,1nal images (rndal); \ladma
J• Lam11 pattern, and j>11/d-uten,ils OttattOr ')
6. Brahma; Seven Pagodas I 2
7. Do. Kumbakonam
" 8. llo. Tiruvadi
, 9, Brahma and Sara,vati ; Kandiyi:ir
" ro. Brahma on swan vehicle; Chidambaram
" r 1. Vishnu (A htahhuja); Conjeeveram
" 12. Vishnu ; Bellary . <
I)
r 3. I )o. Paramesvaramangalam 2
0
" q . Vishnu ancl his consorts; 1riyamhakkam 21

15. Boar incarnat10n of Yi,hnu; :,;L'\t'l1 Pagoda,;
r6. :\'.uasimha hurst111g forth from the pillar; .\hobala111
, 17. Ugra-Narasimha do.
" 18. Do (metal); .\Iadr:.ts l\luseum
" ii;. Yoga-N:uasimha; Tirupatl Hill
., 20. Trivikrama ; Seven Pagodas
21. Do. Kumhakonam
22. \'amana; Namakkal
" 23. Rama and group (metal); kame,vararn
24. Krishna tied to a mortar; Penukonda
" 25. Butter-dance of Bala-Krishna (metal); Madras .\lmeum
, 26, Serpent-dance of Kaliya-Krishna (metal) do.
" 27. Venu-Gopala do.
, 28. Madana-Gopala ; Little Conjeeveram
29. Govardhana-Krishna ; Seven Pagodas
30. Krishna on the p1t11il<li-trec (wood); KumbakOnan!
31. l'artha,arath1 teaching Bii,1ga;•ad-G1td to Arjuna; l'ushl'a-
;:1r1 .
32. AnanlJ.Sii) 111; S1·\t:n P,1,:!;oda,
Vaiknntha-:\aravana. Namakkal
X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
l'AGE
FIG. 34. Lakshm1-Nar yana; Narnakkal 54
35. Caru<la-Narayana; Chi<lambaram 56
" 36. Garuda-Narayana and Gajendramoksha; Kumhakon:un 57
" 37. Yogesvara-Vishnu; Hiivinahadagalli 58
38. Do. {?) Kumbakonam 59
39. Panduranga; Tirupati 60
40. Do. .\hObalam 61
-1-1. Rati-Manmatha; Chidambaram 63
42. Garuda; Tanjore 65
43. Su<larsana; Tirupati 67
" 44. Do. back view; do. 68
45. Do. front and back view (metal); Dadikkombu 69
46. Sahasra-linga; Tiruvottiyiir 75
, 4 7. Panchamukha-linga; T1ruva11aikkaval 78
" 48. Nataraja {metal); Panchanadakkulam So
., 49. Do. Ramesvaram 81
" 50. Ur<lhva-tandava ; Tiruppanandal :-;_)
" 51. Patanjali ; Chidambaram 85
, 52. Vyaghrapada do. 8r,
53. Kalika-tandava (metal); Nallt'Ir 87
" 54. Dakshinamurti; .\vur 91
55. V1nadhara-Dakshinamurt1; Chidambaram 92
56. Yoga-Dakshinamiirti; Conjeeveram 94
" 5 7. Dakshinamiirti ; Tiruvengavasal 95
" 58. Lingodbhava ; Tanjore 96
" 59. Ekapada-Trimiirti; Tiruvottiyiir 98
" 60. Do. Tiruvanaikkaval 99
" 61. Iohini (metal); Valuvur IOI
., 62. Bhikshatanamurti (metal) do. 10.?
" 63. Kankala,nurti {metal); Tenk:isi 104
" 64. Kankalamiirti ; Dharasuram 105
65. Kalyana-Sundara; l\Iadura 106
" 66. Kalyana-Sundara and Svayamvarii ; Chidambaram 108
" 67. Somaskanda (metal); Sivankudal 109
" 68. Somaskanda; Seven Pagodas I II
" 69. U masahita do. 112

" 70. Vrishavahana; Chidambaram II5
" 71. Do. {metal); Vediiranyam II6
" 72. Chandrasekhara (metal); Tiruvottiyiir II7
" 73. Chandrasekhara; Tanjore 118
" 74. Chandrasekhara {Alinganamurti); Bagali TI9
" 75. Ardhanari; Madura 121
76. Do. KumbakOmm 122
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI
PAGE
FIG. 77, Ardhanari; Tanjore. 123
" 78. Do. Tiruchchengodu I 24
" 79. Do. Dharasurarn 126

" 80. Do. Tiruvadi 127
" 81. Sankaranarayana; Namakkal 128
" 82. Gajahamiirti ; I>harasuram 130

" 83. I Jo. Tirutturai ppundi 131
84. Gangiidhara ; Gangaikondasolapuram 133
" 85. Do. (metal) ; Vaidtsvarankoyi 1 l,H
" 86. Gangadhara; Tanjore 135
" 87. Do. Trichinopoly 136
., 88. KalaharamOrti ; Patt1,varam I 38
8q. I >o. Chandragin 139

'JO. Tnpur:lntakamt-irti ; Cl11d,unbar .1111 142
91. Kiratiirjunamiirti; Pu hpa iri. 14..J.
92. Do. Chidambaram . 145
93· Chandesanugrahamiir ti ; Gangaikondasolapuram 146
94. Sarabhamurti; llharasuram 149
95. Pasupatamiirti Chidamharam 150
" 96. Aghoramiirti ; Pattisvaram 152
97. Bhairava <lo. 153
98. Kala-Bhairava; Durgi 154
" 99· Kalagni-Rudra (?) do. 156
JOO. \'irahhadra throwing the head of Dak,ha into the fin: ;
Tanjore. 157
" IOI. Virabhadra; ?l[udikondam 158
, 102. Kshetrapala; Tiruvarangulam
,, 103. Chandesa; Tirurnttiyur
,. 104. Nandisa and hi, con,ort (metal); Valuvur
. , 105 . Bhnng1 ; Srisailam
" rn6. Jvaradeva; Bhavani
" 107. Ganapati standing, Lepakshi
" 108. Do. (metal) ; Pattisvaram
" IOQ, Do. seated ; Siyamangalam
" I 10. Do. dancing; Gangaikondasolapuram
" I I I. Maha-Ganapati; Madura
" I I 2. Heramba-Ganapati (rnetal); Negapatam
" Il3, Skanda; Tiruvottiyfir
" iq. Do. (Shadanana); fadura
" II5- Skanda and hi<; consorts: amayapuram
" n6. D0. fighting with gi:tnts: Chidambaram
" I
I]. Saras\ ati; I::1gali
,, I 1S. am. nya-Laksbmi: Seven Pagodas
Xll U S T OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PA1_;g
FIG. 119. Piirvati; B6l umampatt1
, 120. Do. l'aramewaramangalan1
I 2 I. I lo. in penance; Pattisvaram
I 22. The Seven i\lothers ; Tanjore
I 23. Chamunda (:\Iahiik;"ili); Tiruchchengodu
124. Durga ; Seven Pagodas
125. Do. do. 2(.;J
, I 26. Do. Srimushnam 203
I 27. Do. Dharasurarn 204
I 28. Durga-Lakshmi; Tirumalisai 205
, 129. Mahishasuramardini; Gangaikondasolapuram 207
130. Do. Dharasuram 208
13r. Do. l)urgi 20(}
I 32. Durga-1\Iahishiisuramardini; Seven-Pagodas 210
" l 33• Pratyangira ; Tiruchchengodu 214
134• I>o. (?)(metal); Tiruppalatturai 215
., I 35• Jyeshtha; Tiruvellavayil 217
" 136. Saubh:1gyabhuvanes, arf; Dhiirasuram 219
137 • Rajaraje5vari ; Ramesvaram 221
" 138. 1\Iutyalarnma ; Asani 225

" 139 ( :roup or images in the I >raup.1di-.u11111,111 tc-1111'!,·;
Kumhakonam 2 2;-,
qo. .\iyanar (metal) Tiruppalitturai 231

1-+1. Do. Valuvtlr 23 2
,. 1.p. Do. Rame varam 233
., 143· Stlrya ; Kum hak6nam 23 7
" 144. Do. Chidambararn 23>-,
145· Rahu and Ketu; Chidamharam 240
, 146. Indra do. 242
147· .-\gni do. 244
" 148. Yama do. 2 45
1-f9• Nairrita; .-\hohalam 240

" 150. Varuna ; Lepakshi 2 47
15 I. Vayu do. 249

" 152. Kubera do. 250
153· Adisesha; Chidambaram 25 2
154. K1nnari ; Ramesvaram 2 53
155• Dvarapala ; Tiruvottiyur 2 55
156. I >o. I Jharasuram 256

157. Xarada ; Chidambaram 257
158. .\ga tya do. 25
159. ( ;auli vara (Caudapad,t :,) and Sankarachar) a ; T1ru-
vottiynr 260
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIII
PAGP:
FrG. 160 (rnetal).-(a) G-aruda ; (b) Vi.'diinta.J )eqka; (,-) Yishvak-
sena; (d) kamanujacharya ; (el Tirumangai-Alvar;
Namakbl 261
" 161 :\lanikkaviisagar (mdal); Tiruvarangulam
11>2. Kiir,l!kkiil-Ammai; l\ladura
l'LA ri-; I. l'ede,tals, postures, etc.
I I. J)o. du.
III. Tlo. do.
I\'. I>o. do.
SANSKRIT BOOKS CONSULTED.
,\Iayamata.
Manasara.
Chaturvargachintamaui (Hemadri ).
Brihatsamhita (Varahamihira).
Kasyapa-Silpa (from the Bhanumat or Amsumat-Tantra).
Brahmiya-Silpa.
Silparatna.
Silpasangraha.
Silpasara.
Tattvamdhi (with nunwrnu, riuotation,; printed at the Sri-
Venkatesvara Steam Press, Born bay).
Sabdakalpadrurna (the Encyclop::edia of Samkrit Literature by
Raja Riidhakanta Deo; printed in Calcutta).
Bhagavata-Purana.
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GODS AND GODDESSES

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CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
I
Almost every village of any importance in Southern India
has its temple, round which centres in a very large measure
the corporate civic life of the community which lives in it.
The casual visitor is at once attracted by the temple and
when he goes there he sees various images in all sorts of
incongruous postures and is generally puzzled to know what
they mean or what they represent, and how they serve to
evoke the religious feelings of the people worshipping them.
An attempt will be made in the succeeding pages to
describe and classify them in various groups so as to make
them more intelligible to the ordinary visitor.
Elaborate rules have been laid down in the ancient
Agamas and Silpa-Siistras as to the place where temples are
to be built, the kinds of images to be installed there, the
materials with which such images are to be fashioned, and
even the dimensions and proportions of various kinds of
images, to vary which will result in untold calamity to the
maker and the worshipper alike. The curious reader may,\
for example, refer to Sukranitistira (Chapter IV, Section IV, 1
verses 130 et seq.). 1
II
Temples must have existed in this part of the country from
time immemorial. But the earliest inscriptional evidence of
the existence of temples takes us back only to the age of the
Pallava kings, which is supposed to be between the fourth
1 Pages 166 to 182 of Vol. X I I I of the "Sacred Books of the East" ,erks,
published l,y the Pii.nini Press, Allahabad.

2 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
and the ninth centuries of the Christian era. 1 The more

ancient temples were probably made of wood and other such
perishable material, as we find to this day in parts of Malabar.
Perhaps the Pallavas were among the very first in Southern
India to build temples of durable nnterial. In fact one of
the most famous of these Pallava kings, Mahendravarman I,
who reigned about the beginning of the seventh century A.D.,
was known by the title Chctthak11ri, i.e., the maker of chaityas
or temples.:·
The earliest Pallava monuments so far discovered are
those of Mahabalipuram or the Seven Pagodas. They con-
sist of solid rathas cut out of a single rock and of temples
scooped out of the living boulder. The form of these rathas
and temples served perhaps as models to the later temples in
cut stone, such as those of the Shore Temple there, the Kailasa-
natha and Vaikuntha-Perumal temples at Conjeeveram, and
other Pallava temples elsewhere.
III
The Pallavas were succeeded by the Chola kings, who are
justly entitled to be reg:uded as the greatest temple-builders
of Southern India. About 90 per cent of the temples now
found were erected in their time. They are generally
dedicated either to Siva or Vishnu, and in their simplest form
consist of a cell called the Garbha-griha,-the central shrine,
surmounted by a spire or dome, with a hall in front, called
Muklw-man.-!apa and a narrow passage or vestibule connecting
the two, called the Ardha-mandapa, which is open on two sides
to permit of the priestly worshippers circumambulating the
central shrine. In the Jlfukha-m,mdapa or just outside it will
be placed the image of the deity's chief vehicle, the Nandi-
bull in Siva temples and the Garud:i-bird in Vishnu temples.
This is generally the limit up to which the non-Brahman
classes are allowed to come. Round and outside of these
are the Mahti-mandapa, the big hall, and other pavilions in
which on special occasions processional images of the deity
are placed and worshipped. Next after the ]Y"ahti-mandapa
there will be two raised platforms, one behind the other, on one
1 The Buddhist stiipas at Amariivati and other villages in the Guntiir district,
the stiipa at Sankaram in the Vizagapatam district, and th" caverns with rock-cut
beds in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts are certainly much older but cannot
in auy sense be called temples. Some of these last may, however, have been used
as temples in a much later period either by Buddhists or by Jainas.
• Simultaneously with Mahendravarrran I , in the Pallava dominions, rock-
cut temples appear to have come into existence in the Pandya and the Chera
( Kongu) countries under the patronage of their r;,spectfre sover ign,;
INTRODUCTORY 3
of which is planted the flagstaff or dhvaja-stambha, made of
stone, wood or metal, and on the other is offered what is
called the Sribali, when sacrificial cooked food and flowers are
offered to the minor divinities or powers who have to be
appeased in order to ward off all evil and to prevent disturb-
ance to the ordinary conduct of the daily worship. It is only
up to this limit that foreigners are allowed to enter the
temples by the orthodox Hindu.
In temples of any importance there will be a separate shrine
for the goddess, but generally on a smaller scale than that of
the chief deity. There are separate places for the kitchen
where the offerings are prepared with scrupulous regard to
ceremonial purity ; there are storehouses where the articles
required for a year's consumption in the temple are stored; and
there is generally a fresh water well which is often the best
source of drinking water in the village. The whole group of
buildings is surrounded by high pn"ikiira walls, whose gate-
ways are surmounted by the characteristic towers (figs. I and
2) which lend distinction to a temple city. In some cases
there will be outside the temple a big pleasure tank (fig. 3),
generally square in size, built round with stone steps on all
sides, and with a central mandapa, where once a year the god
and goddess are taken in procession for the floating festival.
IV
The outer walls and the lofty flagstaff will easily show to
the sight-seer whether the temple is dedicated to a Saiva
divinity or to a Vaishnava god. In the former there will be
seen images of the Nandi-bull in a recurnbent posture, while
the latter will show similar images of the Garuda-bird.
Temples other than those of Siva and Vishnu are not
uncommon and can easily be identified by similar marks of
the ..::haracteristic vehicle of the god. Vishnu temples may
also show the symbols of the conch and the discus and the
caste mark (namam) of the Vaishnavas painted on the walls.
V
The ritual followed every day in the temples of Siva and
Vishnu may be generally described as rajiJpachara, or the
paying of royal honours. Thus in rich temples there will be
elephants and camels with their appropriate paraphernalia,
the royal umbrellas and chauris mounted on gold or silver
handles, palanquins and other vehicles, a troupe of dancers
and musicians, a host of other temple servants to wash the
god, anoint him with sandal or decorate him with flowers and
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INTRODUCT ORY 5
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INTRODUCTORY 7
so on. Crowns and other rich and costly jewellery, set with
gems and pearls (fig. 4), and often presented by Rajas and
Chieftains or other rich devotees, are a special pride of the
wealthier temples.
The Brahmana priest is to purify himself by bath and pray-
ers early morning, and then open the doors of the sanctum and
gently wake up the god, who is supposed to be sleeping, by
chanting appropriate hymns in his praise. Then, after duly
worshipping the guardian deities, he washes the feet of the
chief deity, bathes the image, clothes it properly, decorates
it with the usual jewellery, sandal and flowers, waving incense
and lamps of diverse pattern (fig. 5) in front of the god and
finally offering him the cooked food or naivedyam and the
final betel leaf and nut. At stated intervals the god comes
out in procession and perhaps sees to the comfort of his
attendant deities. Usually there is an important annual
festival, representing in some cases the marriage of the god
or some other special event in the doings of the god
registered in local chronicles or Puri'inas. On such occasions
the procession is carried on different vehicles, both common
and special, the latter being such as the kalpa-vriksha, the
wish-giving celestial tree or the kamadhenu, the wish-giving
celestial cow, or the mythic animal gandabherunda. The most
important procession will generally be the car frstival when
the god goes round in the huge car through the main streets
where his worshippers live and receives worship and offerings
at their very homes.
VI
In the temples dedicated to the village deities the cere-
monial is not much different. Brahmanas however rarely
officiate and animal sacrifices are generally offered, especially
when the village is threatened with an epidemic or with
serious scarcity or famine. Vedic incantations are not
uttered in these temples.
With this brief general description of the temple, we can
now proceed to study the various images which are found
represented in them.
. .,
Fn;. 4.-Processional 1m.,ges (metal); :\fadnra.

INTRODUCTORY 9
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CHAPTER II.
BRAHMA.
Brahma, distinct from Brahman, the all-pervading Eternal
Spirit, is the first member of the Hindu Triad. His principal
function is creation. Independent shrines dedicated to him
are rather rare. Still, figures of this god are commonly found
decorating one of the niches in the north wall of the central
shrine in a Siva temple. Images of Brahma may sometimes
also be seen on pillars, ceilings or other parts of a temple ;
but the one point that deserves to be noted is that though
often pictured the god is not worshipped 1 as the chief deity
in a temple, like the two other members of the Triad, Vishnu
and Siva.
BRAHMA• According to Manastira, one of the standard works on
ima es; sculpture, Brahma is represented with four heads. He has,
general type.
however, only one body and four hands. The image may be
standing or seated and made of metal or of stone. The palm
of the left lower hand exhibits the posture of conferring boons
(varada) while the right lower indicates protection (abhaya).
The corresponding upper hands hold the water-pot (kaman-
dalu) and the rosary (akshamalii) or sometimes the sacrificial
ladle (srik) and spoon (sruva). The following ornaments are
seen in a finished picture of Brahma :-(r) ear-rings or
pendants fashioned like the face of a crocodile; (2) the sacred
thread yajnasutra hanging right across the body from above
the left shoulder; (3) the scarf (uttariya) thrown round the
neck so as to stretch down to the knees ; (4) the udara-
bandhana 2 or literally, a girdle going round the belly; (5)
necklace and torque; (6) armlets, arm-rings, wristlets, anklets,
waist-zone, finger-rings set with gems, etc. His hair is made
1
According to the Btahmavaivarta- Pura11a he was cursed by MohinI not to
receive any worship ; see also below, p. 93. In the Telugu and Canares"
districts we occasionally find temples dedicated to Traipurusha, i.e., th.: three
gods Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Curiously enough the place of Brahma is here
occupied by Surya, the Sun god; see Babu Nagendra Nalha Vasu's JJ,/ayiirabhanja,
p. niv. From the n,;simltap,asada quoted in Tattvanidlti we learn that one
variety of Brahma is of the form of Sun.god.
9 In the Tanjore
inscriptions this ornament is mentioned as made of gold and
set with gems; see, e.g., Soutl,.fndian ft1stf'iptio11s, Vol. II, p. 189.
BRAHMA lJ
up in the fashion known as jata-makuta and he is attended by

the two goddesses 1 SarasvaU (on the right) and SavitrI {on
the left).
Another representation shows Brahma riding on a chariot Various
drawn by seven swans (hamsa 2). His right lower hand rests forms.
on the palm of the left lower, the two other hands holding the
usual rosary and the water-pot. He is seated on a full blown
lotus-flower, with his eyes closed in a meditative posture.
The goddess Savitrr is seated on his left thigh. 3 There are
various other representations of Brahma drawn purely from
the imagination of the sculptor or painter and sometimes
also based on Puranic legends. But the mainpoints which
distinguish Brahma from the other gods are the same in all.
Hemaclri mentions some forms of Brahma such as Prajapati,
Visvakarma, 1 Lokapala and Dharma. It may be noted that the
swan vehicle and the goddesses are rarely, if at all, found in
the figures of Brahma generally set up in South-Indian temples.
An old picture of Brahma from Seven Pagodds (fig. 6) and Illustration,.
a later one from KumbakOnam (fig. 7) illustrate the standing
posture described above. In the latter the left lower hand
rPsts freely on the waist of the god and does not show the
posture of conferring boons. The sitting attitude of Brahma
surmounted by a parasol and chauris-the symbols of supreme
power-is beautifully illustrated by a picture from Tiruvadi
near Tanjore (fig. 8). Another figure. which is unfortunately
mutilaterl, shows the same position, but includes the standing
figure of Sarasvatr on the right side of Brahma (fig. 9). It is
noticeable that in this figure the right upper hand of Brahma
is made to hold a lotus instead of the usual rosary. An image
from Chidambaram (fig. IO) shows Brahma on his swan
vehicle folding two of his hands in a worshipping posture and
holding the rosary and water·pot in the other two.
1 For a description of these goddesses, see below, pp. 185 (. and 218, note 3.
The Kalika-Pu1'ana mentions also the two goddesses, the ghee-pot on the left and
the Vedas in front, together with a number of attendant sages engaged in meditation.
• The conventional bird hamsa is represented in Hindu sculpture with a high
neck, a crest ( stiit,i) on its head, white hody, red feet and a beak of golclen yellow.
3 Brahma with Savitri on his Jeft side, is called Prajapati-Bra.hma. H e ha
only one face and no swan vehicle.
4
Visva.kam1a has ten hands and holds the characteristic symbols of the three
gods Brahn1a, Vishnu and .Mahesva.ra. One of his symbols mentioned in the
Si!pasara is the 111a11a-da,,da, • mea.suring rod.' He rides on an elepha.nt and ha.s
his body besmeared with ashes. Another such god, who partakes of the na.ture of
all the three gods, is the Sun. Still another is Dattatreya who granted the
objects of bis desire to sage Atri. H e is represented as a wandering mendicant
with ashes rubbed over his body and followed by the four Vedas in the form of
four dogs. Dattatreya is considered to be a form o f Vishnu.
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BRAHMA
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SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
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FIG. 10.--Brahm.i on swan vehicle; Chidambaram.

CHAPTER III.
VISHNU.
I
Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Triad. His
principal function is that of the protector of the universe.
He is worshipped in South-Indian temples in various forms
and under various names. The general description of Vishnu
without reference to any of his particular incarnations is given
in the Manasiira as follows : - H e has four arms and two eyes,
wears a high crown and a yellow scarf; on his breast is the
auspicious mark Srivatsa; he holds the discus and the conch
in his upper arms and the club and the sword (or lotus) in the
lower and wears the garland (vanamiilii) of flowers, reaching
down to the knees. In some cases the lower arms exhibit the
protecting and the boon-conferring postures (fig. II).' A
prominent nose, broad eyes and smiling countenance are other
features of Vishnu. The goddesses SrI or LakshmI (wealth)
and Mahr or PrithvI (Earth) are usually represented on his
right and left sides respectivdy. 2 The discus is generally
held in the right hand and the conch in the left; but this
arrangement is reversed in the case of an image found in the
Bellary district (fig. 12). According to the Kasyapa-Silpa
the left lower hand of Vishnu may, without showing the
varada or boon-conferring posture, rest on his waist freely
(fig. 13) and the goddesses need not always be represented
with him. Figures of Vishnu may be seen standing, seated
or reclining. They receive different names in their different
postures; but the Vaishnava symbols, viz., the discus and
conch, the garland vanamiila and the auspicious mark Srivatsa
always remain the distinguishing features of Vishnu. Fig. 14
1 This figure shows, however, four more hands holding a bow and arrow and
a sword and shield.
For a description of these goddesses, see below, p. 187. The I"a11cha,-atra-
ga111r, mentior.s also the goddess Niladc, I and dtScrit,es her as seated "ith f, 111
hands in two of "hich she ht,lds lotus flo" ers.
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FIG. I 1.-\·1shm. (A,htabhuja); CunJee,eram.

VISHNU 19
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20 SOlTTH-INDI.\N !:\!AGES
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FIG. 13.-Yishnu; Paramesvaramangalam.

VISHNU 21
22 SOUTH-INDIAN 11\!AGE:S
from Ariyambakkam in the Chingleput district illustrates the

sitting form of Vishnu with the goddesses SrI and Bhu and
two kneeling devotees.
II
llis ten The more popular forms of Vishnu, worshipped in the
incarnation-:,.
temples, generaily refer to his numerous avatars or incarna-
tions. There are ten such avatars recognized as of primary
importance; but of these only five are commonly represented
for worship. They are (I) Varaha "the Boar incarnation";
(2) Narasimha "the Man-lion incarnation"; (3) Vamana "the
Dwarf incarnation," developing eventually into Trivikrama;
(4) Rama, the hero of the Ramayana; and (5) Krishna, the
pastoral god and the chief actor in the great war of the
Mahabharata. The other five incarnations of Vishnu, viz.,
the Fish, the Tonoise, Parasurama, Buddha and Kalki though
represented largely on walls, pillars and ceilings of temples
being either carved or painted, are not generally worshipped
as the chief deity in a temple. 1
III
VARAHA or
Bo:ir incar-
Varaha, also known as Adivaraha, Dharanrvaraha or
nation. Bhavaraha, is beautifully illustrated by the image in the
Varaha-Perumal cave-temple at Mahabalipuram. Here the
boar-faced Vishnu is seen standing with his right foot resting
on the hood of the serpent-god Sesha. On the right thigh is
seated the godcle s Earth,2 supported in position by the two
lower arms of the god. He wears a high crown and has
in his two upper hands the discus (held sideways) and the
conch. A s these images however have recently been covered
with a thin coating of plaster and painted fantastically in
variegated colours, it is not possible to say what sculptural
peculiarities the original may have exhibited. Fortunately, a
panel representing this same Varaha-avatar of Vishnu (fig. 15)
with attendant deities, is found in another rock-cut mandapa
at that village and is decidedly a true copy of the sculptures
1 l'arasurarua, '' the a,c-Ltarer, Rarr,a · is supposed to l,e the founder uf the
west-coast country, having miraculously reclaimed it from the encroaching sea.
Ile is, therefore, often "urshipped in Malabar in sptcial shrines dedicated to him.
Sn·a temples nith the name I'arasuramenara are common and these are believed
lo o " e their e istence to l\uasura.m.t. In the Kachchhapesvara temple at Conjee-
veram, on a stone sel up under a tree, there is a representation of the Tortoise
incarnatwn of Yi hnu, "orshipping ffa. This is reproduced by ;\fr. Rea in his
'.\ladras Arch:eological :--uney Report for 1910-: ; , Plate V , fig. r.
• The Brahmiya-..Sitp,, states that Lakshmi (i.e. Sri) is also to be depicted
on the si,!e of Yaraha.
VISHNU 2,3
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found in the shrine of the Varaha-Perumal cave-temple. The

scene depicts the primeval Boar rescuing from the depths of
the ocean the goddess Earth, who had been kidnapped thither
by the demon Hiranyaksha, an enemy of the gods. Sesha,
on whose wide-spread hoods the earth is generally supposed
to rest, is also represented as rising from the ocean along
with the Boar-god. He is folding his hands in the attitude
of worship. The devas worshipping the god from above, the
sages on the right, and Brahma and Siva on the left indicate
the joy felt by the entire universe on this occasion. Thi
representation exactly follows the description given by
Hemadri in his Chaturvarga-Chi11ta111ani. The hand with the
discus is sometimes also shown as raised in the act of killing
Hiranyaksha. The god may be represented as smiling after
having killed Hiranyaksha and revivc·d him by divine grace.
Figures of the Man-boar in meditation or of a full Boar
digging the earth in the midst of many demons, are also
sometimes represented. In the pictures of Lingodbhava
(Siva) noted in the sequel, is seen the full Boar form of Vishnu
digging the earth.
Temples dedicated to the Boar-incarnation of Vishnu are
IJOt many. This incarnation was a particular favourite of
the Western Chalukya kings in the early centuries of the
Christian era. A fine sculpture of Varaha carrying the
goddess Earth is found in the Chalukyan rock-cut temple at
Badami (Ind. Ant., Vol. VI, p. 354). 1 In later times, too, the
Kakatryas, the Reddis of Kondavrdu and the Hindu sove-
reigns of Vijayanagara, paid particular reverence to Varaha,
adopting the boar as their royal crest. At Srrmushnam in the
South Arcot district is a beautiful big temple dedicated to
this god and so also is another at Tiruvadandai near
Mahabalipuram in the Chingleput di trict.
IV
NARASIMHA Narasimha or Nrisimha, the Man-lion is more popular
ut the
!\Ian-lion than Varaha. A large number of families in the south,
incarnation. Brahman and non-Brahman, own him as their tmelary deity.
In Tamil, the name is corrupted into Singa (Sanskrit Simha)
or Singa-Perumal, and in the other vernaculars into Narasa
(a contraction of Narasimha). The story of this incarnation
of Vishnu is briefly as follows : -
Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakasipu were two demon
brothers, naturally hostile to Vishnu. Hiranyaksha was killed
- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
1 See al,o l'isi·a ·an11a, f a n YI, Xo. 99.
VISHNU 25
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FIG. 16.-Xara.;1mha bursting forth from the pillar : Ahobala.m.

26 SOUTH-INDL\N Il\!AGES
by Vishnu in his Varaha-1matar. Hiranyakasipu then becamE'

the king of the demons and vowed eternal war with Vishnu.
His young son, Prahlada, however, became a devoted adher-
ent of Vishnu and was always praising him as the all-
pervading lord of the universe. Exasperated with this,
Hiranyakasipu asked the young boy whether his god Vishnu,
if he was all-pervasive, could be found in the pillar in front
of him; and then hacked at it with his sword. The pillar
cleft in twain and out burst from it, to the astonishment of
Hiranyakasipu, the angry god in the shape of a Man-lion,
(fig. 16), who forthwith tore to pieces the impious demon king.
UGRA-
The angry god is called Ugra (the terrible)-Narasirnha
NARA,I !HA. (
figs. I7 and l 8) . When, however, his anger subsided at the
earnest prayers of Prahlada he became senme and in this form
LAKSH\li he is known as LakshmI-Narasimha. Yoga-Narasirnha (fig. 19)
:\RA,l\1HA; is another form in which the god is seen squatting in a
:: r n HA. meditative mood. Simhachalam in the Vizagapatam district,
Ahobalam in the Kurnool district and Namakkal I in the
Trichinopoly district may bt:> mentioned among the places
sacred to Narasimha. The usual Vaishnava symbols, sankha
(conch) and rhakra (discus), are seen in the two upper hands
of the image of Narasimha in all his forms. The monolithic
Ugra-Narasimha found in the ruins of Vijayanagara was
there established by king Krishnaraya in A.D. 1528. It may
be noted that here the god, though called Ugra-Narasimha, is
not represented, as may be expected, in the posture of splitting
open the bowels of the demon Hiranyakasipu.
Hemadri states that Narasimha must be represented with
muscular shoulders, a stout neck and a slender waist. Half
man and half lion, his face must be fiery and so also the
mane round it. Standing with his right foot bent forward
(iilidha) he splits with his sharp nails the breast of
the tyrant Hiranyakasipu, who, as the wise men say, is
an embodiment of ignorance. The Piinchanitragama thus
describes the form of Narasimha suited for meditation:-
" (Terrible) like flaming fire, he has a lion-face with a human
body, furious fangs, a protruding tongue, an open mouth, a
thick mane and muscular chest. He stands in the lilidha
posture in an angry mood and splits the breast of the giant,
thrown flat upon his thigh, with the sharp nails of both his
hands. In his two other hands he holds the symbols of the
club and the discus." The Mayamata, while giving almost
1 A <letailed description of the images in the rock-cut temples at Nama],kal
is gin,n in the :\Iadras Epigraphical Report for 1906, Part I I . pp. ;5·and 76.
VISHNU 27
-
28 SOl1TH-IN1llAN JI\IAGES
h t ; , 18.-l'gra-Narasimha \metal) ; la,lns :\ln,et:m.

VISHNU 2g
FIG. r9. -Voga-Nara.imha; Tirupati Hill.

30 SOUTH-INDIAN Il\IAGES
the same description of him, states that the cruel form of

Narasimha is installed on tn'.)untain-tops, caves, forests or
the enemy's territory when the enemy has to be destroyed;
when installed, however, in villages and towns he has four
hands, two of which wear the conch and the discus.
V
,·A IANA or Vamana or the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu is wor-
the D"arf shipped in its ultimate manifestation, under the Sanskrit
incarnation.
name Trivikrama or the Tamil Ulagalanda-Perumal. The
former means "the god who took three strides " and the latter
"the lord who measured the universe (with three strides)."
The story is that a powerful demon king named Bali, the
great-grandson of Hiranyakasipu mentioned above, conquered
the three worlds and ruled them, in spite of his birth, in charity
and with justice. Indra, the chief of gods, was thus super-
seded. Vishnu as the avowed destroyer of the demons
(dtinavas) and the upholder of the gods had to restore Indra
to his legitimate position. Vishnu could not go to war against
Bali, as he was a virtuous king. So he went in the guise of a
Dwarf Brahmana, a student of the Vedas (brahmachtirin), and
begged of BJli for three feet of land on which he could sit
and meditate on Brahman undisturbed. The generous Bali
granted the request. But what was his astonishment when
he saw the cunning god grow to a height transcending the
world, take in at one step the whole earth, covering the sky
TR1v1KRAMA. with the next, and demanding of Bali to show him room for
the third. True to his promise, Bali offered his own head,
on which the go<l placed his foot and sent him down to the
lower regions. Greatly pleased with the king's nobility and
firmness of character, Vishnu is still supposed to he guarding
as his servant the palace of Bali in the world below.
There are not many temples dedicated to this god. At
Tirukkoyilur in the South Arcot district is a celebrated shrine
of Trivikrama. Another one is the Ulagalanda-Perumal
temple at KanchI. In the Varaln-mandapa at Mahabali-
puram, on the panel opposite to the Varaha-avatar
described above, is a fine representation of Trivikrama 1 (fig.
20). Here the god has eight hands. The foremost arm on
the right side is artistically made to support the lintel, while
the remaining three hold the discus, club and the sword. Of
the arms on the left side two hold the bow and the shield;
1 There is alsu a panel in the rvck cut lemflt: at Niima.kka.1, .reprt:Senting

Trivikrapia with more details.
VISHNU 31
the third has the conch and the fourth is pointed towards
Brahma seated on the lotus. This Brahma has four hands and
four faces (?). He reverently touches with one of his hands
the toe of the uplifted leg of Trivikrama and with another
touches the finger of the god pointed towards him. On the
corresponding right side of Trivikrama is found apparently
Siva, also on a lotus-seat. The Sun and Moon, with circles
of light behind their heads, perhaps to distinguish their
respective functions, are seen flying in the air half way down
the high face of the god. Two other heavenly beings, one of
which is on a level with the head of Trivikrama and has a
horse-face,1 are also flying in the air. The seated figures at
the foot of Trivikrama are apparently Bali and his retinue
who are struck with amazement at the sudden transformation
of the stunted Vamana into the all-pervading Trivikrama.
In the Ramasvamin temple at Kumbakonam is a sculptured
pillar (fig. 21) on which the story of the Vamana-avatar is
well represented. The lower section shows Bali and his wife
granting boons to Brahmanas. In the upper section is the god
Trivikrama under a floral arch. His right foot is placed in
the two open palms of the Earth. On his right is the image
of the Dwarf. His vehicle Garuda is behind him. On the left
side are evidently Bali and his wife standing. This descrip-
tion of Trivikrama exactly coincides with what has been
given above, except that the hand supporting the lintel in the
Mahabalipuram panel is here shown as offering protection.
\Tumburu is also seen above on the floral arch, flying in the air.
The exact form of Vamana, prior to his manifestation as
Trivikrama, is, according to Hemadri, that of a fat young
student of the Vedas with crooked joints, holding a staff in
his hand and wearing on his back the skin of a black buck
(krishnajina) (fig. 22). Representations of Vamana figures
with water-pot in one hand and an umbrella in the other 2 on
demarcation stones of fields granted in charity, were quite
common even down to the end of the nineteenth century.
This auspicious figure evidently denoted fortune and was
appropriately connected with boundary stones and the
measurement of land. A festival in honour of Bali is still
observed by the people of Mysore on the first day after the
Dipavali-Amavasya. In Malabar people connect Bali with
1 Evidently Tumburu with drum in hand, leading the hosts of gods. Mr,
Yenkayya takes the same figure in the Namakkal rock-cut temples to be Jiimbavat;
see ladms Epi g r a phical Report for 19<)6, p. 76.
' This is the description of Yamana as given in the Piind1ariitriiga111a,
VISHNU 33
FIG, 21.-Trivik rama: Kumbakonam,

SOUTH-INDIA'.'l IMAGES
34
FIG, 2 2 . - V a m a n a ; Namakkal.
VISHNU 35
their national harvest festival, the Onam, in which they
worship a clay figure of this high-minded emperor. It is
supposed that the king is permitted by Vishnu to visit every
year the fair earth over which he once ruled and to satisfy
himself that the people are quite as happy and glad as in his
time.
VI
We now come to the avatar of Rama, Ramachandra or RAMA incar
Ramabhadra, the hero of the beautiful epic Ramayana, which nation.
in its various aspects has permeated the life of the Indian
people and moulded their character to a great extent. Rama
was the eldest son of Dasaratha, the king of Ayodhya (Oudh).
As such, his images do not, like those of the avatars so far
described,-avatars which were sudden outbursts of divine
energy-exhibit either the four arms of the gods or the
distinguishing Vaishnavite symbols of conch, discus, club and
lotus. Human in form, but god in essence, Rama is always
represented as a royal pernonage of bewitching beauty, well
developed in body, having broad eyes, long arms, curly tresses,
ornaments and auspicious marks that indicate high birth
and noble character. Paintings of Rama's life are numerous
and cover the whole period of his history from his birth to his
passing away bodily from this world into the depths of the
Sarayu river. In many South-Indian temples may be observed
scenes from the Ramayana, either painted on the walls or cut
into panels, forming continuous belts round the central shrine
or the prakara wall.1 When represented as the consecrated
deity within a temple, Rama is generally seen to be a standing
figure with his queen Srta on the left and his faithful
brother Lakshmana on the right. He and his brother hold
bows and arrows. The bow is called kodanda and so Rama
with the bow is sometimes known as Kodanda-Rama.
In the accompanying illustration of metallic images from
Ramesvaram (fig. 23) the positions of Sita and Lakshmana are
interchanged and the arrows and quivers are missing. The
two images at either extreme represent their faithful servant
Hanuman (see below p. 64). As stated in the Silpasangraha,
the figures of Rama are distinguished as independent and
dependent. In the former case he stands alone and has four
arms, two of which hold the bow and the arrow and the other
two, the conch and the discus. In the latter he has two arms
and may be accompanied by his three brothers, his queen
1
For exampl e, in the Hazara-Ramasvamin temple at Hamp i ; in th
Ramasvamin temple at Kumbakona.m ; a.nd in the Tennapura.m temp l e at Chandra.-
gin, Chittoor district.
SOUTH-INDIAN Il\JAGES
........ ..
..
VISHNU 37
Srta, the monkey hosts and the Rakshasa chiefs headed by
Vibhishana. Rama with Srta on his side is generally contem-
plated upon as seated in the aerial car Pushpaka in the virasana
posture within a golden pavilion and underneath the celestial
tree (kalpa-vriksha). In his front stands Hanuman reading,
while Rama is explaining the mystery of philosophy to the
crowds of sages who gather round him along with his royal
brothers Bharata, Lakshmana and Satrughna. 1
VII
Krishna is the next avatar of Vishnu 2 which is highly vener- KR1,,11NA
ated by the Hindus. The Bhagavata-Purana which describes itton. carna
in detail the early life of Krishna in Brindavana (Brinda ban)
has provided more material for iconology than his subsequent
career as the moving spirit of the Mahabluirata-war, the author
of the "Divine Song" Bha,gavad-Gitii or the benevolent chief
of Dvaraka (Dwarka, Baroda).
Three stages in the life of Krishna have been marked
out to be the most prominent. As a baby, not yet weaned from
his mother's breast, he is represented in the arms of Yasoda.
This form of Krishna receives the name Santana-GOpala. SAN1A:sA-
Also as a baby divine, identified with Supreme Vishnu, G o r A L A .
he is sometimes pictured as lying on a banyan-leaf (Vatapa- \0ATA PA't RA•
trasayin) sucking the toe of his leg held by the hand. These s A v I N .
pictures of the baby-god are commonly seen in paintings.
Krishna is also represented as a winsome boy, full of
fun and frolic and fond of thieving milk and butter from
the neighbouring cottages of cowherds living at Brinda-
vana. It is said that on one occasion YasOda punished him
by tying him up to a mortar. The child then ran along,
dragging the mortar behind him; but in trying to pass between
two tall and stout trees standing close together, the heavy
mortar was caught between and felled them down; when lo!
1 This concept10n of Rama is perhaps to be traced to the fact that in the work
called Viisishthariimii;•ana, Rama i; stated to have given lessons in philosophy
to his family priest Vasishtha. The story of the Riimiiy,ma as described by
the poet Valmiki, is said to be referred to in the Mantra of the Rig.Veda,
beginning with the words bhadro bhadrayii, etc. The explanatory comment
(nirukta) is, ho" ever, not included in Yaska's Nirukta. The historical develop-
ment of Rama and Krishna cults have been fully dealt with by Dr. R. G. Bhandar-
kar in his Vaisl1na1,,·s111, Saivism, etc.
2
The verse which is usually ,1uoted in connexion l\ith the ten avatars uf
Vishnu, mention, Ba Iara ma or Haladhara " the bearer of the plough," as the incarna-
tion which came nc"t after the epic hero Rama. Krishna, the younger brother of
Balarama, being, however, considered tn he Vishnu himself, receives divine honours
in preference to Balarama. The famous temple at Puri- Jagannath contains figures
of Bo.Iara.ma and Knshna "ith their sister Subhadra standing bet" een "\hem.
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
the trees assumed the shape of the two sons of Kubera, the god
of riches, who being cursed by the sage Narada to assume the
shape of trees had been waiting long to be thus restored by the
Lord Krishna to their original form. The first part of this
incident is represented in fig. 24.
In South India pictures of Krishna with a pot of butter
under his left arm and eating out of a ball of it placed in
the palm of his right hand are not uncommon. On either
side of him are represented shepherd girls of Brindavana- 1
This form of Krishna, though very often meditated upon and
sung about even in nursery rhymes, is rarely worshipped as
the chief figure in temples-a famous exception to this being
Udipi in the South Canara district, where a big temple, richly
endowed, is maintained for the worship of the god Bala-
BALA· Krishna. 2 In the Madras Museum are two metallic images of
KRISHNA
dancing Krishna, one of which holds in its right hand a ball
of butter 3 (fig. 25). A peacock's feather stuck into the tuft of
hair knotted overhead is, along with the other golden jewellery
peculiar to children, a special feature of Krishna as a boy.
Gold and silver images of this form of Krishna in miniature
are among the set of idols worshipped daily in an orthodox
Brahmana's house. Vaishnavism in its various forms prevail-
ing throughout India praises the child form of Krishna in the
sweetest of strains with an overflow of devotion peculiar to
that creed alone.
KAJ,IYA• Another story of the boy Krishna is represented in his
KR!SH!'.A
dance on the head of a serpent named Kaliya (the black).
Kaliya was hiding in a pond in the Yamuna river and making
the whole neighbourhood poisonous to all living beings.
One day the cattle tended by Krishna and his companions
strayed into this region and were thereby poisoned. Krishna
then plunged into the pond and holding the viper by the tail
1
The name given to this figure in the Silpamt11a is Santiina-Gopiila, already
referred lo. Krishna under this designation is described as a young playful baby
decorated with the jewels o f ch1ldr n, holding. fresh butter in his hand and sur-
rounded by Gopi-women. H e wears also a necklace with a pair of tiger's claws
decorating it. A variety of this same Krishna is sometimes represented to be riding
on a chariot and to have four arms in two of which are seen the Vaishnava symbols
sa11kha and chakra.
• Krishnaraya, the well known \'ija) anagara king of the sixteenth century
A . D . , is stated to haYe installed in the Krishnasviimin temple near Hampi, an
image of Bala-Krishna which he had brought as a troph ) ' from Udayagiri (Nellore
district) and lo have given many ornaments and villages tu it.
• The Brahmiya-S,lpa refer, to the dance o f Krishna called N o 11a11ita-11ritl a
" the butter-dance " in which the god bends his legs and dances stretching out one
of his arms.
VISHNU 39
'. :- .
. .:
·;\-:.' ,-'
,-,
\
' ' -,
·\ '
. ' "
1,,.-· - .
·. ' ,\ ,,
;c· ·
. ..,,. {,.
''
,.j,/'''
" ( ,',
'
,.,,,..!,.
FIG, 25.-Butter-dance of Bala-Krishna (metal); Madras Must um

VISHNU 41
in one hand began to r:lance heavily on his raised hoods. The

demon writhed under the pressure of the god's tiny feet,
vomiting blood profusely from each of his several mouths,
and was completely exhausted and overcome. Then at last
the serpent Kaliya recognized the Lord and took himself
away to a remote island in the far-off sea. The esoteric sense
of this is clear. The serpent represents the embodiment of
all that is vile and wicked in this world; the dance of Krishna
represents the fight with evil and its final conquest by the
Divine Spirit. Kaliya-Krishna is found only as a decorative
figure in temples but not as the object of worship in the central
shrine. As in the case of Bala-Krishna, miniature figures of
Kaliya-Krishna are often found among the images of worship
in a Brahmana's house. A copper idol representing this
sport of Krishna was discovered some years ago among the
tre sure trove found at Kattu-Edayaru in the South Arcot
district (fig. 26). The figure has two hands, a jewelled
crown and the usual ornaments. Being a copper image it
may be inferred that the idol was used only for proces-
sions in the temple to which it originally belonged. Accord-
ing to the Silpasara the right foot of Kalingamardana
(i.e., Kaliya-Krishna) is slightly bent and the left raised up.
O f the two arms the left is stretched out in the abhaya posture
and the right holds the tail of the serpent. The figure is fully
decorated with ornaments and is dark in colour. The illustra-
tion from Kattu-Edayaru shows the same features except that
the positions of the right and left legs are interchanged.
The third and the most divine sport of Krishna is his
moonlight dance on the sand-banks of the Jumna in the
company of the damsels of Brindavana. The inspired poet
Lilasuka, describing this dance, says that "there, in the circle
of dancers (filled with love for Krishna) was seen between
damsel and damsel a Madhava (Krishna) and between
Madhava and Madhava a damsel ; and in the centre of the
group again, was the son of DevakI playing upon his flute,"
thereby indicating in poetic language the mystic significance
of the dance. O f the many Gopi (cow-herd) girls thus in
attendance on Krishna in his early life in Brindavana the
most beloved was Rad.ha, so much so that Radha-Krishna is Ao11A-
Kiw,HNA
the name by which he is addressed by the most ecstatic of
the zealous Vaishnava cult.
lmages of the flute-playing Krishna generally called \ :- N l
. . l e of (,Ol'ALA.
Venu-Gopala (Muralrdhara) without, however, the rue
dancers, are largely worshipped in temples. . He stands on
his left leg :with the right bent across and resting on the toe,
i"'" •·
..
<'"
-:"""" -
•- -: g
.,:-:;;
-• • • ' I
. ,r·/
l"IG. 26.-Serpent-dance of Kali:a-Krishna (metal); i\ladra, i\lusemu

VISHNU 43
and plays upon the flute. When the figure is intended for
worship in temples the two upper hands will hold the conch
and the discus and there will usually also be the images of hi&
two consorts RukminI and Satya on either side (fig. 27). 1 In
the hundred-pillared mandapaof the Varadarajasvamin temple
at Little Conjeeveram is a figure of the flute-playing Krishna
with ten arms (fig. 28). The Piinchariitriigama calls this
form of Krishna by the name Madana-Gopala. In paintings MADANA•
Venu-Gopala is often represented as leaning against a cow, GorA1.A.
with one foot bent crosswise and resting on the toe. Cows
and cow-herds are also often shown gathering round him. The
dance with Gopis, with which the flute-playing Krishna is
intimately connected, is found only in drawings. The eso-
teric sense of this flute-play and the dance is the supreme joy
whoch the devotees experience in moments of overflowing
love in the presence of the object of their devotion.
Another well-known sport of Krishna during his boyhood GovAR-
was the lifting up of the hill called Govardhana. He is said to :A
have held the hill aloft so as to give shelter to the cow-herds
of Brinclavana from a continuous down-pour of rain sent down
by Indra in anger in order to flood their small village. A
beautiful old representation of this scene comes from the
Seven Pagodas (fig. 29) where, in the so-called Krishna-
mandapa, Krishna stands in the centre with his left hand
raised straight up to support the hill, while his right hand is
held in the posture of offering boons (varada). 3 All round the
god are seen cows and cow-herds, men and women, the latter
carrying pots of milk, butter, curds or other cooked offerings
to the god, and leading their young ones by the hand or
accompanying their husbands. The ornaments of Krishna in
this picture are very sparing. They are the usual large ear-
rings peculiar to the sculpture of the Pallava period, bracelets,
armlets and the waist-band. The high crown on the head is
also a noticeable feature. This representation differs, how-
ever, from the description given in the Silpasiira where the
god is described as having one hand with flute resting on his
waist and the other supporting the hill.
1 At
Turaiyur in the Trichinopoly district the god worshipp d in the shrine
has only t\\o hands. Hemadri states that the image of C,opala play10g on the flute
is made " i t h the head ornament of peacock feathers, blue hody anrl two anu,.
The Silpara 11,[;r•1ha acids that he is chiefly found in a standing attitude
0
f'r. Vogel says that the central figure of the group is Balariima (Bala.elem),
the brother of Krishna (Arch ; e ological Survey Report for 1910-11, P· 51, note I).
He is seen throwing his left hand round the neck of a cow-herd boy who rests
his hands crossed on the head of a long hatchet.
·.)
:· .
- -l
w•_,
_--'f_,-,
FIG. 27.-Venu-Gopala: Iadras Museum.

VISHNU 45
Conjce\t•ram
FIG, 28. ,1arlana-< ,upala; Lmle
SOUTH-INDIAN Il\1AGES
:
.g0
"O
b.
.."
c,..
C:
>
r/l
VISHNU 47
Again Krishna on the tree is a familiar figure in paintings G o P i V A s T a . t .
and decorative sculptures of temples. The story is related in PAHARAKA.
the Bhagavata-Purana how one day Krishna saw the cow-herd
girls bathing naked in the Jumna leaving their clothes on the
sand banks of the river and how he took away their clothes
and got up a tree standing near by. He did not restore the
clothes to the girls till they confessed their error in bathing
naked against the teaching of the Sastras. One of the usual
processional vehicles in Vishnu temples is the punnai-tree
with the naked Gopis standing round it and begging for the
return of their clothes (fig. ,o).
After leaving Brindavana, Krishna became the clever and PARTHA•
astute statesman and warrior of Dvaraka and took an active sARATHI.
part in the war between Kauravas and Pandavas described in
the Mahabharata. He was on the side of the Pandavas; he
was an intimate friend of Arjuna (or Partha) and even served
him as his charioteer on the battle-field. Hence Krishna
is also known by the name of Parthasarathi, the name of
the god in the famous temple at Triplicane. It was on this
occasion in the battle-field, when Arjuna was dismayed at
the prospect of a bloody war with his relatives, that the
divine charioteer Krishna is said to have delivered to Arjuna
the famous discourse known as the Bhagavad-Gita. A fine
illustration of the scene comes from the Kesavasvamin temple
at Pushpagiri (fig. 31). The story runs that Arjuna and
Krishna were bosom friends in far earlier ages, when under
the names Nara and Narayana they are supposed to have
performed penance in Badarikasrarna.
VIII
Two other avatars of Vishnu, viz., Buddha and Kalki BuoottA
may be noticed. The latter is only a prospective incarnation !-n d KAI: I< '
mcarnallons.
.
m which the god is expected to appear as a powerful hero
riding on horse-back, sword in hand, to suppress the growing
wickedness of the Mlechchhas. The Buddha incarnation of
Vishnu is, no doubt, counted among the ten avatars but is
rarely found worshipped in Hindu temples.' Buddha is
1 The .Rriih m iy a-S ilf a does not in clude Bu d d ha in the avatars of Vishnu.
It mentions Krishna in the place o f Bu d dha. The Miinasiira gives a complete
description of the figures of Bu d dha which it says must be ma d e o f white stone, very
much like the images o f Jina (below, p. 262f.) seate d or sta n ding on a lion-pe d estal
un d er the pipal or the wish-giving celestial tree, with two ha n ds, us!misha (crown)
a yellow cloth broa d forehead, long ear-lobes, big eyes, high n ose, smiling counte-
nance, Jong a 1s, broad chest, fleshy limbs a n d body. When standing, his a.nm
must be made to hang dow n loosely.
SOUTH-I DIA'.ll' IMAGES
):r
Ir.,
.
I:·,.
•
r.
,.
:;
FIG. 30.-Krishna on the p,,nnai-tree (wood) ; Kumbakooam.

VISHNU 49
..
Fru. 3 r . - Parthasiirathi teaching the Bhag11v,1d-Gila to Af)un a ; J'ushpa g i n .

regarded by some as an avatar designed to lead the asuras

into ruin by giving them bad advice. Others like Jayadeva
regard him rightly as an incarnation of mercy who came to
te.och the people the essential cruelty of animal sacrifices.
IX
Other !onus Besides the avatars mentioned above, there are other forms
?f vidshdnt! not
inc1u e 1n
of Vishnu which are also often found in South-Indian temples.
the avatars.The most important of such is his reclining form, kno\\- n by
ANAN1A A- the names Anantasayin (or Seshasayin), Padmanabha and
YW 1 The temples at Srirangam
PAD,MANABHA Ranganatha. and Trivandrum
or RANGA- may be specially mentioned as the places where this form of
NATHA.
Vishnu is worshipped. In Tamil he is known as Palligonclan.
A good illustration (fig. 32) comes from the old sculptures at
Mahabalipuram. In the so-called Mahishasura-mandapa, on
the proper right wall of the front verandah is depicted the
scene under reference. Here on the coils of the serpent Ananta
sleeps on his back a gigantic figure of Vishnu with two arms.
The right hand is carelessly thrown on the body of the serpent
while the left hand is raised up at the elbow. The god wears
a cloth round the waist, which reaches down to the feet. The
usual udarabandhana is also tied round the lower part of the
stomach in the form of a girdle, its ends gracefully hanging
down and touching the right side of the serpent couch. The
garland round the neck (i.e., the vanamala) has slipped down
the right arm of the god, thus emphasizing his sleeping
posture. By the side of the serpent couch, near the feet of
Vishnu, is the figure of LakshmI kneeling down and
worshipping him with folded hands. In front of her are two
other figures also seated by the side of the serpent couch.
These may be the two colleagues of Vishnu, viz., Brahma and
:Siva, or the attendants Jaya and Vijaya. Above the sleeping
god in the air are two flying figures, one a female and the
other a fat figure, probably a goblin. Beyond his feet and
looking him straight in the face are two f:talwart figures
standing one in a defiant attitude with a club in his hand and
the other dissuading him from what looks apparently like
a murderous attack on the god. The Padma-Purana gives a
• The ,Jfayamata says that the serpent, the couch of Anantasayana, may be
of five or seven hoods, its while colour indicating great bliss. Padmanabha means
" h e o f the lotus•navel " ; and we see, in figures o f Anantas yana, the navel o f
the god sending forth a stock at the end of which is a lotus flower and in il the
four-faced Brahma, Ranganatha is " the lord o f the ra11ga, the assembly-hall."
It might be noted that in the illustrations o f Anantasayana the central ftgure o f
Vishnu is sunounded by all the other gods as i f in an assembly-ha.II.
VISHNl) I
'·
·\·
''••.: ,.
4-A
description of Vishnu, which comes very near to what has been

depicted above- It says: " The god of gods sleeps on the
serpent. One of his legs lies on the thigh of Lakshmr, while
the other is placed on the body of the serpent- He has two
hands, one of which is stretched along the right thigh and the
other is placed over his head. Brahma is comfortably seated
on the lotus which springs from the navel of Vishnu.
Entangled in the stem of the lotus stand the demons Madhu and
Kaitabha. The symbols of the god, viz., the conch, discus,
club and lotus are all represented about him, each assuming a
body." 1 A similar description is given by Hemadri under the
JALASAYANA. term Jalasayana.
God Vishnu seated comfortably on the serpent couch is
VAIKUNTHA- named Vaikuntha-Narayana " (fig. 33). The left leg is
NARA.YA'.'iA.
stretched down and the right is bent at the knee ; the left
hand rests on the knee-joint, while the right hand rests
carelessly thrown back on the head of the serpent ; the two
back hands hold the weapons sankha and chakra. The image
is decorated with jewels and by its side are his consorts
LakshmI and Prithvr.
LAKSH1Ii- LakshmI-Narayana is another of Vishnu's seated forms
NARAYANA.
where, to the left of the god, by his side or sometimes on his
thigh, is found seated the image of Lakshmr throwing her
right hand round the neck of the god while she holds in her
left a lotus The left hand of Vishnu similarly passes round
the waist of LakshmL A female deity called Siddhi stands
near, with a fly-whisk in her hand. The vehicle Garuda is
on the right side at the foot of the god. The sankha and
chakra not being held by the god are carried by two dwarf
male figures standing in front of him ; Brahma and Siva also
stand by, worshipping Vishnu with folded hands'l (fig. 34).
1 Viisude"a described by Hemadri as
a standing \'ishnu figure of four arms,
holds in the two upper hands the lotus and the conch and mstead o f ha"ing in the
two lower, the weapons ,hakra (discus) and E;adii ,club\ he places the palms of these
hands on the heads of two dwarf figures, one male and one female, holding
chauri, in their hands and looking at the face of the god These dwarf figures are
stated to be the personified weapons chakra and .1;adii; (see .1/ayiirabhanjn, fig. 16,
on plate facing p. xi). The descriptions gi,·en by the same author of
Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha-uther standing forms of Vishnu-refer
also tu personified weapons.
2 See the Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, p. 76. The Briihmiya•
Silpa calls this same figure Adimiirti and describes him as being attended by
gods and rishis in a worshipping attitude.
s Hcmiidri According to the Silpasa11graha, Lakshmi·Niiriiyana has four
arms in which he displays the conch and the discus and the protecting and the
boon-giving postures. i\Ir. Rea portrays a fine picture of Lakshm1-Niiriiyana from
Nilagunda (Bellary district) on Plate L I I I of his Chalukyan Architectu,e.
...
VISHNU
53
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a
FF C
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FIG, 33,-Vaikuntha-Nar.iyana; Namakkal.
1272!
SOUTH-li\DI .\N Ii\lAGES
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FIG. 34.-Lakshmi-Narayana ; Namakkal.

VISHNU 55
The Silpasara mentions an image called Garuda-Narayana GAauoA-
wherein Vishnu is seen riding on Garuda, holding a bow and NXaXvANA.
arrow, conch and discus. An illustration from Chidambaram
(fig. 35), which is mutilated, is apparently one of Garuda·
Narayan a. On a pillar in the Ramasvamin temple at Kumba-
konam is a fine representation of this form of Vishnu in the
attitude of blessing the elephant ( gajendra) after rescuing it
from the attack of a crocodile. The scene is generally known G Jii.NoRA-
as Gajendra-moksha (fig. 36). )IOKSHA.
Figures of Vishnu, with four arms seated in a meditative Y6Gii.svARA•

posture, are probably those of Yogesvara-Vishnu, described VisHNu.
by Hemadri as seated on a lotus, with eyes half-closed and
directed towards the tip of the nose. An image (fig. 37) from
the ruined Vishnu temple at Huvinahadagalli (Bellary district)
illustrates this form. Another image, probably of this same
form of Vishnu but seated on the serpent couch, comes from
Kumbakonam (fig. 38). Here the god is bathed by two
goddesses with pots in their hands.
The twenty-four well-known names of Vishnu repeated by Twenty-four
the Brahmanas in their daily prayer known as sandhyavandana, gefne1rald_forms
. . o s an mg
are represented each by a standing figure of the god with four Vishnu,
hands holding the four symbols sankha (conch), chakra (discus),
gada (club) and padma (lotus), in different combinations.
Consequently we may often find in Vishnu temples images
named Trivikrama, Vamana, Padmanabha, Narasimha or
Krishna represented as plain standing figures of Vishnu,
without reference to any of the Puranic scenes connected
with these gods. Four of the above mentioned twenty-
four forms, viz., Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna and
Aniruddha are sometimes represented by different weapons.
The two illustrations in the accompanying plates (figs. 39
and 40) show another form of standing Vishnu, known as PA1,uuRANGA
Pancluranga or Vithoba. The characteristic feature of the or VITHOBA.
image is that it has two arms which, being bent at the elbow,
are placed on its hips. A poem in praise of this form of
Vishnu, entitled Pandura11J(iishtaka, is attributed to Sankara-
charya of about the eighth century A.D.
Hayagriva is still another form of standing Vishnu, IIAYA<.;Rt,·A.
represented with the head of a horse. Hemadri describes him
as having a white complexion, and placing his feet on the
hands of the goddes:;. Earth. He has eight hands, in four of
which are held the Vaishnavite symbols conch, discus, club
and lotus. With the others he carries the four Vedas personi-
fied. The Panclzariitragama mentions only four hands in
which are seen the conch, rosary, book and the jnana-mudrii.
56 SOUTH-INDIAi\ I!\IAGES
- ··"·•----...,. /
- ...
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fy.s ,_
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Fn;. 35.-Garu,la-Nariiyana; Chidambaram.
VISHNU 57
FIG. 36.--Garuda-Narayana and l;ajendra moksha. Kumbakonam.

58 SOUTH-INDIAN li\lAGES
r-..
• •
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·I
FIG. 37 .-Yogcsvara-Vishnu ; Hiivinahadagalli.

VISHNU 59
f
·
F i n . 38. -Yogesvara-Vishnu (?); Kumhakonam.

6o SOUT H-INJ')IAN Il\IAGES
FIG. 39.- p-nduranga

a •. Tirupati.
VISHNU 61
..
.W
'\ t·il
.. , •.
..:., .,,
FIG. 40 - Panduranga ; Ahobalam.

VENKATESA. Venkatesa or Venkataramana (also called Srinivasa) is a

name of Vishnu applied to the god on the Tirupati Hill.
He is in form like one of the twenty-four images of Vishnu
described above.I
X
PRAovu_M A, Pradyumna, which is mentioned among the twenty-four
genera l names of v·IS hnu, occurs m . the sans knt
KAMADE\'A or . Iexicon
i\!As IATHA. .
Amarakosa as a synonym of the god Kamadeva or Manmatha,
who is recognized as a son of Krishna-Vishnu. His consort
is 'Love' (Rati). This god of Love was reduced to ashes by
Siva. His form that was thus destroyed is still alive but is
visible only to Rati. The metaphysical meaning of the story
is more or less clear. Rati and Manmatha are often found
among the sculptures in a temple. The latter is represented
as a graceful youth of unparalleled elegance. He has eight
hands in four of which he holds the conch, lotus, bow and
arrow. The four other arms embrace his four beautiful wives
called Rati (love), Priti (pleasure), Sakti (power) and Bheda-
Sakti (jealousy). Kama has five arrows, each arrow being a
fragrant flower; the crocodile (makara) is his banner. More
often he is represented with two hands, riding on a chariot (or
a parrot) with his chief queen R;{ti by his side (fig. 41).
Vasanta, the Spring, is his intimate friend and ally. His five
arrows are the flowers of lotus, asoka, mango, jasmine, and
blue-lily; and he shoots them with his graceful bow of
sugarcane. Mayamata says that Manmatha's arrows are made
of the cruel teeth of women and are called tapani, "the
tormentor," diihini "the consumer," sarvamohini "that 'X-fiich
completely infatuates," vis-oa-mardini "the all-destroyer: and
marani "the killer."
XI
VISH- Vishvaksena, a synonym for Vishnu also found in the
\"AK &NA. lexicon AmarakiJsa, is recognized as a Vaishnava god who, like
Ganesa of the Saivas (described below), is worshipped by the
SrI-Vaishnavas, at the beginning of every ceremony in order
to avoid obstacles. He has his face turned towards the south
and is a guardian deity in Vishnu temples. In three of his
hands he holds the usual Vaishnavite symbols, viz., the conch,
.
t h is believed, and perhaps on reasonable grounds, that the image on the
Tirnpati Hill is a combined form of Vishnu and Siva. The name Vrisha-saila,
i.e., "Bull-hill" applied to the mountain on which the temple is situated, indicates
also the Saiva nature of the god. In later times, the name Sesha-saila " t h e
hill of the serpent god Sesha " came to be applied to it.
VISHNU
......:,.:-- , ..:\..r>.1·-j
. .: ' . ' .J. ......•- .... "
·i -: '·.
:.:
I
ilJQ
•
FrG. 41.-Rati-.Manmatha; Chi<lambaram.

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
discus and the club and in the fourth exhibit5 the threatening
finger-pose called tarjani. He is seated with his right leg
hanging down from the pedestal and the left bent crosswise
and placed on the same [fig. 160 (c), below].
GARUDA.
Vishnu's vehicle Garuda is installed in every Vaishnavite
temple right opposite to the central shrine and is a standing
human figure of stone or mortar, with a beak-shaped nose and
with spreading wing5 proceeding from his back on either side.
He has his two arms folcled over the breast in a worshipping
posture (fig. 42). 1 When made into a processional image of
metal, Gamela is represented as kneeling on the left knee, the
right foot being firmly placed on the ground and a serpent
decorating his head. 2
XII
H AN U'1AN. Hanuman, the monkey-god, has been already referred to
as a great devotee of Vishnu intimately connected with the
incarnation Rama-avatar. In Southern India he is very
popular, even insignificant villages containing a shrine for
Hanuman. He is represented in two postures. 3 When
included in the group of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita, he stands
at a distance on one side, or opposite to them, in a humble
and devotional attitude, with the two hands folded together,
the tail hanging down close to his feet. In shrines exclusively
1 According to the Si!parat11a, Garuda figures may also be shown with the two
hands pointing the abhaya and the z,arada postures. Occasionally, Garuda
may he made to carry in his right hand a pot of nectar. This is evidently a
reference lo_the story that Garuda while young carried away from Indra the pot of
necta.r, in order to fulfil his mother's promise to Kadru, the mother of serpents.
2 The Silpasa11graha describes a form of Garuda who has fierce protruding
teeth and eight arms in six of which he has the conch, discus, club, lotus and
the nectar-pot while the others are stretched out to receive the feet of the Lord
(Vishnu). It is further stated that the eight lords of serpents are worn as jewels
l,y him, thus showing that Garuda had completely subdued the Nagas. Garuda
when represented with four arms is called Vainateya. ft may be noted that the
hird Garuda is of Vedic fame, his body being supposed to he completely made up
of the Vedas. A Vedic sacrifice called Garurla-chayana is performed by offering
oblations to the gods on a platform built in the shape of Garuda. Vishnu is
sometimes known as Yajna-pumsha-the personified god of sacrifice,
3 The Silparatna mentions a third posture in which !Ianuman is described as
a yogi11, teaching philosophy to a number o f pupils who surround him.

4 See above, fig. 23. Here, at the right end of the picture Hanuman is seen in
a snbmissive attitude while another figure of his at the left end, carries in both
hands t " o Siva-/i,,gas which Rama had ordered him to bring for establishing at
Ramesvaram, on his way back from Lankii.. Visvakarma, Part V I , Plate 100, also
gives a metallic figure of Hanuman from Ce} Ion, with his hands strttched out,
indicating evidently a mixed feeling of wonder and despair.
VISHNU 65
}1
t:
F1,;. 42 -Garucla : Tanjore.
s
dedicated to him he is always the heroic Hanuman, who, on

seeing his beloved masters Rama and Lakshmana faint with
fatigue on the battle field of Lanka, flew in an amazingly
short time to the Himalayas and, uprooting a whole hill
containing drugs that have power to raise a dead man to life,
returned to revive Rama and Lakshmana and with them also
the millions of dead monkeys. His heroism, strength and
devotion are always admired and the one aim of sculptors in
cutting a figure of Hanuman is to give effect to these three
special characteristics. No wonder that even the Muham-
madans (or, rather Muhammadan converts of later ages) who
set high value on physical strength and individual heroism
came to appreciate the story of Hanuman and to erect shrines
for him. There is inscri-ptional evidence to prove that in the
Ceded districts, where the Muhammadan influence has been
very strong, certain classes of Mussalmans are stiil devoted to
this heroic servant of Rama. This must also have been the
object of Chiefs in erecting shrines for Hanuman at the gates
of their forts, viz., to infuse into the hearts of their fighting men
the spirit of loyal attachment to their masters and indomit-
able heroism. Sometimes Hanuman may also be represented
with hands showing the abhaya and the .,,arada postures.
XIII
Su1>ARSANA O f the Vaishnava symbols and weapons referred to in the.
previous paragraphs as being sometimes personified, the
discus (chakra) under the name Sudarsana deserves special
mention, it being separately worshipped in the SrI-Vaishnava
temples under the name Chakra-Perumal (figs. 43 and 44).
The Silpasiira describes Sudarsana to be brilliant as fire, with
sixteen arms holding the weapons conch, discus, bow, axe,
sword, arrow, trident, noose, goad, lotus, thunderbolt, shield,
plough, pestle, club and spear. The figure has protruding
teeth, fiery hair and three eyes. It is fully decorated and
stands in front of a shatkona or hexagon. Dancing thus
amidst the flames of the discus, the Sudarsana is supposed to
kill all enemies. Sometimes the image may be represented
with eight or four arms holding the discus in all of them.
Mr. Longhurst has supplied two other photographs (fig. 45)
in the first of which Sudarsana appears to be similar in all
details to the Tirupati figure No. 43, but has at the back of it an
equilateral triangle within which is the seated figure of
Nrisimha in the yogiisana attitude (see above, fig. 19) with flames
of fire proceeding from his crown. This form of Nrisimha is
VISHNU
,.·
--· ••
'
------- -- - -
F I G . : 4 3 . - S u d a r s a n a ; Tirupati.
S-A
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l
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FIG. 44.-Sudarsana, back view ; Tirupati,

ViSHNU 6g
....
..
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1
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- . ._. '
... '
.(:::.
--
:
....
\
evidently what is popularly known as Jvala-Nrisimha "the

fiery Nrisimha." It may be noted that the famous Chakra-
pani temple at Kumbakonam is dedicated to the discus
Sudarsana of Vishnu.
XIV
Siligrima Apart from the various forms of Vishnu detailed above,
stones. every Hindu worships certain formless stones, called
Saligrama, as these more satisfactorily answer to the idea of
the formless Brahman. The Saligrama stones are generally
picked up from the bed of the river Gandakr (in North Bihar) or
are made of a particular kind of stone procurable at Dvaraka.
The former are perfectly smooth and rounded pebbles
and are heavier than ordinary stones. The belief is that
within them is found gold or other heavy metal. The Sali-
grama stones are believed to possess certain mystic and
sacred virtues. In the country of Avantr, at the foot of the
sacred hill known as Hariparvata, is stated to be a big pond
called Chakratrrtha, from which flows the river Gandakr.
On rare and auspicious occasions, within this pond, are
produced the Saligrama stones, which, after remaining for
1,000 years in water, become the abode of Vishnu, who then
assuming the form of a brilliant little insect called vajrakita
enters into them and bores a hole with his mouth, forming
therein a discus (chakra) of numerous varieties. The stones
are of many colours and sizes and are distinguished by these
chakras to represent either Vasudeva (white colour), Hiranya-
garbha (blue), Pradyumna (red), Vishnu (black), Srr-Narayana
(dark-green), Narasimha (tawny), or Vamana (deep-blue).
Eighty-nine varieties are recognized, each bearing a different
name of Vishnu. One well-known test of their suitability for
worship consists in placing them in milk or in rice, when,
a genuine Saligrama is supposed to increase in size and in
weight. A strange feature about these stones is that, while
they mostly represent the forms of Vishnu, some are stated to
be also forms of Siva, Sakti, Surya (Sun), Ganapati anci the
Planets. The Saligramas are never fixed on pedestals as the
lingas of Siva (se below, p. 72) or as the images of other
gods. In many of the South-Indian temples of Vishnu,
garlands of Saligrama stones are hung round the necks of
images. Saligrama forms the most important object of daily
worship in every orthodox Brahmana's house in Southern India.
The water poured over it is most holy and like the Ganges
water which Brahmanas generally preserve in their homes
in sealed vessels, is offered to the dying man in order that
VISHNU 71
his soul may become pure and depart in peace. The gift of
Saligrama stones to Brahmanas is considered one of the most
meritorious acts and is as highly prized as the presentation
of gold itself. Strictly religious people never sell or pur-
chase Saligramas but only acquire them by gift or by transfer.
O f the sectarian Vaishnavas of the South, viz., the Sri-
Vaishnavas and the Madhvas, the latter show greater respect
to the Saligrama stones than even for sculptured images of
Vishnu.
CHAPTER IV.
SIVA.
I
Siva temples. Siva is the third member of the Hindu Triad and in
Southern India is more widely worshipped than Vishnu.
Hundreds of Siva temples of historic fame are found in
Southern India, round which are centred traditions of Saiva
saints whose period may be assigned rougJ.ily to the seventh
century A.D. One noticeable peculiarity of these ancient
Siva temples is that they enshrine within them images of
Vishnu as also of various other gods of the Hindu Pantheon,
whereas Vishnu temples are exclusive in this respect.
Exception must, however, be made in the case of some very
old Vishnu temples 1 sung in the hymns of the Naliiyirapra-
bandham which are as ancient as the corresponding Saiva
scriptures collectively called Devaram. Here we find Siva
and Vishnu often mentioned together as located in the same
temple and, in a higher philosophical sense, as forming
different aspects of one and the same Divine Energy.
II
Siva-linga. Siva is generally worshipped in the form of the phallus
(linga) fixed on a pedestal. The phallic cult has been traced
to very ancient times, its origin, however, being still involved
in mystery. The worship of the creative energy of God,
interpreted by the sense-perception of man and represented
by the symbols yoni and linga in union, has apparently been
as old as man himself. Whatever may be the origin of linga-
worship, there is no doubt that it has come to be recognized
like the Vaishnavite Saligrama described above, a perfect
symbol of the formless, all-pervading Divine Being, unlimited
by time and space. The Skanda-Purana says:-"The sky is the
shaft and the earth its pedestal; all gods dwell in the linga;
1 E.g. T1rumala and Kadalmallai.

SIVA 73
since the whole creation finds its ongm and rest there, it
receives the name lin,1.;a." 1 In the introduction to his transla-
tion of the Vishnu-Purana (p. !xix) Professor H . H. Wilson
makes the following remarks on the linga-worship in India :
" T h e linga is twofold, external and internal. The ignorant
who need a visible sign, worship Siva through a 'mark' or
'type' which is the proper meaning of the word linga-of
wood or stone ; but the wise look upon this outward emblem
as nothing and contemplate in their minds the invisible
inscrutable type which is Siva himself. Whatever may have
been the origin of this form of worship in India, the notions
upon which it was founded according to the impure fancies of
European writers are not to be traced even in the Saiva
Puranas." Mr. Havell thinks that it "was in all probability
originally derived from the votive stupa of Buddhism." 2 If
Saivism is, however, granted to be older in its origin than
Buddhism-the Sakyas themselves among whom Buddha was
born being mentioned as having Siva for their tutelar deity 3
- t h i s theory cannot be upheld. Various forms of the linga
are worshipped, from the crude uncut conical gneiss usually
believed to be svayambhu or self-born J to the highly polished
and hand-made shaft of 8, 16, 32 or more facets of the Pallava
period.
Lingas, whether self-born or artificial are equally venerated,
the latter being associated as rega1 ds their origin with the
Sun, Moon, the Lords of the quarters or ancient sages of by-
gone millenniums. The linga is generally fixed in a circular
or quadrangular receptacle on a high .monolithic pedestal
known as yiJni, panivattam or avadaiyar.
It is a common adage that Siva is as fond of bathing as
Vishnu is fond of decoration and the surface of the pedestal
which receives the linga is so fashioned as to drain off the
large quantity of water 5 poured over the god every day
from a copper vessel with a hole at its bottom, hung directly
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- ----
1 In Sivarahasya, a chapter of Saura-samhita, it is stated that the linga has

a fivefold significance and denotes the primeval energy of the Creator. A t the encl
of the creation all gods find their resting place in the linga ,-Brahma being absorbed
into the right, Janardana (Vishnu) into the left and Gayatri into the heart.
• ideals o f fndiaN Art, p. 87.
3 See Epigraphia Jndica, Vol. V , p. 3.
4 The Si/paratNa describes this to be a long or short shaft of shattered
appearance, flat like a l,oard and many cornered "ith crooked horns. Hana 1s
another kind of l i 1t ga Y<hich is shaped by nature and not by the chisel.
• According to the .Jfayamat,1 all kinds of pedestals, Y<hatever may be their
pattern, must ha.,e a duct on tLeir left side to carry off the surface water. These
ducts are lo be well decoratted.
over the shaft. In a linga considered as a symbol of

Brahman, the quadrangular bottom of the shaft is believed to
represent Brahma, the octagonal middle Vishnu and the
circular upper portion Siva. 1 Sometimes a single linga is
Sahasra- known by the name Sahasra (" the thousand ")-linga (fig. 46).
linga.
It is divided into twenty-five facets, each of these latter having
miniature representations of forty lingas and making up thus
the number one thousand.
III
Round the sanctum of a Siva temple, on its outer wall, are
usually enshrined in specially formed niches the images of
Ganapati and Dakshinamurti on the south, Lingodbhava (or
sometimes, Vishnu) on the west, and Brahma and Durga on
the north. In the enclosing verandah round the central shrine
may be installed the images of the sixty-three Sai,·a Saints,
lingas which devout adherents might choose to establish for the
merit of themselves or of their ancestors, the nine Planets
( Navagrahas), which, since the time astrology was established
in India, have been receiving divine homage, and a host of
other gods and goddesses such as Kumara (Skanda), VIra-
bhadra, Bhairava, etc. Nataraja or Sabha pa t i " the lord of the
divine congregation" is placed in a separate shrine, generally
the Sabha-mandapa or "the assembly hall." The goddess
ParvatI, the consort of Siva, who receives all kinds of fanciful
names and surnames according to local traditions, is also
enshrined separately. Sometimes it is found that every
important subordinate deity has a separate shrine for itself,
smaller, of course, in size than the sanctum.
It may be noted that, while worship is offered in the
central shrine of a Siva temple only to the formless stone
linga, for processional purposes images made of metal are
used ; and these are of various forms and go by various
names, such as Somaskanda, Vrisharudha, Gangadhara,
Kalyanasundara, Ardhanari, Bhikshatana, Nataraja, etc.
Instances are not uncommon where images of Siva in one
of his processional forms receives more attention from the
worshippers than the linga itself. In Chidambaram, for
example, the image of Nataraja receives more attention and
1 The sirovarta11a or the shaping of the top of the li1tga which, according to
the Silpararna, may be cucumber-like, umbrella-like, crescent-like, egg-like or

bubble-like, distinguishes the four different lingas worshipped by the four
castes. The ,;a.me work sets down that images rna.y also be carved on the linga.
Superior lingas a.re stated to vary from 7 to 9 cubits in height. Fixed lingas a.re
worshipped in temples and movable lingas in houses.
SIVA 75
ti
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Fm. 46 -Saha.sra.-li,iga ; TiruYottiy iir .

is more famous than the movable linga of pebble which is

known as Ratnasabhapati, or the stone lin.t;a of Mulasthana.
A t Bhikshandarkoyil in the Trichinopoly district the mendi-
cant form of Siva is worshipped. Ardhanari is the god
worshipped at Tiruchchengodu (Salem) and so is the bronze
image of Somaskanda (under the name Tyagaraja) worshipped
at Tiruvarur.
IV
RUVRA- Before describing some of the popular Siva-images I it
M(IRTI. may be useful to give a general description of Siva when he
is represented in the form of an image. The common name
then applied to him is Rudramurti. 2 He has four hands, of
which the two upper ones hold the dhakkti (kettle-drum)
and the deer, the two lower hands showing the abhaya and
the varada postures. His matted hair is made up in the form
of : i crown (jatiimakuta) on whose left shines the crescent of
the moon and whose right is decorated with the jewel known
as arka-pushpa. The face of a woman (i.e., of the goddess
Ganga representing the river Ganges) appears over the matted
hair, on the right side. He has three eyes, which represent
the Sun, Moon and Fire, the last being on the forehead. He
is clothed with a tiger skin above his knees and wears an
undergarment and a scarf and the usual ornaments, necklace
and torque, girdle round the waist, wristlets, waist-zone,
armlets, arm-rings, finger-rings set with gems, anklets, and
the sacred thread. The left ear of the god wears a woman's
ornament called lamba-patra, while the right wears a man's
ornament called mak<1ra-kundala. The left side of the neck is
marked with the blue scar (caused by his having swallowed
the poison kalak11ta 3). This general form of Siva may be
represented either standing or seated on the lotus-pedestal
with an aureola, and with or without his consort ParvatI
on the left side. The pedestal may also sometimes be the
mahii-pitha, when, instead of the aureola behind the image,
there may be the celestial tree (kalpa-vriksha).
1 Sixteen of these are mentioned in the Siipasiira. They are: - Sukhiisana,
\'aiviihika, Umiisahita (accordi.ig to the Jfayamata Umiiskanda), Vrishiiriidha,
Tripurantaka or Purari, Nataraja, Chandrasekhara, Ardhanari, Harihara,
Chandes\'ara (1Jlnya111ata gives Chandesanugraha), Kamari, Kalanasa, Daksh1-
namiirti, Bhikshatana, Sadash·a (.1/ayamata gives Mukhalinga) and Lingodbhava.
The Ii.ii,-iiniigama mentions twenty.five.
2
Hemadri describes Rudra as riding on a bull and having five faces all of
which are mild-looking, except the one on the right side of the central face-. He
has ten arms and wears garlands of skulls.
" See below, p. 137 f., under Srlkantha.
SIVA 77
Standing images of Siva generally belong to the class AsHTA11iiRT1;
known as Ashtamurtis or Ekadasa-Rudras. The former have and EKA-
nAsA-
generally four hands and three eyes and wear thejatiimakuta. R F n R A , .
The fore-arms exhibit the protecting and the boon-giving
postures; while the hind arms hold the tanka and the antelope.
The Ekadasa-Rudras are almost similar to Rudramurti in
form, with the black scar on the neck, the crescent on the
head and the scarf of tiger-skin. In place of the dhakkii
in the right upper hand is seen the axe (parasu). A
form of Siva combining five bodies in one is known as
Panchadehamurti. Though not found in any of the temples PA CHA1,ii.HA
examined so far, it is often mentioned in the Tanjore inscrip- Ml'R 11•
·tions as having been installed in the Rajarajesvara (i.e., the
modern Brihadisvara) temple by the Chola king Rajaraja
or hi,; subordinates, in the first quarter of the eleventh century
A.O. The Panchadehamurti consisted of five images, four of
which stood in the four directions and the fifth was placed
in the middle, its head being higher in level than the others. 2
One of these was called Aghora. The li11ga with five faces
called Panchamukha-/i11ga is only the five-bodied Panchadeha-
mO.rti translated in terms of the symbolical phallus. 3 It has
the heads of four Siva-images figured on its four sides. The
illustration from Tiruvanaikkaval (fig. 47) does not show any
face at the top. The Skanda-Punina mentions a seated MAHA•
form of Siva called Mahakailasa or Maha-Sadasiva which is : , : s: A -
represented with twenty-five faces and fifty hands, wears SAnA,1vA.
a garland of skulls and is clothed in tiger's skin.
V
Images answering to the two names Nataraja and Sabha- ATA J A or A
. . . 1m .
· des1gn. -· SABHAPATI.
pah, m the Hindu Pantheon, are 1"d ent1ca NataraJa
(the prince of dancers) i!> the well-known dancing form of
god Siva. It has four arms and a body besmeared with
ashes. The back arm on the right side holds the kettle-
drum (udukkai, as it is called in Tamil) while the other presents
the raised palm of protection (abhaya). O f the pair on the
left, the upper holds a fire-pot and the lower is bent round
1
Accord,ng to Hemad.-i these may be substituted by the ctu b nd the trident.
" Jaina images called Ck a turmukha or Ch,11111111khi are often made of a sing l e
stone. The four identical images on the four side are surmounted by a series of
umbrellas common to all, which appear like the spire of a temple (&ee Ej,igraj,hta
Indica, Vol. X, p. 115). The Buddhists also seem to have possessed such figuws;
see Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayiimbha11ia, p. 41. . _
3
A linga placed at the entrance into an old Si,·a temple at_ Ra1chur (Hydera-
bad State) shows a combination of five lingas, four on the sides and one at the
top,
ii i '""I
. --- -----------,
11 ,ii
-
- -
.
t IG. 47, - Panchan1ukha-/inga; Tiruvana,kkiival.

SIVA 79
across the breast to the right side, its fingers gracefully
pointing below, towards the left leg which is raised in a
dancing posture. The position of this hand is known as
gaja-hasta, "the elephant-trunk." The ecstatic and violent
nature of the dance, described as - nanda-tandava in the
sequel, whirling quickly round on one leg, placed on the back
of the demon Musalagan or Apasmara 1 , is indicated by the
matted hair (jata) stretching out on both sides of the head in
wavy lines one above the other and by the cloth, partly tied
round the waist and partly thrown over the left shoulder,
also flying in the air (fig. 48). The right hand which shows
the abhaya has on its wrist a serpent, which is the usual
ornament of Siva and may have I, 3, S or 7 hoods. Another
serpent, in the hand of the demon below, is explained by
Mr. Havell (Ideals of Indian Art, p. 79) to be the corresponding
wrist ornament on the left arm which had dropped down in
the dance. W e are told in the Kasyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-
Tantra that a serpent with raised hood is to be shown playing
near Apasmara on his left side, the right hand of the demon
pointing towards it (vyiila-mudrii ?). The head of Siva wears
peacock's feathers, or an ornament fashioned like them, which
is a special characteristic of the image. The aureola (prabhii),
which every metallic image necessarily has, is, in this case,
somewhat peculiar and significant, being surmounted all round
with flames of fire similar to the one which is held in the
pot or cup in one of the two left arms of the image. 3 The
pedestal on which the figure rests is a double lotus flower
placed back to back. Sometimes the jattis are not spread out
but are tied and made up in the form of jatiimakuta (fig. 49).
Siva is said to dance in the evening in the presence of
the goddess Parvatr in order to relieve the sufferings of the
devns. The dance of Nataraja is believed to symbolize the
action of cosmic energy in creating, preserving and des-
troying the visible universe. The Puranas say that during
these dances the whole congregation of gods, demigods
and saints present themselves to render their obeii:ance
to Siva. Hence the name Sabhapati, "the lord of the
1
Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya describes him s a hideous malignant dwarf, who
sprang from the sacrificial fire of the ,-ishis of the Darukavana forest and "as sub.
dued by Siva by being prtssed under the tip of his foot (SJ.I Vol. II, Introduc
tion, p. 33, footnote). Perhaps he is the personification of the rlisease epilepS)
wherein the victim is enveloped in complete mental darkness.
• The Silpa,-atna remarks that the aureola of Nataraja represents the .-av;.
maNdala o r ' the sun's disc." This perhaps accounts for the flaming rays proceed-
ing from the aureol<\,
So SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
,,. w , ,
'
SIVA 81
T.;
-,,·•·'
•.\;- ,.
,218S:
" ' '

·, ' . ?,
Fri;. 49. - Nataraja (metal) ; Ramesvaram.
6
assembly" of gods. 1 The asterism Ardra occurring in the

bright half of the solar month Margali (December-January)
is sacred to Nataraja. All Siva temples celebrate a festival
on that occasion by taking out in procession m1mature
representations of Nataraja or, where uch do not exist, the
chief processional image of Siva. In Chidambaram, of course,
where the worship of Nataraja is the most prominent and
where the Sahhii-ma11dapa (assembly hall) is covered with gold
plate, the festival is the grandest hel<l in the year.
Two main forms of dancing Siva may be distinguished :
one with the raised leg as shown in the illustrations given
above and the other with the same lifted up higher, to the
level of the head. The latter is called Urdhva-tandava-a
dance which is locally bt:'lieved to have been first performt:'d
by Siva at Tiruvalangadu near Arkonam. The origin of this
form of dance is as follows. There was once a dispute between
Siva and his consort Ka!I as to who was better in the art of
dancing. Siva dancecl many a <lance and Kalr successfully
followed him; till at last, in order to suppress her pride, Siva
lifted up one of his legs to the level of his crown and danced
on. Kalf was too modest to imitate Siva in this performance
and she accepted the superiority of Siva (fig. 50). Images of
Nataraja are sometimes also set:'n with a small antelope
prancing on his left side near the foot, the Ganga (Ganges)
and the crescent decorating the head, 2 the sages Patanjali
1 The A"iirana,:ama has the folio\\ ing a Lout Salihapati · --
" On the top of the Kailasa mountain, in front o f the goddess Gauri
(l'arrnti) \\ho is seated on a je\\elled throne, Siv,1 with the crescent on his head
dances in the evenings. All the dd1·as attend the dance; Ilrahrna plays on cym-
bals,; Har, (\'ishnu), on a f a t a l i a ; Bharati ( arasvati', on the lute, the Sun and
l\loon, on tlute,: Tum burn an<I Xarada rnpply vocal music: anrl Nandi and
Kumii.ra (Skan,la) heat. drun,s." The .lhrJ amata also mentions ether gods and
goddesses in the congregation, such as V.ghnesa (Vinayaka), Kali and the
Se,en Mo:hers. It a,lds that Siva then performs the ,iance called B/1u;a1<!(aif'iisita
with the serpent Karkotaka on him; see Burgess's Elura Ca,•s Temples, Plate
X L l I I , fig. 5.
' The descriptio.1 o f the image of Ada,allan (1.e., " t h e expert dancer,''
Nataraja) given in the Tanjore Inscriptions, mentions "four arms, nine braids of
hair (jata ), the goddess Ganga-bhattarald on the braided hair and seven flower
garlands. The goddess Umaparamesvari who formed a part o f the group was
standing on a separate pedestal." Another image of a similar description in the
same temple was Tanjai-Alagar " i t h whom was connected also the figure of a
Ganapati. O f the sage, Patanjali and \'yaghrapiida who usually accompany the
dancmg image of Nat rii.Ja, the Tanjure Inscriptions descrihe the former as a
solid image "hich measured "three-quarters and one-eighth (of a mu/am) in
height from the tail to the hoods (pha,za). It had five hoods; one face in the
nudst of these hoods, one crown (makuta), two divine arms, above the navel,
a human body, and below the navel three c o i l s " ; (S.1.1., Vol. I I , Introduction,
83
- ,, -,-
.''"'.- --,
-- - - -
andal.
FrG. 5 o . - \Trdhva-tandava; Tirc1ppan
6-.\
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
(with the serpent-body, fig. 51) and Vyaghrapada (with tiger's

feet, fig. 52) worshipping on either side and the goddess ParvatI
standing on the left.
The .Agamas speak of seven dancing postures of Siva.
ANA:Sl>A• The first, called Ananda-tanclava or the joyous dance, has
TA.Nl>AVA.
been described above.
SANDHYA- The second is his evening dance Sandhya-tandava. 1 In
TASDAVA.
this form the demon Apasmara is absent and the symbols m
the two left arms are the peacock-feathers and the pose of
wonder called vismaya.
UMA-TANDA· The third is the Uma-tandava, i.e., dance with his consort
VA.
Uma. In this Siva has two more arms. the additional right
hand holding the trident (trisiila) and the three left hands
exhibiting the skull, vismaya, and the gaja-hasta. The left leg
is placed on Apasmara and the right leg is stretched towards
the left, and the goddess Uma stands on the left side.
GACRi- The fourth, Gaurr-tandava, is almost similar to the first, but
TASDAVA. in one of the left hands of the god is held a serpent. Nandi
stands on the right side and Gaurr (Parvatr) is on the left. 2
KALIKA- In the fifth form, called Kalika-tandava, the god has only two
TANDAVA.
eyes, but eight arms. Three of the right arms hold the trident,
noose and kettle-drum and the corresponding left hold the
skull, fire-pot and the bell; the two remaining arms exhibit
·the abhaya on the right and gaja-hasta on the left (fig. 53).
3
The dance of Siva, with sixteen arms and as many symbols,

TRIPURA- having Gaurr and Skanda on the left and right sides respect-
TANDAVA. ively,4 receives the name Tripura-tandava.
SAMHARA- The last dance called Samhara-tandava "the death-dance"
TA.NDAVA.
shows the god with three eyes and eight arms. The left leg
is placed on Apasmara and the right leg is raised. In the right
p. 33). This descriptioci closeli agrees with the figure of Patanj·,li on the eastern
_!(opur.z of the ataraja temple at Chidambaram. On the same J?Ofur,1 is the image
of Vyaghrapada in \ I hich the sage is represented as havmg tiger's claws on
both his hands and feet. The sage is carrying on his right shoulder a hook and
a flower basket.
1 Accordmg to the Sil/usa11g.-aha and the Jla;,rnuzt,1, the dance is performed
under the vata or the banyan tree.

2
This same dance is described in the .l/ayamata as BhujaNgalalita in which
by quick changes in the position of the legs, the fire in the hand is blown into
a bla,e, and the braided locks are spread out into fi,·e, se,·en or nine. On the left
side stands Vishnu in place of Gauri, and on the right N andi
" In the illustrations the weapons and symbuls are seen just as they are
mentioned in the Agamas. The position of the legs in the one, and the aMaya
,tnd the gaja-h,zsta poses in the other, are, however, reversed.
0 The Silparal1ta says that Skanda stands on the same side as Gaurl holding
her by the hand, and shov.s fear, love and \\onder in his face.
SIVA 85
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.
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FIG. 51. - Patanjali ; Chtdambaram.

86
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FIG. 52.-Vyaghrap.ida; Chidambaram,

SIVA 87
; -
\ ' '• ¥ · • :. . ,, t '
FIG. 53. -Ka.lika-ta.n'lava (metal) ; Nalliir,

88 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGE:S
hands are seen the abhaya, trident, noose and the kettle-drum ;
the left hands exhibit the skull and the fire-pot and the
postures vismaya and gaja-hasta. On the right and left sides
respectively are Nancli and Gaurr.
Other Agamas again, refer to 108 dancing forms of Siva
nine of which are said to be celebrated. O f these latter the
only one that deserves to be noted is that in which the god
has his right leg raised straight up so as to reach the top of
UROHVA- the crown (ushnisha). Perhaps, this is the lJrdhva-tandava,
TANDAVA
described already. He may have four, eight or sixteen arms.
No account of Nataraja could be complete without a short
Chidam- history of Chidambaram and its temple. Tradition has it that
buam; its years ago a king from the north, called Simhavarman, came
history.
south on a pilgrimage. A l l this part of the country was
then one huge forest. The king happened to bathe in a well,
and immediately found himself transformed into a bright
golden figure. He assumed the name Hiranyavarman "the
gold-armoured" on that account and covered with gold the
Siva temple which he discovered near that well. It is
stated that before him the ,,ages Patanjali and Vyaghrapada
had worshipped there. Simhavarman and Hiranyavarman
are Pallava names and denote that the origin of the temple
may be roughly traced to that period. Historically, it was
the Chola king Parantaka I, surnamed Vrra-Chola and
Vrra-Narayana (A.D. 907 to about 951) who covered the
Chidambaram temple with gold, perhaps for the first time.
Successive Chola kings, after him, are known to have added
to the grandeur of it 1• A later Pallava chief of the thirteenth
century A.D. called Perunjingadeva boasts of having con-
quered the four quarters and utilized the booty secured, in
decorating the eastern gopura of the Chidambaram temple
which he had himself constructecl. 2 The great Vijayanagara
king Krishnadevaraya of the sixteenth century A.D. built the
north gopura of the same temple after his victorious return from
1 The devotion
of Rajaraja I to the god at Chidambaram and the rich presents
which he must have made to the temple there, evidently earned for him the titles
Srl-Rajaraja and :Sivapadasekhara; Rai Bahadur Venkayya thinks that Rajaraja
built at Tanjore the big temple of Rajarajesvara (i.e., Brihadisvara) in order to
commemorate the conferring of th s.: titles. He consecrated therein the god Siva
and called him Adavallan, i.e., the expert dancer, after the famous Nataraja of
Chidambaram.
• It is from this gopura that the best illustration, are secur<!d. Th., 1;opurtl i,
,ery rich in sculptures and has various forms of Siva and hi. attendant gods In
this gop1m1 are also found illustrations of the rn8 postures in dancing, mentioned
in the Bhiiratiya-Niityasastr,z (vide Madras Epigraphical Report for 1913-14,
Plates I to IV). They are appropriately meant to be connected with Nataraja
the king of dancers
SIVA
a campaign in the north. It is well known that as a sacred

place of pilgrimage Chidambaram is intimately connected with
the Saiva saint Manikyavachaka (Manikkavasagar), the
Pariah saint Nanclanar-both of whom attained their salvation
there-and with the Saiva philosopher and scholar Appaya-
Dikshita who was much devoted to that temple. The place
is mentioned in the Saiva hymns of the Devaram, in which it
is called Tillai. The 3,000 Brahman a families of Tillai (which
may have once lived there but have at present dwindled down
to a few hundreds) claim Siva to be one of them and worship
Nataraja as their family deity.
VI
The Agamas mention, as already stated, 1 twenty-five spor-
tive forms (lila-mf1rtis) of Siva, most of which are usually met
with in South-Indian temples. One of the more important of
these is Dakshinami1rti. In Cho la temples this image generally
occupies a niche in the south wall of the central shrine.
Dakshinami1rti or Dharma-Vyakhyanamurti is the form of Siva UAK,;iui-A
engaged in yoga or philosophic contemplation. Once upon a ,uRn.
time Daksha, the father-in-law of Siva, insulted him and his
consort Uma, by not inviting them to a sacrifice which he was
performing. Uma nevertheless went uninvited to her father's
house, but being grossly neglected jumped into the sacrificial
fire-pit and destroyed herself. Siva was furious; he created
out of a lock of his hair the terrible VIrabhadra (see below,
p. 155) who destroyed Daksha. Siva then retired to a forest
with the resolve not to marry again and sat underneath a
banyan tree deeply engaged in meditation. The gods were
much concerned; for it meant that the world would loose
the benefit of Siva's direct intervention in its affairs. They
accordingly induced Kama/ the god of love, to stir up once
again in the mind of Siva the dormant embers of love. The
fool-hardy Kama incautiously approached the god engaged
in meditation and shot his flowery arrows at him and hit him.
Siva then opened his eye of fire and looked straight at Kama,
when lo! he was at once reduced to a heap of ashes.'' Still
Kama had succeeded. For, soon afterwards Siva gave up his
1 Above, p. 76, footnote 1.
2 Described above, p. 62.
·' This incident has given n , e to the recognition of another sportive form of
Siva called Kamari or Kamadah!lnamiirti. The scene is depicted on one of the
pillar, of an unfinished 111,1nd•1p,, near th" tank in the Ekamresvara temple at
Conjeeveram. According to the Kiir,11tiig,w,a, Kamadahanamiirti has four arms in
which are seen the ablta:> a, varad,z, a deer and the ta1tka. H e is seated on a lotus
pedestal and is fierce in appearance.
90 SOUTH-INDIAN 11\IAGES
penance and married once again Uma, who had now incarnated
as Parvatr, the beautiful daughter of Himava t (the Himalayas).
This is the story of Dahhinamurti. 1 He is always conceived
to be a youthful teacher, seated beneath a banyan tree, teach-
ing aged pupils and removing their doubts by his very silence.
The general posture of the images of Dakshinamurti show
him with his right leg bent vertically at the knee and placed
on the body of the dark demon Apasmara and the left leg bent
across so as to rest upon the right thigh. He has a calm
countenance, indicative of perfect peace within. His matted
locks are either dishevelled or are formed into a Jatiimakuta tied
together by a serpent (fig. 54). The body is besmeared with
ashes and all the usual ornaments of Siva decorate him. The
sages Narada, Jamadagni, Vasishtha and Bhrigu sit at his
feet on the right side, receiving instruction, while Bharadvaja,
Saunaka, Agastya and Bhargava sit on the left. The bull-
vehicle of the god, the denizens of the forest, Kinnaras and
other demi-gods are al:,,o seen on the Kailasa mountain on
which the god is seated. 3 His right fore-arm points the j11a11(1-
m11dnz (the pose conveying philosophical knowledge) and the
back arm holds the rosary (or, the serpent); the left fore-arm
shows the boon-conferring h•arada) attitude or is sometimes
freely stretched, the back of the palm resting in either case on
the left knee. Some illustrations show a book in the place of
the ·varada posture. The remaining hand on the left side holds
the fire-pot, the deer, the kettle-drum or the rosary. When
Dakshinamurti holds in his fore-arms the lute (vina) and
changes the posture of his left leg--apparently for keeping
VINAl)IIARA- the vinii in position-he is called Vrnaclhara-Dakshinamurti
l)AKsHINA- (fig. 55). Jnanamurti is another form of the same god in which
,1lTRrI,
jNA!'iA)IUR I I the symbol jna11a-m11dn1 of the right .fore-arm is raised close
and YOGA- to the heart with the palm of the hand turned inwards. The
ri)RTI.
name Yogamurti (or Yoga-Dakshinamurti) is applied when the
legs crossing each other from the root of the thigh are held in
position by the belt yo apatta, passing round the waist and the
1 Ha,·ell, Ideals o f Indian Art, P• S3f,
2 The Siltasangraft,t mentions a serpent pla} ing by the side of Apasmiira.
·' The description of Dakshiniimiirti given in the Tanjore inscriptions is very
interesting and instructive. They say that the mountain on which the god is seated
" had two peaks on which there were two A.'i,maras and two A-;,.,.a,-is. Under
the foot of the god was l\fusalagan. On the mountain "ere four risl,is, a snake, two
1i.·,,,.,.,,friil'Tit<1s (i.e., devotees of Siva(?) mentioned in the Riillliiya,.a, who had
ear-lobes with holes big enough to allo" their hands to be passed through in the
act of worshipping) and a tiger. A banyan tree was also on the mountain and
had nine main branches and forty-t\\o minor ones. A wallet was suspended from
the tree at1d a bunch of peacock's feathers wa, one of the accompa 1iments of
the g o d " ; S.1.1., Vol. I I , Introduction, p. 33.
SIVA gt
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}IG. 54.-LJabhinallliirli; ,\\iir.

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
.... .
;: - :
. .....·.:.
trG. 55.-\"inadhara-Dakshinamiirti; Chidambaram,
SIVA 93
fore-legs, a little below the knee. The front arms are in this
case, stretched out and rest freely on the knees, while the
back arms hold the rosary and the water pot. The illustration
(fig. 56) differs, however, in the symbols. In this, the upper
hands hold the water-pot and the antelope and the lower
hands the rosary (with }11li11a-111udra) and the book. A
fine old picture (fig. 57) coming from Tiruvengavasal (Pnduk-
kottai State) shows Dakshinamurti in a different position and
with different symbols.
VII
Lingodbhava "the li11ga-manifestation," is a familiar figure LINGOD•
of Siva seen on the west wall of the central shrine of Siva HHAl'A.
temples built in Chola times. A s his name implies, he is
represented within a huge linga, the portion of the feet below
the ankles being hidden in the linga. Brahma in the form of
a swan is seen soaring up on the left side of Siva ; while, on
the right side, Vishnu is delving below into the depths of the
earth in the form of a boar. 1 Also these gods (i.e., Brahma
and Vishnu) in their true glory stand on either side of Siva
with folded hands. The figure emanating from the middle
of the linga (fig. 58) has four hands like Chandrasekhara
(described below) and holds in its back arms the axe and the
antelope and in the front hands. the abhaya and the varada
postures. In the illustration given, the left hand is, however,
seen resting freely on the waist. In the Tanjore inscriptions,
Lingodbhava · is mentioned by the name Lingapuranadeva,
i.e., the god of the Linga-Purana which describes the greatness
of the linga. The story runs that a dispute arose between
Brahma and Vishnu as to who is the greater of the two.
Siva told them that whoever first saw the top or the bottom of
his own fiery linga-form and came back to report, he would be
considered the greater. Brahma soared on his swan to see the
top of the Siva-linga, while Vishnu as a boar dug down and
down to see its bottom. Ages passed away and neither came
to his goal. A t last Brahma saw one ketaki flower coming
down. It had fallen from Siva's head ages ago. Brahma
suborned it to give false evidence and then came back and
uttered a lie, saying that he had seen the top of the linga,
citing the ketaki flower as his witness. Siva knew the lie and
cursed Brahma that he should thenceforward go without any
worship in temples. Brahma had five heads at this time.
1
The swan and the boar are in some pictures found to be half-man and ha(f.
animal.
• On the east main gop,,ra of the Chidambaram temple is an image of Lingotl·
bhava su{rounded by flames of fire.
94 SOUTH-INDIAN" I:\!AGES
FIG, 5 6 , - \'6ga-Dakshin:imiirt1; Conjee\'era.m.

SIVA 95
:I•\ .
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;.,.,,,_ 1
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FIG, 57_---Dakshinamiirti; Tiruvengava,al.

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
FIG. 58.-Lingodbhava; Tanjore

SIVA 97
Siva also cut off the head which uttered the lie.' The flower
ket11ki too, which abetted the crime, was excluded from the
flowers dear to Siva. On an apology being offered, the latter
was however accepted, as a special case, during the worship
on the night of the Sivaratri festival which falls on the
fourteenth clay of the dark half of Magha (January-February)
in each year and is held sacred in honour of the linga-
manifestation of Siva.
Perhaps, images called Ekapadamilrti or Ekapada- EKArAo.\
Trimurti, in which the gods Brahma and Vishnu, with folded )rf'Rn.
hands and characteristic symbols, are represented as proceed-
ing out of the body of Siva at his waist as in the Tiruvottiyilr
image (fig. 59) or from behind his knee as in the image from
Tiruvanaikkaval (fig. 60) are either developments of Lingod-
bhava wherein the superiority of Siva over the two other
members of the Hindu Triad was established, or an invention
of the Indian sculptor in which is symbolized the underlying
unity of the three gods. The Karmuigama mentions Ekapada
2
milrti as one of the sportive forms of Siva and describes him

as having one foot, three eyes and four arms in which are
seen the tanka and deer and the varada and the abhaya postures.
On the right and left sides of Siva, almost touching his
shoulders, are Brahma and Vishnu holding their symbolical
weapons in two hands and worshipping Siva with the other
two.
The single foot which i,, the characteristic feature of these
figures, is, in the case of the Tiruvanaikkaval image, placed
on the back of the bull. In it are also seen the vehicle
of Brahma, viz., the swan, at the right bottom and, at the
corresponding left bottom, the standing Garuda vehicle of
Vishnu and a sage-perhaps Narada. Apparently Eka-
padamilrti has to be connected with Ajaikapad, a name
given in the Rig-Veda to one of the Ekadasa-Rudras:1
VIII
The story of Lingodbhava introduces us to another form Btt1K,HA-
of Siva, known as Bhikshatana, very often seen in South- TANA.
Indian temples. When Siva cut off one of the heads of
--------·-·----·--·· -- -···----·--·----
1 The J.7ira11ii1;,w1a mentions a sportive form of Siva cutting oft one of the
heads of Brahma. The imagt: is stated to haVt' four am1s hulding the thunder-
bolt and the axe in the right hand and the trident and Brahma's skull in the left.
• Accordingly, " e sometimes find Vishnu occupying the central place, On
p. 73 above, footnote 1, it was noted that the goddess Gayatri " a s absorbed into
the centre of the lmga while Brahma and Vishnu entered the sides uf it.
3 See Nagendra Natha Vasu's .Jfayiircib1i,m;,1, Introduction, p. xu1.
i
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
FIG. 59.-Ekapiida-Trimiini ; Tiru,·ottiyiir.

SIVA 99
•
100 SOUTH-INDIAN lMAGES
Brahma, he incurred the sin of killing a Brahmana; and the

skull of Brahma, it is stated, stuck to Siva's palm and would
not drop down. In order to get rid of the sin and this
incriminating skull, Siva had to wander about as a naked
beggar (bhikshatana) until he reached the place still known as
Brahma-kapalam, on the slopes of the Himalayas, where he
was released from the sin and the skull fell down of its own
accord. 1 Local chronicles connect Bhikshatana with the
Valuvur and Tirutturaippundi temples in the Tanjore district,
and mention-that the god Siva assumed a beautiful naked
form and came out as a wandering beggar to test the fidelity
• of the wives of certain sages of the Darukavana forest, who
were proud of their chastity. A t the same time Vishnu is
stated to have taken up the form of MohinI in order to tempt
the sages. In accordance with this story, we occasionally see
naked figures of women and of MohinI (fig. 61) depicted rn
close proximity to Bhikshatana. The tip of the lower right
hand of the image touches the mouth of an antelope. The
upper right hand holds the kettle-drum. A trident with
peacock-feathers (not seen in the illustration fig. 62)'-or a
big bunch of them placed across the shoulder, decorates the
upper left arm, while the lower left, shows the boon-confer-
ring posture. In it is also seen the kap<lla (skull). A serpent
encircles his waist and he stands on sandals. The right leg
is slightly bent (kunchita) and the left is firmly placed in the
attitude of one inclined to walk on. Above the right ankle
is tied a bell (bhringipada) which gives notice of the approach
of the divine mendicant. A demon called Kundodara, with
protruding teeth, stands on the left side of the god, carrying
on his head a begging bowl. The Bhikshatana-murti at
Perur has eight arms and holds different weapons in each of
them 3• A fine figure of Bhikshatana (in Tamil, Pichchandar)
is found in a niche on the south wall of the central shrine of
the big temple at Tanjore. A copper image of this god, with
a goblin carrying the begging bowl and an antelope following,
is said to have been presented to that temple by Lokamaha-
devI, the chief queen of Rajaraja I. This god was to witness
every day the Sribali ceremony conducted in the temple.
------ - - -- ------------------
1 The .Jlahiibhiif'ilf,z refers to a similar story and states that a f'ish1 called
Mahiidara got himself relieved of the skull of a giant that had stuck to his knee,
by bathing in the sacred tank called Kapalamiichana.tirtha.
' This image is published in the Archxulogical Survey Report, Madras, for
1 11-12, Plate J , fig. 2, hut without the t\\u accompan ing figures of the deer and
the demon.
' The 1lfayamata 5a)S that this form of Siva may have four, six or eight arms,
SIVA tot
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.....,, . ,.,.,., ,,,,,,,.,.,M\,,l,i
Fil,. 61.- liihini (metal); ,·aluviir.

102 SOlTTH-1'\"DIAN I'\IAGES
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FIG. 62.-Bhih.shatanamiirti (mehl); Valuviir.

SIVA 103
IX
Kankalamurti is a form closely allied to Bhikshatana and K NKALA
I .. , . IURll-
a most s1m1 ar m appearance. A ccor d"mg to t h e mayamata,
•r
KankalamO.rti is draped in a fine cloth and is surrounded by
lovely women. In his upper right hand he holds the pea-
cock's feathers and skeleton (kanktila) and in the upper left the
tanka. A serpent is coiled round his loins; and he has a knife
stuck into the girdle on the right side of his waist (figs. 63 and
64). He is generally attendee! by demons. Birds and beasts
follow him in expectation of getting something to eat from
his hands. The description given of Kankalamurti in the
Kasyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra is different. He has a
Jatamakuta 1 decorated with serpents, the crescent-moon and
flowers; he is holding the kettle-drum in his left fore-arm and
a stick (to beat it with) in the corresponding right ; the other
right hand is in the pose simha-karna and touches the mouth
of the antelope, while the left carries a bunch of peacock's
feathers on a staff. He also wears a necklace of skeletons
(kankala) which according to the Aditya-Purana are supposed
to be those of Vishnu in his various incarnations. Sometimes
he may be represented also as carrying on his shoulder a
kanktila (skeleton) tied by a rope to the staff.
X
The form of Siva, decorated as a bridegroom, is called KALYANA-
Kalyanasundaramurti or Vaivahikamurti. Siva in this form su_NDARA.
MURTl,
is represented as a fair youth, with three eyes and four
arms. He is clothed in the best of garments and wears a
garland of blue lilies. On his right side stands Parvatr, his
bride, whose right hand he holds with his own. In his back
hands are seen the symbols, tanka (or sometimes the axe) and
the black buck. The left lower hand shows the boon-giving
posture. His matted locks are made up in the fashion of a
Jatamakuta on which is stuck the crescent of the moon. The
general posture of the god is what is called samabhanga, or
the medium bend, wherein the figure stands with the right
leg slightly bent and the left leg placed firmly on the ground.
The goddess on the right side is represented as a fully deve-
loped maiden. She has only two hands, one of which holds a
lily. Brahma, having in his four hands the rosary, water-pot,
1 The braided hair (1ata) of Bh1kshatana, on the other ha.n,l, is generally
found in illustration , rra.n ed in a cirde. jatiim,,kuta is the arrangement

of the ;atas in the form of a makuta or crown. The fom1er is, perhaps, what is
known in the Silpa-works as jatiima,.dala.
104 SOUTH-l'\;DJAN IMA(;Es
l· r.:. 63. --1,ankalamiirti (metal); Tenka,i.

SIVA to5
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P.65
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•l Il;. 64.-h.a.nk.,la1niirt t ; l>h:ir,isuran1.

106 SOL1TH-INDIAN Il\IAGES
FIG. 6 5 . - K a l ) ana,undara; /lladura.

SIVA to7
the sacrificial ladle (sl'ik) and the spoon (sruva) (or, the book),
is seated on a lotus flower in front of a square fire-pit facing
northwards, and offering oblations to the sacrificial fire, which
is burning in front with five flames. Menaka and Himavat,
the parents of the goddess, are standing to her right, carrying
a golden pot, from which they pour water into the hands of
Siva and ParvatI in token of giving away their daughter in
marriage to him. The sages Sanaka and Sanandana stand to
the left of the god with folded hands. Vishnu is present with
the whole congregation of gods and goddesses. This des-
cription of Kalyanasundara is found in all its details in a
figure from Elephanta. The Kasyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-
Tantra and the Silpasangraha say that Vishnu in the tribhanga
attitude faces south and stands on the north side of the sacri-
ficial fire-pit with conch and discus in his back arms. He
pours with his two other hands water from a gold pot into the
hands of Siva and ParvatI (fig. 65). The Mayamata describes
Parvatr as standing by the side of Lakshmi. It looks as if
Menaka and Himavat are sometimes substituted by Lakshmi
and Vishnu. A fine image of Kalyanasundara comes from
the Chidambaram temple (fig. 66). Svayamvara is the name
given in the Silparatna to the figure of Parvati as a bride.
She holds a garland of flowers and walks towards Sambhu
(Siva) to choose him as her husband.
XI
Somaskanda is the most common of all the sportive forms Sfo1A,KANDA.
of Siva. Its design is as old as the Pallava period and it may
be found on the back wall of the sanctum immediately behind
the linga in almost every temple which pretends to belong to
that age. The group, e.g., is found engraved on the back
wall of a niche in the second storey of the Dharmara.ja-ratha
at Mahabalipuram which, according to an inscription cut
on the lintel, was apparently intended to be a shrine for the
Siva-linga called Atyantakama-Pallavesvara. It is also seen
on the back wall of the Siva shrine facing the sea, in the
"Shore Temple." The Saluvankuppam cave, called Atirana-
chanda-Pallavesvara, also has the same image. A similar
panel is also found in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchr.
Later Chola temples, however, do not show any such panel on
the wall behind the linga. On one and the same pedestal
are seen Siva and Uma with the child Skanda standing (or
seated) between them. Both the god and the goddess are
seated comfortably (s11khiisa11a), with one leg (right in the
case of Siva and left in the case of ParvatI) hanging down
ro8 SOITTH-I'-DIAN I:\IAGES
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F1,;. 66.-Kaly.ina.sunda.ra and Svayamvara; Chi<la.mba.ram.
SIVA IO<)
F!l,, 67. -- Siimiiskan<la (metal) Si,ankudal

IIO SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
and the other bent crosswise so as to lie flat on the pedestal.

The god holds in his upper hands the tanka (or, the axe) and
the deer and in the lower exhibits the 1•arada and the abhaya
postures. The goddess holds a lily in her right hand and
shows the '<'arada or the kataka pose 1 in her left (fig. 67). She
may sometimes also be represented as resting the palm of her
left hand on the pedestal by the side of her left thigh while the
right hand, as before, holds the lily. Skanda has the crown
kar,mdamakuta and holds in one of his hands a flower, a
wood-apple or a mango. According to the Kara11agama the
group must be flanked by two standing or seated figures
called Bhoga-Sakti and VIra-Sakti on the left and right sides
respectively.' It is also stated that the right side of the
pedestal on which the god sits is to be slightly higher than
the left.
A photograph from Mahabalipuram (fig. 68) is worth
noting in this connexion. It shows Siva in the comfortably
seated posture. In his upper hands, however, the symbols,
evidently of tanka and the deer, are missing, The right lower
is in the posture of abhaya and the left lower in that of
kataka. It is also possible that the latter is resting freely on
the thigh. ParvatI is seated on .Siva's left side, turning her
face towards him and holding the child Skanda on her knee.
In the upper corners are seen flying dwarfs, apparently hold-
ing flywhisks in their hands. The whole group is flanked by
two four-armed gods raising respectively the upper left and
right arms and pointing them towards Siva.
Among the Mahabalipuram sculptures we find still another
scene of Saiva pictures apparently allied to Somaskanda just
::iUKHASA'\"A described, viz., Sukhasana or Umasahita mentioned in footnote
or U 1A. I on p. 76. Here, on a pedestal supported by two lion-pillars
,AHI IA.
and the recumbant bull between them, is a seated figure of
Siva with a robe of ornamental fringes, hanging loosely from
above his right shoulder. In his right upper hand he holds a
furious serpent. What the position of his left upper hand
indicates, is not clear. O f the two other hands, the left lower
rests freely on his right leg and the left thigh, while the right
lower exhibits a position of the fingers which suggests that
the god must have held some weapon. The high jatamakuta,
the divine halo (circle of light) round the face, the necklaces,
pendants, ear-rings, waist-band, rings on hands and a thick
1 The actual position of the hand as descnhed in the 4 . g ,zmas, however, is
rimha.k,1r,za o r " lion's ear" with the fingers slightly closing on the palmside.
Siva is supposed to haYe three Saklis attached to him, viz., Yoga-Sakti,
Bhiiga.Sakti and Vira-Sakti; see below, p. 185, footnote 1.
SIVA III
ll2 SOUTH-IN DIAN l:Vl,\GES
SIVA I 13
chord across the breast representing the Brahmanical thread

ya;nopavita, are the other jewels seen on the figure of Siva. To
the right of Siva's shoulder is Brahma with the water-pot m
one hand and the erect rosary in the other. The sacred thread
of Brahma has four strings. Between the heads of Brahma
and Siva is a circular disc which perhaps represents the Sun.
Near the left shoulder of Siva is Vishnu holding the discus
and the conch in his two upper hands. Here again, the posi-
tion of the two lower hands is not clear. The sacred thread
of Vishnu has three strings. His crown though high like that
of the two other gods is shaped somewhat differently. ParvatI
(Siva's consort) with the child Skanda on her right lap is
seated on the left side of Siva. Her left foot is placed on the
back of the couchant bull. She as well as her child have only
two arms each. Close to her left foot, behind the bull, is a
female attendant of Parvatr, who raises her right hand resting
it on the back of the bull. Between the head of the goddess
and that of Vishnu is seen what is perhaps to be interpreted
as the crescent of the Moon, correspc,nding to the Sun on the
other side. But the short handle attached to it at the bottom
seems to show that it may be an umbrella of honour held over
the head of the goddess (fig. 69). A similar group, called Uma- u 1 A - M A K E s -
Mahesvara according to Hemadri, consists of Siva and Parvatr, VARA.
the former having eight faces and two hands. The left hand
of the god is stretched over the shoulder of the goddess and the
right hand of the goddess over that of the god. The Kar11-
1u7gama describing this group states that the goddess Parvatr
should be seated on the left side of Siva with the bull in front
of them, Indra and other gods behind, Vishnu and Brahma on
the sides and the devotees Bhringi, Narada, Bana, Bhairava,
Ganapati, Skanda and Vrresvara in the eight cardinal points.
Rai Bahadur Venkayya considered this description to be
that of Rishabhavahana (Vrishavahana) 1 mentioned in the
next paragraph.
XII
Vrisharudha is a figure of Siva seated on the bull with the V1w1
, 1A-
right leg hanging down and the left bent so as to rest on the &uouA.
bull. H e has Ganapati on his right side and GaurI on his
left. 2 H e holds in his two upper hands the t,mka and the
antelope. When, however, Siva is made to stand leaning
1
S.l.f., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33, fuotnote I.
• The Si/pa,at11a a.nd the A7isyapa-Sifp,, statt: that more often I ;,.url 1s seen
on the right side of the god.
8
against the bull and is not mounted on it, the Kiisyapa-Silpa

VRISHAVA- calls him Vrishavahana. In this case the elbow (kurpara) of the
HAXA.
right hand of Siva rests on the head of the bull as in the illus-
trations (figs. 70 and 71). 1 The Mayamata also gives the same
description, but adds that the bull stands behind the seat on
which the god and goddess sit. The right lower hand of Siva
holds the trident while the two upper hands hold the axe and
the deer.
XIII
CHANURA• Chandrasekharamilrti (the crescent-crested lord) may,
SEKHARA-
)IURTI, according to the Kiisyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra, be
represented in two different forms, either alone or in company
of the goddess GaurI. When alone, he stands on the pe-
destal with level feet (samapiida), holding the antelope and the
kettle-drum (or, axe) in his back arms and presenting the
abhaya and the varada postures in the fore-arms. The cres-
cent decorates the jatiimakuta of the god, either on its right
side or on the left. In other respects the image is a pleas-
ing representation (fig. 72) of the general form of Rudra
described above. When accompanied by the goddess he
may also be seated (fig. 73). The right lower hand shows
the abhaya posture and the left lower passes round the back
of the yielding goddess and touches her breasts. Some
Agamas do not permit the hand to be stretched so far, but only
up to the left arm of the goddess. The illustration from Bagali
(fig. 74) answers to this description but holds the trident and
the kettle-drum in the upper hands instead of the axe and the
deer. The goddess also with her right hand touches the right
side of the waist-band of the god from the back and holds a
flower in her left. She may also be seen passing her hand
over his shoulder. Such figures of Chandrasekhara are called
Alinganamilrti or the embracing form. They are also known
as Pradoshamilrti, since in all well-maintained Siva temples,
1 The illustrations given show t\\o and four hands respectively for Siva, who
standing with his legs crossed and leaning against the back of the bull, has the
kiirpara of his right hand placed on the head of the bull. A fine image from
Ceylon figured as No. 29 in Part I I of Visvakarnza is evidently one of Vrisha.
rudha as described in the Jlayamata. The trident in the right lower hand, the
bu:l and the goddess are missing.
2 The great Chiila king Rajaraja I is represented in the Tanjore inscriptions
to have been de\'Oted particularly to this form of Siva. The figures of the king
and of Chandrasekhara receiving worship from him, were set up by the manager
o f the temple before the close of the 29th year of that king, i,e., before A , D .
1or3-r+
SIVA
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FIG, 70 . . \ ri,ha.vaham; Ch,d.,n,hu.im.
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II6 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
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FIG, 71 .-Vrisha,·ahana (metal) ; VedaraB)'am.

SlVA Jl7
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FI<,, 72.-Cha.ndra,ekha.ra (.meta.I) ; TiruYolt1 iir.

II8 SOUTH-I'.:01:\:\" Il\lAGES
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SIVA II9
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FIG. 74.-Cha.n d ra,ekh.ua ( ,\lmganamur
tio SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
the image is carried about in procession in the evenings

( prados ha).
XIV
ARDHANARI The hermaphrodite or the Ardhanari form of Siva is per-
haps to be traced to the conception of the Sakta doctrine
that only when combined with Sakti is Siva capable of
discharging his divine functions.1 The idea of representing
a male ornament in the right lobe of Siva and a female
ornament in his left lobe must, already, have been due to the
belief in the inseparable union of the masculine and feminine
elements in the Creator. The artistic conception of a purely
philosophical idea has thus resulted in an image of which the
left half represents the woman (ParvatI) and the right half,
the male (Siva). The jewellery on the image is similarly dis-
tinguished in every detail; those on the left side being purely
feminine ornaments and those on the right, ornaments ai;pro-
priate to males. The drapery on the right side is the tiger's
skin of Siva reaching only to the knee, while on the left side
it is the finely embroidered muslin (dukula) suitable for the
goddess Parvatr, and stretching down to her ankle. O f the four
hands, the two right show a hatchet and the posture of protec-
tion ; the two left are richly decorated with wristlets, the upper
one holding a flower and the lower one being stretched
down to the waist (fig. 75). The Kasyapa-Silpa, however, says
that the right lower hand may be placed on the head of the
bull. Some images show only three hands, two on the right
and one on the left. In that case the right upper hand holds
the axe while the lower right rests on the head of the bull.
The figure stands leaning gracefully against the back of the
bull, bending its body above the waist. O f the two other
illustrations given. one is from the Nagesvara temple at
Kumbakonam (fig. 76) and the other is from a niche un the
north wall of the Tanjore temple (fig. 77). Sometimes images
of Ardhanari may have only two arms. Thus in the temple
at Tiruchchengodu (Salem district), dedicated to Ardhanari,
the image (fig. 78) has only two hands, the right one holding
a staff with the lower end resting on the waist, and the left
placed on the left hip. It may be noted that the hair on the
head of this image is done up in the fashion peculiar to
images of Krishna. An illustration coming from Dharasuram
shows eight arms, three visible faces (with perhaps two others
1 The popular ,tory connected with the origin of this form is given below
(p, 165), under Bhringlsa.
SIVA 121
' I
r·
'· ' .:
X:, .
._:.;··
> , ' .
P"·
' t
!
r
..
f
-,
.
''t! \ ,-, ·1
! •
-
' I
___
...
,·- -----c-- ··•z-" •
,
;·
it ' . ,,.:J
FIG. 75- -- A" lha.nii.n; Madura..

-: - ;
:-:t
l ..._.
- -,',·i
I :>,.
Frc;. 76. --Arclhanan; KmPbakonam.

SIVA 123
;,
.:
..
·.. ,
I
i1 •?.
FI<'. 77 0- Ardhanari ; Tanjurc.

Fr< .. 7S. -Ardhan.in; Tiruchchengodu,

SIVA 125
behind) and a circle of light in the back ground. This is

apparently an unusual form (fig. 79). Still another unusual
form comes from Tiruvadi near Tanjore, in which the right
half is woman and the left half male (fig. 80).
xv
A similar composite image of Siva is the one called liARIHARA or
Harihara or Sankaranarayana. In this image the left half is 1::;:: .
Vishnu and the right half Siva. Accordingly we see on the
left side of the figures of Harihara, the conch, the pearl-neck-
lace, the mark Srivatsa and the brilliant ear-ring characteristic
of Vishnu and on the right side the skull, the garland of
bones, the river Ganga, the serpent coil of the ear-ring anJ
the trident or axe, characteristic of Siva. So too the colour of
the body is blue on the left and white on the right. Similarly,
Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu, may be seen standing on the
left and the bull of Siva on the right. Sankarana.yinarkoyil
in the Tinnevelly district has a famous temple dedicated to
this combined form of Sankara (Siva) and Narayana (Vishnu).
The illustration given (fig. 81) comes from Namakkal. A
similar but more finished figure of Sankaranarayana is found
at Chidambaram in which attendant sages and demi-gods are
also depicted.
XVI
Fine images of Siva represented as the slayer of the G JAHA
elephant-demon are not uncommon in South-Indian temples. "t'RTl.
In this form he receives the name Gajahamurti. The
image has eight hands generally, but may have occa-
sionally only four. The two uppermost hands are stretched
out and hold the hide of the elephant with its tail bent
upwards in the form of an aureola, while on the sides of
this aureola are seen the legs of the elephant hanging.
In the three right hands are held the trident, the kettle-drum
(or the sword) and the noose (or the tusk of the elephant).
Two of the three left hands hold the tusk (or shield) and the
skull (kapiila), while the third exhibits the posture indicating
astonishment ( vismaya) or sometimes holds a bell. The left
leg is placed on the elephant-head of the giant and the right
is raised up so as to reach the left thigh. A good figure
answering to this description comes from Perur near Coimba-
tore. The Valuvur image (Madras Archreological Survey
Report for 1911-12, Plate IX, fig. 2) and the Tirutturaippundi
and the Dh::irasuram images (here illustrated) show the
contrary position of the legs. The god has a terrible face
with protruding teeth; and by his side is seen standing the
I'
f;
'.Sj
FIG. 79_-Ard han.iri. Dhar.isuram

SIVA 127
.-1
..
. .. i,=.
.
!I !
t1G. So.-Anlhanan; Tirmadi.

128 SOlTTH-INDl/\;'-; 11\1/\GES
11111!/1111
I.
I· . ·:1
FIG. 81.-Sankaranarayana , Namakkal.

SIVA 129
frightened goddess Uma with the young Skanda beside her

(fig. 82). The Kiiraniigama mentions the weapons tanka and
deer and the pointing-finger-pose (suchi). 1 This last posture
of the hand is noticed both in the Tirutturaippilndi and the
Dharasuram stone images. The former has perhaps five
heads (of which three alone are visible on the picture). It has
ten hands and more attendant figures (fig. 83).
XVII
Gangadhara, "the bearer of Ganga (the Ganges)," is a form GAJS'GA-
of Siva which illustrates a well-known Puriinic story. The VHAP.A
story of the descent of the heavenly Ganges into the earth
to purify the ashes of the sinful sons of Sagara, a king of
the Solar race, is related in the Ramayan,1. At the prayer
of Bhagiratha, a later member of the same family, '' the river
of the gods" consented to direct her course to the earth, but
her force was such that the earth was unable to bear the
shock. So Bhagrratha prayed to Siva and the latter con-
sented to receive the Ganges on his matted locks. The river,
proud of her might, came down with all her force as if to
crush Siva, but found herself lost altogether in the tangled
maze of Siva's locks. Ganga then became humble and Siva
let her flow forth again from his locks in a tiny trickle. The
river-goddess, the heavenly Ganges, is believed since then to
abide in Siva's matted hair as one of his consorts. This latter
subject of letting the Ganges flow out of his matted hair as a
tiny rivulet is represented in figures generally known as
Ganga visarjanamilrti. No distinction, however, has been (;MGAY1sAR-
made in the Agamas between Gangadhara and Ganga- JANA tf'RTI.
visarjana. He stands on a lotus pedestal with the right leg
straight and the left slightly bent. The image is represented
as embracing the goddess.Gaurr, consoling and assuring her
that his affections would not be transferred to the river-
goddess.2 One right arm holds up a lock of his hair, on
which is seen the goddess Ganga. A left arm holds the
antelope. The goddess Gaurr with a dejected face (virahit-
ananii) is represented in the samabhanga posture with her left
leg placed straight on the pedestal and the right leg slightly
bent. Her right hand stretches down or is sometimes held
1
The Siip,,,-at,.,a defines this as a pose of hand in which the second finger
(t 17 ,-j ani) is kept straight "hile the others an, bent inwards. It is also adopted
\\hen images are made to hold the goad or other similar weapons.
• The Si!p,,sangraha says th.it the right lower arm of Siva may be in the
posture of giving boons. The illustrations, however, show it holding the face of
the goddess Gauri.
9
=·=
.': 'j , , .
... '•
: -
-. . .'
,,•'
. :- ; . - .
'
}.
D 10.
FIG. 82. - Gajahamiirti ; Dharasuram.

SIVA 131
:,
J
"
"
L
•·,..l. ;.,.· ., . •·.,
IJ,
. •,·, .,. , ·· . .,._.'- . , .: .. --·.,:,
. ..
iii
.
- -
' ! ' ■ - . . . . . . .... ...,_,,., ........ "''·••
.• :· . . ....
Fi,;, 8J.-GaJahamurt1,
. - - • Tirutturaipruu<li.
9-A
132 SOUTH-INDIAN 1:\1:AGES
akimbo while the left holds a flower. The god and the
goddess are highly decorated (figs. 84 and 85). In the first
illustration from Gangaikondasolapuram, Gaurr appears as
if she is desirous of being let alone but her anxious husb nd
is holding her fast. Figures of Gangadhara are sometimes
seen without Gaurr on the side. In such cases he has
four hands, of which the right upper supports Ganga on the
lock and the left upper holds the deer. O f the two others
the right fore-am1 rests on the face of the bull against which
the god leans and the left rests freely on the waist (fig. 86).
The bull, not seen in the illustration, is distinct in a similar
figure from the Siva temple at Kodumbalur. Bhagrratha, who
was the cause of the descent of Ganga, may also be shown
standing together with other rishis to the right of Siva. This
is found only in an illustration from Burgess's Elura Cave
Temples. 1
One other figure (or rather group of figures) representing
Gangadhara (fig. 87) comes from the rock-cut cave at Trichi-
nopolY and deserves notice. The central image is Siva with
four hands. The upper right hand holds a lock of hair in
order to receive evidently the goddess Ganga descending
from the clouds. The upper left seems to hold a rosary. The
left lower hand rests on the waist and the corresponding right
holds by the tail a serpent with the raised hood. The left
leg of Siva is placed straight on the ground and the right
which is bent at the knee is placed on the head of a demon
(perhaps Musalagan) who also supports the leg with his left
hand which is raised up. The god is fully decorated. Round
him are four attendant sages, two of whom are kneeling at
the feet, the other two worshipping from behind. Above the
group are two divas flying in the air on either side of the
god's head. Although the details given above do not agree
with any particular description given in the Agamas, it
appears to me that it represents Siva standing ready pre-
pared to receive in his locks the rushing torrent of the river
of the gods. One of the attendant sages may, in this case,
be Bhagrratha at whose request Ganga descended from
the heavens.
XVIII
KALAHARA· Another P11rlinic story is illustrated in the form Kalaha,
MURTI.
or Kalaharamurti, "the destroyer of the god of Death."
Markandeya was a young boy, greatly devoteri to the worship
of Siva. The fates had decreed that he should not Jive
1 Plate X L I I I , fig. 1, and Plate XXVI, fig. 1.
SIVA 135
·, ·
FIG. 84.-Gangadhara.; Ga.nga.ikondasola.puram.

•
: .,'..,.,V-...,. " ' " ' A • • •
F1G. 5.-Gangadhara (met.11,.; \'ai<llsvaranko}il.

SIVA 135
..
,.,.
... '.,1
11
'1}
·
f}-3· f
- _.;
FIG. 86.-Gangadha.n : Tanjore.

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
,.
;'f,. •
.;-
·:
.
f·i
i'.
'·
,-
l l I t l
r f' t r r ( l, L
FIG. 87.-Gangadhara; Trichinopoly,

SIVA 137
beyond his sixteenth year. His father was very disconsolate
'lS the boy approached the end of his appointed time on earth.
But Markandeya was not afraid and spent all his time wor-
shipping Siva. While thus engaged, the god of Death (Kala),
whose duty it is to take the breath of life away from the mortal
body at the appointed time, came up to the boy, with his
weapons, the club and the noose, riding on his fierce buffalo.
He was not daunted by the fact that the boy was engaged in
holy duty but at once threw his relentless noose on the boy
and began to pull his life out. The boy was frightened at
the sight of the terrible god of Death and caught hold of the
Siva-linga with both his hands. Siva then burst out from
within the linga and, with one foot still placed on the li11ga,
he kicked with the other the transgressing god of Death,
pierced him with his trident and vanquished him. 1 This is the
Puranic story of Kalaharamilrti. According to the Agamas
he is represented as placing his right leg on the linga in
the same attitude as that of the dancing Nataraja. His left
leg, which is bent and raised, is placed on the breast of
Kala. The god wears a jatiimakuta and has an angry look,
protruding teeth, three eyes and four (or sometimes eight)
hands. The fore-arm on the right side holds the trident
pointed downwards and raised to the level of the ear. The
other right hand holds the axe while the two left hands
exhibit the varada (with skull in palm) and the i•ismaya" pos-
tures (fig. 88). The Karanligama adds that he must also be
accompanied by the goddess. The god of Death has two arms
and protrnding teeth. He holds the noose and is lying flat on
the ground with legs stretched out wide apart. In the sketch
from Chandragiri (fig. 89) is seen Markandeya with the noose
round his neck and embracing the linga. Siva also is seen
holding the trident in two hands while Yama is attacking the
young sage with a trident.
XIX
NI!akantha, Srrkantha and Vishakantha are three synony- NiLAKANTHA
mous names of Siva, given to him on account of his having or SRi-
KANTHA.
swallowed the deadly poison (kt'ilakftta) produced at the
churning of the ocean by the devas and danavas under instruc-
tions from the Creator, in order to obtain divine nectar. The
------- ----
I See Burgess's Elura C,tz•e Temples, Plate XXLV.

2 In place of the var,zda some figures show the siichi and in place of the
msmaya, the hand hold mg the deer. According to the Si!pasaN.1;raka the symbols
may be the trident and the kettle-drum in the right hands and the boon-giving
posture and the axe in the left.
...,.
·. \
.,
--, ··1.
-- ; ::- ; - _r-
..
......
.
--
...
I
I
e
I,,•-------- - -1
- .. Pattlsvararn.
- Ka.laharamurt1,
SlVA 139
140 SOUTH-I;';DlAN IMAGES
mountain Mandara was their churn-stick, the primeval Tortoise

(who was Vishnu himself) the pivot on which the stick rested
and turned, and the serpent Vasuki the churning rope. By a
clever device of Vishnu, the d,1navas held the head and the
devas the tail of the serpent. They churned and churned.
l\Iany great and splendid things came foaming up and every
one was eager to seize what pleased him most. But all at
once something black began to rise. It grew and grew and
darkened the whole universe. A l l the gods and demons were
mortally afraid. For it was the deadliest of poisons, death
to them and death to all the universe. In this moment of
horror they called on Siva to help them. The mighty god
came and took the poison in the hollow of his hand and
swallowed it. That which was enough to kill the universe
served only to stain his neck with a bluish tint. Thus he
came to be called "the poison-necked" or "the blue-necked"
god. 1 The Karantigama describing a form of Siva called
V1attAPAHA· Vishapaharamflrti, "the destroyer of poison " says that he has
RA\IOR1r. one face, three eyes, braided hair and four arms holding in
the two upper the antelo -and the axe. He is in the posture
of drinking the poison which is held in the right lower hand.
The left lower shows the boon-giving posture. On the left
side of the god is the goddess with two arms. She shows an
anxious countenance and holds the neck of Siva as if to pre-
vent the poison from going down.
xx
TRrPuRA!'\- Two other forms of Siva connected with Purdnic stories
TAKA)IURTr. may be mentioned. These are Tripurantakamurti and Kiratar-
junamflrti. The first was assumed by Siva when he killed
the three demons called Tripura and reduced their three (L
magic cities to ashes. During this campaign the Earth is
said to have served Siva as a chariot, ' 'ncr the Sun and
the Moon as its wheels. The four Vedas were the four
horses and the Upanishads were the guiding reins; the
mythic golden mountain Meru was the bow, the ocean
was the quiver and god Vishnu was the arrow. Images of
Tripurantaka are made with the right leg firmly placed
on the pedestal and the left leg bent. The right fore-
hand in the simha-kanza posture holds the arrow and the
left fore-arm, the bow. The other hands hold the tanka (or the
1 The Ii. iisyapa-Siipa speaking of Srikantha says that he holds the trident
and the kettle-drum.
2 A n image of Tripurantaka in the thousand-pillared hall of the Madura
temple shoY.s an actual figure of Vishnu engraved on the arrow hdd by Siva.
SIVA
axe) and the deer respectively. The locks are arranged in the
form of a jatamak11ta and the goddess GaurI stands on the left
side. The accompanying illustration from Chidambaram
(fig. 90) answers to this description of Tripurantaka. The
alternating positions of the leg, the existence or non-existence
of the demon Apasmara underneath one of them and the
fashion of holding the bow and the arrow, yield five other
forms of Tripurantaka, who may also be represented with
eight or ten arms. Sometimes (when with ten arms), the god
is seated in a chariot with his right knee touching the sudha,
the left leg which is bent at the knee being placed firmly in
front of the right. In the chariot, at its front, is seated the
four-faced Brahma and below him is a white bull drawing the
car. A sandal-wood carving published in the Journal o f Indian
Art and Industry, Vol. X V , No. rr9, fig. 12, shows the actual
fight between Siva and the demon called Tripura.
Kiratarjunamurti is that form of Siva in which he is K1RATAR•
supposed to have appeared before Arjuna, one of the heroes JUNAMURTI.
of the epic Mahabharata, when the latter was doing penance
to obtain from Siva a powerful weapon with which he could
destroy his enemies. God Siva wished to try personally if his
devotee Arjuna really deserved to wield the matchless weapon
Pasupata, whose presiding deity was himself. To this end
Siva and Parvatr assumed the forms of a hunter an<l a huntress
and with their retinue of demons and hobgoblins attired for the
chase, drove before them a wild boar, which rushed to attack
Arjuna who was thf'n performing his penance. Arjuna, the
practised warrior, seized his bow and instantly shot the
animal. Simultaneously also came another arrow from the
psuedo-hunter Siva. Pierced by both the arrows, the animal
died. The hunter cried out that the quarry was his and asked
Arjuna how he dared to shoot at it. The royal hero of the
Lunar race could not brook the insult from this wild hunter of
the woods. A tlerce fight between the two was the result.
Arjuna was amazed to see that the hunter was more than his
match. Arjuna's never failing arrows failed him now and he
challenged the hunter to a hand-to-hand contest. Sore and
beaten, Arjuna worshipped the clay linga of the god Siva
that he had before him, when, lo! the flowers he threw on the
/inga fell on the person of the hunter. Arjuna struck the
hunter at the head with his powerful bow called Gandiva and
drew blood. But the bow was mysteriously snatched away
from him. In the end Arjuna was overcome by a gentle touch
of the mighty god. Arjuna then knew him and begged
pardon and the god gave him the desired weapon Pasupata.
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
FIG. 90.-Tripuriintakamurti; Chidaml,ar.uu.

SIVA 143
This story is the subject matter of the exquisite poem Kiriitiir-

juniya of the Sanskrit poet Bharavi. The Tanjore inscriptions
refer to an image Kiratarjunadeva; 1 and from the description
given of it in a mutilated passage, it appears as if there was a
reference there, to a linga or to some object connected with it.
Images of Kiratarjunamo.rti answering to the story described
above are not very frequent. An illustration (fig. 91) which
comes from Pushpagiri in the Cuddapah district represents
evidently the last part of the drama, when Siva and Parvatr
appeared before Arjuna and gave him the weapon. Siva
holds in his back hands the axe and the trident. In his right
fore-arm is the arrow Pasupata, the left fore-arm resting freely
on the waist. To the left of Siva stands the goddess Parvatr
with two hands, holding a lotus flower in her right. In front
of both, is Arjuna in the modest posture of receiving with both
hands the divine gift offered him. A pigmy figure standing
between Siva and Arjuna in the illustration may be one of
the attendants of Siva. The Kdraniigama gives the same
description but makes Siva wear both the arrow and the bow
and hold the antelope instead of the trident. An illustration
coming from Chidambaram (fig. 92) answers to this descrip-
tion. In it may also be seen the figure of Arjuna in a
worshipping posture as described in the Kiiraniigama. It
may be noted that the historic "Arjuna's Penance" at
Mahabalipuram is supposed to represent the Mahabharata
story related above.
XXI
Chandesanugrahamo.rti is a form of Siva which was CHANn11s-
. ANUGRAHA-
assume d by h.1m m or der to con f er bl essmgs
. on h"1s f ervent riiRn.
devotee Chandesa described in the sequel. His figures are
occasionally found depicted in some of the South-Indian
temples. From Gangaikondasolapuram in the Trichinopoly
district comes a beautiful illustration (fig. 93) of the story.
I Dr: Ananda K. Coomaraswami publishes an image of Siva from Tanjore

in his Art Journal Visvakarma (Part I I , No. 28). In this the positions of the four
hands indicate the nature of the weapons that must have been held by them.
Although the image is called Gangii.tlhara by Dr. Coomaras"ami, the poses of
the gers suggest that the image mu,t be one of Kirii.tii.rjuna, possibly the very
idol dlentioned in the Tanjore mscriptions, since its t\\O fore-arms are so arljusLed
as to receive into them the bow and the arrow. The upper arms m this case
must have held the axe and the deer. :\fr. R. D. BanerJi describes in the
Director-General's ArchfJ'o!ogic,1! Surv,:y Report for 1 9 1 1 - 1 2 , pp. 161 ff., certain
sculptures from Chandiman which relate to this story of Arjuna's fight "ith Siva.
These are attributed by :\Ir. Banerji to the Gupta period.
2 Havell's Ideals of Indian Art, pp. 147 to 151. 3
Sec- p. 161, below.
1 44 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
·ii,
:1
a arJunamiirti
FIG. gr.-Kir•t· · ,· l'ushpagiri.
SIVA 145
':
f:
. --. -- . - . . . . f
-.
FIG. 92 - Kiratarjunamiirti; Chidambaram.
JQ
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
FIG. 93. -Chcnde,anugrahamiirti ; (;angaikondasolapuram,

SIVA 147
Here Siva is seated in the sukhiisana or the comfortable

posture on a raised pedestal, as in the case of Somaskanda
figures, his left leg hanging down and resting on a foot-
stool. The goddess ParvatI too is seated to the left of Siva
on the same pedestal, her right leg being bent at the knee
and placed on the pedestal while the left is hanging down
to rest on another foot-stool. Siva has four arms. In his two
back hands he holds the axe and the deer and with the two
front arms he is seen decorating with a flower garland the
locks of his servant, the devoted Chandesa. The latter
sits on the ground at the foot of Siva, with bending knees
and folded arms, and receives the divine favour with grati-
tude. The images are well ornamented. Above the group
are seen flying gods and demi-gods who have evidently
gathered round to see the kindness of Siva shown towards
his devotee. According to the .Mayamata Chandesa has
behind his folded arms the weapon parasu (axe). On the east
gbpura of the Chidambaram temple is a figure of Chan-
desanugrahamurti in which Chandesa is represented with
the axe between his folded arms.
The size of the image of Chandesa must, it is stated, be
small so as to reach the arms of Siva and is to be bedecked
with the ornaments of children. The Kasyapa-Silpa states
that between the god and the goddess may be placed the
figure of Skanda, at the sculptor's option. "Next to Dakshina-
murti," it says, "the figure of Chandesanugraha is the most
famous." A group of images under the name Chandes-
varaprasaclacleva was set up in the Tanjore temple by king
Rajaraja I, and consisted of (1) the god Chandesvaraprasada-
deva with four arms, (2) the demon Musalagan with two arms,
(3) the goddess Umaparamesvarr, (4) Mahadeva (the linga
worshipped evidently by the boy Chandesa), (5) the devotee
with two arms, (6) his father also with two arms represented
as having fallen down and lying on the ground and (7)
Chandesa receiving with his two arms the boon of a flower-
garland from Siva. 1 This description agrees with the story
related in the Pcriyapuranam, a compilation of the thirteenth
century A . O . The Karaniigama, whose elate is not known,
was also apparently familiar with the story.
XXII
Some particularly fierce forms of Siva may now be SARARHA-
clescribecl. First in fierceness comes the form of the fabulous MURTL
1 Soi.th.J11diu11 J11scriptiom, \'ol. II, Introduction, p. 39,

lO·A
Sarabha which is supposed to have been assumed by Siva in

order to suppress the pride of Narasimha, the Man-lion incar-
nation of Vishnu. The K£7rwu7p,ama describes Sarabha as
having eight legs, three eyes, long nails, two hands and a
body glowing Ii ke fire. The image has a lion's face and two
wings one of which is said to represent the fierce goddess
Durga and the other, Death. 1 The illustration here reproduced
(fig. 94) shows Sarabha trampling on the ;\fan-lion.
PASUPATA- PasupatamHrti is another fierce form of Siva. This is
\IlTR1 I.
evidently the form in which he is worshipped by the sect of
Pasupata Saivas, who, according to Dr. Bhandarkar, came into
prominence about the second century B.C. 2 The Silpasara
describes PasupatamHrti as having ten arms and five faces.
According to other Ag amas the figure may have only four
arms. It has a fierce face, knitted brows over its three eyes,
and hair red like flames of fire, bristling erect on the head.
The god holds in his right hand a trident pointing downwards
and in the boon-giving palm of the left he also holds a skull
(kapala). Sometimes the handle of the trident is lightly held
by both the lower arms, which do not then show the ·uarada and
the abhaya postures. In the back arms are seen the tanka and
the sword. The protruding teeth and the sacred thread
formed of a venomous serpent add to the fierceness of his
appearance. For purposes of meditation, however, a milder
form is adopted, in which, like Chandrasekhara, the god is
represented standing or seated with a smiling countenance,
showing the trident and the abhaya in his two right arms and
the rosary and the varada in the two left arms (fig. 95).
Two other terrible forms of Siva are AghoramHrti and
RAKSHO- RakshoghnamHrti. The latter has braided hair and a body
CHNA>tl'R 11.
besmeared with ashes. In one hand he holds a trident with
which he is piercing the god Yama, who calls away unto him
the victims of all cruel diseases. In another hand is a skull
from which issues a blazing fire. The axe and the kettle-drum
are other weapons held by him. With his formidable pro-
jecting teeth, knitted eyebrows and frowning face he is repre-
sented as feasting on corpses in the company of bhiitas,
pretas and pist"'ichas in the burning ground, which is his usual
dwelling place. I have not, however, seen any actual re-
•A,;HORA- presentation of this image in South-Indian temples. Aghora-
IUR1I,
mHrti has four faces and eight hands. In these he holds the
k11thari1 (axe), Vedas, noose, goad, kettle-drum, rosary, trident
1 Madras Arch.,.ulog1cal Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate IX, Fig. 1.
• Tmslla11avis111, Sh'ism, etc., p. 116 f.
SJVA 149
_______________ !
I IG, 94.-S.uahhamiirti; Dharii.suram.
150 SOUTH-1'.'-l"DIAN IMAGES
···-··--·-- • ·=
FIG. 95.-Pasupata miirti; Chidambaram

SlVA 151
and the skull. He has terrible protruding teeth and a dark

shining body (fig. 96). The Sivatattvaratniikara mentions a
form of Aghoramurti with thirty-two arms and the Pancha-
riitragama, another with twelve arms. The image wears a
garland of skulls and treads on the head of Kalamunda, the
vile god of Death.
Bhairava, born of the blood of Siva, is another god of BttArnAvA,
this class. The Tantrasiira mentions eight forms of Bhairava
which are fit for worship. His general form shows dishevelled
matted hair, three eyes and a reel-coloured body. His sym-
bols are the trident, sword, noose and the kettle-drum. He
is naked and is represented as being followed by all kinds of
demons and spirits and riding on a dog (fig. 97). Hemadri
describes Bhairava as a pot-bellied god with round red eyes,
terrible face, protruding teeth and wide nostrils. He wears a
garland of skulls and ornaments of snakes, 1 thus frightening
even his consort who stands by his side. The upper half of
his body which is dark in colour is covered with the elephant's
hide. He has many arms and holds all destructive weapons.
The Silpasiira makes him seated on a jewelled throne under
the celestial tree mandara, closely embraced by the goddess.
The same work mentions three other forms of Bhairava, viz.,
Panchavaktra-Bhairava, Govinda-Bhairava and Samhara- G o v 1 s n A -
B HAIRAVA ,
Bhairava. The second of these has four arms and holds 5 AM HARA•
the conch, discus, drinking cup and the mace. He has three BHAIRA\'A.
eyes and is young, serene and naked. On his side is the
goddess VaishnavI-Sakti and his vehicle is the bird Garuda.
The third has five faces and ten arms and among his weapons
are also the Vaishnavite conch and discus.
According to the Silpasara Kala-Bhairava wears a girdle KALA-
of tiny bells on his waist and holds the sword, trident, BttAIRAVA.
drum and the drinking cup in his hands. He has a fear-
some face with protruding teeth, a garland of skulls and
dishevelled hair. In the illustration from Durgi (fig. 98) the
dog which is his vehicle is seen biting a human head held by
the left lower hand of the image. The goddess with her
companion is standing to the right, evidently frightened at
the serpent ornaments and the terrible form of Bhairava.
Mahakala, still another fierce form of Siva, is quite like MAHAKAr"
Bhairava, but holds a serpent in the place of the noose. In
the work entitled LalitbP<ikhy{1na he is described as accom-
panied by KalI, embracing her and drinking with h e r " from
1 Figures of Bhaira,·a with the clog vehicle and the five-hoo<led serpent 0\ er-
head, are reporte<l to exist in ,ome of the ancient temples uf the Btllary ,listrict.
SOUTH-INDIAN Il\1AG S
, '
',.
-- ------ . .....
-·
1
FIG. 96. Ag,;humurt, , l'attisvaram.

SIVA 153
. ,} :·
J'il.
Fu,, o7 -1,hair,t.
'
• \ ,1, '• Pat ti..,, u.tm
' .,t.
F1l;, 98, -Kiila-Bhairava; I:urgi.

SIVA 155
the cup which is the mundane egg, the wine which is the
essence of creation." His faces (evidently five) are terrible
to look at, like those of death, and threaten to swallow the
universe.
Kalagni-Rudra '' the terrible or fiery Rudra " described in KALAm,r-
the K{lsyapa-Silpa, closely resembles Bhairava and is perhaps Rn1>RA
only another form of him. 1 He holds the weapons sword
and shield, the arrow and the bow and wears a reel cloth.
The illustration from Durgi (fig. 99) is very likely one of
Kalagni-Rudra.
XXIIJ
VIrabhadra is one of the many Saiva demi-gods (g a11as). 3 ViRAHHADRA.
He is said to have sprung from a lock of Siva's hair when, as
already stated, Siva heard of the suicide of his wife SatI in
her father's sacrificial fire and flew into a rage. From the
fire of his anger came into existence this terrible form, as of
Death manifest, who destroyed the sacrificial ceremonies of
Daksha and slew Daksha himself. The Panchariitriigama
describes VIrabhaclra as black in colour, having three eyes
and holding in his four arms a sword, arrow, bow and club.
He wears a garland of skulls and has sandals on his feet. A
yellow garment is tied round his loins.a The Silparatna
describes him as having eight hands and riding on 'Velilla
(a demon) surrounded by his g a11as (followers). From the
Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore comes a sculptured panel
(fig. 100) in which a woman, perhaps the wife of Daksha, is
seen flying in alarm with upraised hands at seeing her
husband decapitated by VIrabhadra before her very eyes and
the severed head thrown into the sacrificial fire-pit. One of
the attendant priests with a ladle in his hand is also
represented in the act of running a way from the scene. A
fine figure of VIrabhadra with the bow and arrow, sword
and shield, comes from Mudigondam in the Coimbatore district
(fig. IOI). The god is represented standing on a padma-
pitha in front of a prabhii-111andala, "an arch of light". A t the
edge of the pedestal on the right side is shown Daksha
who was, however, revived by Siva with the head of a sheep
substituted for the one that was burnt in the sacrificial fire.
• The Rtt,11',1_1 a111ah - T,1,. tr<1 inclwks the name Kiilagni.Rudra among the 64
varieties of Bha1u,a.
2 f.."iisiN1<11<d,1. In the k , i c " n ..!111nralvsa S h a himself 1s c,lllecl the destruye1
o f the sacrifice (Kratutlhvamsin).
s The f.."iira11ii g a111a add, that he has Bhaclrakiil! ' " l,1s ,1th an<l is fierce,
Daksha \\ith the sheep's hearl, t\\o eies ancl t\\O arms, stand, <>n the right side of
Virabhadra.
i56 SOUTH-INDIAN I:\1AGES
"
·.·,_
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,,
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F1,,. 99.-K.ilagni-Rudrn ( ' ) , Purg1.

SIVA 157
, .. ,, , ' ..l,f. . :
•' · · ,
;ti.·•
,. !
., .' : . t . . .
I • · • · •
!
=·
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I
8
F1<;, 101.- Yirabhadra; i\ludigondam.

SIVA 159
The figure of Daksha is of comparatively small stature, meant

evidently to indicate by contrast, the huge form of Vrrabhadra.
The Silpasa11graha mentions three varieties of Vrrabhadra
(viz. slittvic, fi'imasic and rajasic) with two, four or eight arms. 1
All are dark in colour and fierce looking. Seated figures of
Vrrabhadra are called Yoga-VIra, his standing figures, Bhoga-
Vrra and those in a walking posture, VIra-VIra. In the first,
VIrabhadra holds a sword and shield and is seated with one
leg folded on the pedestal and the other hanging down. In
the second posture he exhibits the bow and arrow, sword and
kataka. On the leg is worn the anklet of heroes. The head is
adorned with a crown, in the middle of which is represented a
linga. A garland of skulls decorates the neck. On the right
side is the image of Daksha with folded arms. In the VIra-
VIra figures, VIrabhadra holds the trident, sword, arrow and
the deer on the right side and the skull, shield, bow and the
goad on the left. It may be noted that, while images of VIra-
bhadra and independent temples erected for him are very
common in the Telugu and Canarese districts, temples in the
Tamil districts rarely contain his image, and shrines dedi-
cated to him are still rarer. There is a VIrabhadra temple at
Madura,
XXIV
Images of Kshetrapala often met with in the temples of KsHii.TRA-
PALA.
Southern India are divided into three classes, according to
the predominating qualities satt-ua, rajas and lamas. Those
belonging to the first class have two or four hands; the
second six and the third eight. All the figures, irrespective
of the class to which they belong, are made to stand with
level feet (samaptzda). The general description of them is
that they have three eyes which are round and protruding,
red hair pointing upwards, serpent jewels, a girdle of bells
round the waist and a necklace of skulls. They are naked
and inspire awe with their fierce fangs (fig. 102). Kshetrapala
occupies an important place among the subsidiary deities in
Siva temples. He is the chief guardian of the temple just
as Chandesa (described below) is its superintendent and
------------"------ -- ----------
• Dr. Burgess's E l u r a C a N 7'emplrs, Plate ' \ X I I , Fig. 2, 1s a representation
of Virabha,lra \\ith eight hands. The J>bte \\rongly calb the figure Bhaira,.1.
2 One image of Kshetrap,,b " i t h eight arms and another of Bhaira,a, \\ere set
up in the Tanjore temple at the beginning of the cle,enth century A.lJ. in
conne,iun " i t h the group of ti µ- u, e, illu,trating the stur of the !"ai,.1 saint
Siruttnrnla-N iiyaniir : see belo", p. 259, footnote 2 1n the l 'anch" na,le,,ara
temple at Tiruvadi near Tanjore is an image of Kshetrarala, cal:ed Ail,or.dar,
with eight hands, to which people attach much im,,c,rtance,
····-..
....
(
.j
',_'•i
,.
FIG. 102.-Kshetrapala : Tirmarangulam.

SIVA 161
manager. Kshetrapala is worshipped first in every Siva

temple, before commencing the regular service for the
day. The Prayogasara says : - " Whoever performs any
ceremony without first worshipping Kshetrapala, the fruit of
that ceremony is without doubt destroyed by Kshetrapala."
His naked form and the name Maha-Bhairava by which he is
addres;;ed during the Sribali ceremony suggests that Kshetra-
pala in his essence must be allied to Bhairava. 1
All these awe-inspiring forms of the Saiva cult, including
others which are mentioned in the .Agamas, but not often met
with in South-Indian temples, received special worship from
the adherents of the early Saiva sub-sects known as Pasu-
patas, Kalamukhas and Kapalikas, as well as from the
Linga:yatas of later origin.2
XXV
', ,_ Among the attendant ganas of Siva who, like the gods
just described, are identified with one or another aspect of
Siva himself, may be mentioned Chandesa, Bhringisa and CuANniisA,
Nandisa. The first is counted as the foremost of the servants
of Siva and is hence called in Tamil inscriptions and the
Periyapuranam, Adidasa-Chanclesa. The Kasyapa-Silpa tells
us that he is made up of the sterner side of Siva's nature
and appears in each millennium ( yuga) with different names
and symbols. In the Krita-yuga he receives the name Prach-
anda, is of angry appearance, rides on an elephant and has
the jatamakuta and sixteen arms. In Treta-yuga he is seen
smiling, has eight arms and dishevelled braids of hair, and
goes by the name Chanda. In the third or Dvapara-yuga he
has four hands, the lion vehicle, Jatamandala, protruding teeth
and a fearful face. His weapons then are the tanka, trident,
noose and the hook. In the Kali-yuga he has a peaceful
appearance and the bull vehicle, has his locks made up in the
' Mayiirabha11Ja, (p. :nxiv, fig. 13), gives a description of Kshetrapala

calling him Mahakala and Bhairava, The Silpasiira in describing Vatuka-
Bhaira,·a, calls him also Kshetrapala.
2 In the famous temple on the Srisailam Hill (Kurnool district) where the
influence of the Lingayata sect was once very great, is a pavilion adjoining the
Nandi-ma1tda,ta. An inscription of the fourteenth r.entury A . I J . describes it as the
place where the votaries, evidently of the Virabhadra form of Siva, offered up
their heads in order to propitiate the furious god ; Madras Epi g r a phical Report
for 1914-15, p. 92, paragraph 15.
3 In Epigraphic records !he documentary transactions of a Siva temple are
stated to be conducted in the name of Chandesa, the supposed manager of the

lt!mple. Even now, visitors to a Siva shrine have to report 1hemselves before
Chandesa prior to leaving the temple premises and clap their hands as if to show
that they are not carrying with them any portion of the temple property.
.
II
form of either a jatamakuta, jatamandala or kisabandha and

stands with level feet in the abhanga or the sama-bhanga
posture. He may also be found seated with the right leg
hanging down from the seat and the left leg bent crosswise so
as to rest upon the seat. He holds the tanka (or, axe) in the
right hand and shows the boon-giving posture in his left
(fig. 103). 1 Sometimes both the hands are seen folded over
the breast in a worshipping posture with the weapon tanka
(or, sometimes, a flower garland) held between them. In this
case he receives the name .i\.di-Chandesa. A story related in
the Tamil Periyapuriinam about Chandesa makes him a
fervent devotee of Siva, who in his height of devotion, cut off
the legs of his own father, because he wantonly spilt the
milk-pots which Chandesa had secured as loving offerings to
Siva. Sankaracharya, who lived perhaps in the early part of
the eighth century A.D., refers to this Saiva devotee Chandesa
as pitridrohin, "the sinner against (his) father,'' evidently with
reference to the story related in the Periyapuranam. The form
of Siva known as Chandesanugrahamilrti, described above,
is entirely based on this anecdote.
NA:-iL>iSA, Nandi, Nandrsa or Nandikesvara, now represented by the
r ent bull placed in front of the chief shrine in a Siva
temple, is described by Hemadri to be one of the attendant
demi-gods of Siva. He is stated to have three eyes and four
arms and to wear a tiger's skin. In two of his hands he holds
the trident and the bhindivala " a short javelin." The third
hand is raised up over the head and the last shows a
stretched finger (tarjaniJ, his eye& being watchful and fixed
towards people coming from a distance into the Siva temple.
The Varaha-P1mzna says that, though originally an ascetic,
Nandi by his austerities and devotion to Siva was blessed
with a form similar to that of Siva himself and was placed at
the head of the attendant .l(anas of Siva. A metallic image
(fig. 104) from Valuvilr (Tanjore district) represents him in
this metamorphosed form. He has four arms of which the
two back ones hold the tanka and the deer and the two front
are joined together palm to palm in a worshipping posture.
By the side of Nandrsvara stands also his wife with two arms. 2
1 This last is the form of Chandesa usually found in Siva temples. In the
illustration, however, the left hand rests on the thigh and the position of the legs
is reversed.
• A verse in prafae of Nandi describes him as the husband of Suyasa.
He stand!' at the entrance into Siva temples with a knife or golden cane held in his
han s so as to touch the kiirpara of his right arm. In one of the mand a pas of
the Ekamresvara temple at Conjeeveram, Nandi is represented in the same posture
as Garuda, carrying in l:is out-stretched fore-arms the feet of Siva and Parvati.
SIVA
FIG. 103.-Chandesa; Tiruvottiyiir.

II-A
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
D.32+
----- -------------
FIG 104.--Nandtsa and his consort (metal); Valudir.
stvA 165
It must be noted that Nandrsa is a favourite deity of the

Saiva puritans, the so-called Lingayatas or Vrra-Saivas.
Bhringi, Bhringiriti or Bhringrsa is similarly a fervent BHRINGisA.
devotee of Siva. So exclusive was he in his devotion that
he is said to have ignored the goddess who was part and
parcel of Siva. His sole business in life, to which he had
pledged himself, was ever to circumambulate the linga of
Siva and no one else. To test his faith the god assumed the
hermaphrodite form of Ardhanari in which the goddess, as
already described, is not separated from the god. Bhringi
was not baffled ; but assuming the form of a bee (bhringa) he
bored into the united body and continued still to go round
and round the Siva half of the hermaphrodite. The goddess
Parvatr was enraged and cursed him to become emaciated
day after day. Bhringi, accordingly, grew very thin and was
unable to support himself. With the grace of Siva he
secured a third leg which supported him. Thus Bhringi is
represented in pictures with three legs (fig. 105). 1 A n image of
Bhringrsa with three arms and three legs is stated to have
been set up in the temple at Tanjore by a subordinate of
Rajaraja I in the eleventh century A . D .
Jvaradeva of Saiva mythology, who is supposed to have JvARA11i\vA.
been the destroyer of the demon Bhasmasura, is described in
the Agamas as having three legs, three heads, six arms, nine
eyes, and a dejected appearance. A n image from Bhavani in
the Coimbatore district (fig. 106) answers to this description
of Jvaradeva.
XXVI
Ganapati, Ganesa or Vinayaka, the popular "belly god," GANAPATI,
. . . . (;ANESA or
1s, as h"1s name m d'1cates, the c h'1ef of the S a1va grznas. H e 1s YINAYAKA.
said to be the eldest son of Siva and Parvatr, to have three
eyes, an elephant's head and ears and four arms. In the
- --------------
! The Va.mana-Puriina states that Bhringi was the name conferred by Siva on
the demon Andhaka after the latter had proved himself to l,e a staunch devotee of
Siva. Bhringi is rerresented with an emaciated body holding the staff in one
hand and the rosary in the other. His e) es are ever directed towards Siva.
2
One o( the popular stories explaining how Ganapati came to have the
elephant's head is as follows: Once upon a time when Parvatl went to hathe, she
made a figure of the turmeric which had been smeared over her body, gave it life
and limbs and appointed it to keep watch at the dour. Siva came to see Parvatl
but was stopped at the door Ly the ne" ly created guard. Siva in anger cut off the
head of the figure. The goddess entreated him to revi,·e her child. He agreed
and said that the head of any li,ing body sleeping v.ith the head placed northward
might be sev-,red at once and placed on the trunk of the turmeric figure. .Ap.
elephant v.as found sleeping in Ih. e v.ay described. Its head was accordingly 61t
,.
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·, .
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Fm. 105.-Bhringi; Srlsailarn.

SIVA 167
r· - - . . ,: :.•. • _ _ -_ I
I
-\-:-·-
FIG. 1c6.-Jvaradeva; Bhavani.
168 SOUiH-INDlAN tMAGBS
two back hands he holds the hook and the noose and in the
front arms an elephant's tusk and the wood-apple. Instead
of the two last we may sometimes find the boon-conferring
posture and the water-pot. According to the Kasyapa-Silpa
the noose may alternate with the rosary or a serpent. The
illustration from Lepakshi {fig. 107) shows the left lower hand
of Ganesa resting on his thigh. His elephant trunk is curved
out in the act of picking up the wood-apple or, sometimes, the
pudding. His pot-belly is girded round by a serpent and the
sacred thread, which is also a-serpent, hangs across the body
from over his left shoulder. In the seated posture Ganesa is
represented with one leg hanging from the pedestal and placed
on a foot-stool and the other resting on the pedestal. The
right tusk of the god is broken and must in no case be shown
complete. 1 He rides on a rat or bandicoot. His image may be
made standing {fig. I08), seated (fig. I09) or dancing {fig. 110). 2
In the first position the general bend of the body known as
abhanga or samablzanga may optionally be adopted. While
seated, the body is to be slightly bent to the left. Over his
head Ganesa wears the jewelled crown (kiriftunakuta) and
his hands and legs are fully ornamented.
Ganapati is a very important deity in the Hindu Pantheon."
Supposed to be the lord of obstacles (Vighnesvara I he is
worshipped by all classes of Hindus, other than SrI-Vaishna-
vas, at the commencement of every religious ceremony, whether
auspicious or inauspicious. A sect of Br,1hmanas called Gana-
patyas, found mostly on the West Coast, worship him as the
highest of the gods. As in the case of Vishnu and Siva he is
off and placed on the trunk. The figure came back to life and Siva accepting that
as his first-born child, blessed him and made him the leader (pat,) of the Saiva
hosts (ga11,zsJ. l'eople still l,eli ve that it is not right to sleep \\ith one's head
placed north\\ard. The Brahma,-aivarta-l'urana gives a different account and
makes Vishnu responsible for the chan!se in Ganapati's head.
1 In the Sukra>1itisam it is stated that his left (vama) tusk is broken, that his
vehicle may be any animal which he chooses and that his trunk holds a lotus.
2 The dancing figure of Ganesa frpm Gangaikondasolapuram has its upper
left hand lifted up instead of showing the noose ur the rosary.

3 Babu Nagendra Natha Vasu in his 1}fayiirabhanja states that Vinii.yaka is
worshipped even by the Buddhists, the Japanese calling him Binayakia. He

refers to a temple of Ganesa in Nepal which is supposed to have been built by a
daughter of the :.\!aurya king Asoka in the third century B.C. Dr. Bhandarkar
( Vaish11avism, Saivism, etc., p, 147 f.) gives the sixth century to be the earliest date
when Ganapati as the elephant-headed god, came to be generally worshipped by
the Hindus.
SIVA 16<)
.,.
1:.
; , l
!
Frc. 107.-Ganapati standing; Lepakshi.

FIG. 108.-Ganapati standing (metal); Pattlsvaram,

SIVA
FIG. 109.-Ganapati seated; S1yamangalam.

,:;,
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'll,)..,,
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---------
� 1(;, ! 10.-l;anapati ,lancing; ( ;angaikundasolapuram.
SIVA 173
'
also called by a thousand names. Mr. Havell explains Gana-
pati to be the manas, or worldly wisdom, personified. Gana-
pati in Hindu mythology is recognized as an unmarried g o d -
a brahmacharin. But from the sequel it will appear that some
forms of Ganapati have their accompanying goddesses, some-
times, recognized as Ashta-Siddhis (the eight presiding deities
of success or achievement).
Thirty-two forms of Ganapati 1 are mentioned in the
Mudgala-Purana. The Silpasara also refers to some of these
forms. Maha-Ganapati is stated in the Mudgala-Purana to be ):AHA-
an elephant-faced god, three-eyed, wearing the crescent of the GA:-.AI An .
>
moon as his head-ornament, and red in colour. He is lovingly

embraced hy his wife who, seated on his lap, holds a lotus in
her hand. The following weapons and symbols are mentioned:
the bijap1ira, club, sugarcane-bow, a brilliant discus, conch,
noose, lotus, ear of paddy, the broken tusk and the ruby-pot.
This list indicates that the god must have ten hands. 2 The
illustration (fig. II 1) from Madura shows Maha-Ganapati
riding on a rat and having on his lap the seated figure of a
goddess. He has ten arms but the weapons held in them are
not quite distinct. In the uppermost hand on the right side,
however, is seen the discus. In the Visvanatha temple at
Tenkasi (Tinnevelly district) we have a similar image seated on
a pedestal without the usual rat vehicle, the elephant trunk
being turned towards the left side. Here again only the discus
and the lotus held in two of the ten arms are clear Maha-
Ganapati with different weapons and two goddesses receives
the name LakshmI-Ganapati. A fine bronze image of LAKSHMi-
Heramba-Ganapati, also described in the Mudgala-Purana GA'IAPA1r.
II ERA \IBA-
comes from Negapatam (fi g. 112 ). Th.1s fi gure has fi ve e1ephant l;ANAPAn.
faces, the fifth of which, in the illustration, is represented at
the top.'1 O f his ten arms the two lowest show the protecting
and the boon-giving postures. The others hold the noose, the
tusk, the rosary, hook, axe, pestle, pudding and the fruit. He
rides on a lion, but no goddess is found, as in the two varieties
just mentioned. From Tiruvanaikkaval (i.e., Jambukesvaram)
1 The Siii-adiitilak,z speaks of fifty-one forms of Ganapati.

g The Si!parat11a says that he is seate,1 on a lotus-pedestal under a /.-a/pa-tree ;
that he has ten arms holding the weapons mentioned Ill the ;\,Ju,!gala-/'uriina and
that he is surrounded by gods and g,mas. Ko. 84 of the Tan1ore inscription,
(S.1.1., Vol. I I , p 407) refers to a comfortably seated (;anapati an,! mentions a
tree as one of his accompaniments. The reference may be to !aha-< ;anapati ;
but the inscription states that he had Jn!y four d1"ine arms.
s A stone image of this furm of Ganapati is found at Tiruvotti) iir near
:\la,!ras. It is of recent make an,1 h:i, the fi,e heads all arrange,! in a circle.
•. -
., f \ ( ' • . "
_
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FIG. Irr. '.\Iahii-Ganapati ; '.\fadura.

SIVA 175
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FIG, 112.-Herarnha-Ganapati (metal); Negapatam,

PANCHA• in the Trichinopoly district, comes a stone figure of Pancha-

lfUKHA-
VINAYAKA.
mukh_a-Vinayaka which answers to the description of
Heramba-Ganapati without the lion vehicle. There are other
forms known as Urdhva-Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapati
and Vara-Ganapati, 1 which are perhaps the inventions of the
followers of that mysterious and often indecent cult of Saktas,
in which the female energy of creation always plays a very
prominent part. Sakti-Ganapati and Uddanda-Ganapati are
BiJA- represented as embracing a goddess. Bija-Ganapa ti men-
GASAPAll tioned in the Silparatna has four arms, is fond of the citron
or VIJAYA -
GANAPA11.
and is adorned with shining ornaments. Perhaps he is the
same as Vijaya-Ganapati of the Mudgala-Purana. It may
be noted that in the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore,
established by the Chola king Rajaraja I about the beginning
of the eleventh century A.D., different forms of dancing and
seated Ganapatis were installed. These bore the names
Alayattu-Pillaiyar and Parivaralayattu-Pillaiyar. 2
Ganapati, the Tamil Pillaiyar, is a very popular god. He
is the god of wealth, the remover of all obstacles, the bestower
of success, the fulfiller of desire. He is gentle, calm and
friendly and withal possessed of a certain wise craft. A
famous story relates how Vyasa found no one capable of
writing down his voluminous Mahabharata to his dictation
and was referred to Ganapati. Ganapati agreed, but on the
understanding that Vyasa never stopped for a moment in the
midst. Vyasa on his part stipulated that Ganapati should
take down naught of which he did not understand the mean-
ing. So whenever Vyasa felt that he had to pause in the
middle of his composition he gave out a more than ordinarily
tough verse; and while the crafty god was worrying over its
meaning managed to be ahead of the god's writing. Temples
of Ganapati are quite common in Southern India, though there
are none which may be considered particularly famous, except
the one of Ucchi-Pillaiyar on the rock at Trichinopoly. In
virtue of his being the lord of spirits (ganas) which cause
obstacles to men, Ganapati is also considered to be the
guardian deity of a village and is, as such, installed in one
of the four quarters of almost every village.
1 The (;anapatyas recognize six forms of Ganapati to be the most important,
vi,., Maha-l;anspati, Haridr.i-Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapati, Navanita-Gana-

pati, Svarna-Ganapati and Santana-Ganapati.
2 I e . Ganapaii "ithin the main temple and Ganapati in the surrounding
shrine;. Evidently the former was wershipped as a chief god and the latter as one
of the subsidiary guardian deities of the temple.
SIVA 177
XXVII
Skanda or Kumara is another of Siva's sons known to SKAxuA or
Hindu mythology. He is represented with six faces (Sha- Ku,tARA.
danana) and as riding on a peacock. Being supposed to have

been brought up by the six mothers, the Krittikas (Pleiades),
he is known as Shanmatura and Karttikeya. The Puriinas
state that he was born of the fiery energy of Siva in a forest
of grass ( sara-1m11a ), became the commander of the army of
the gods in their battle against the giant Taraka, and that he
rent asunder by his arrows the mountain Krauncha. The birth
of Skanda-Kumara is described at great length by the famous
poet Kalidasa in his well-known work Kumiirasa111bhava.
Skanda is also known by the name Subrahmanya in the
Tantras. In some unexplained way there exists an intimate
connexion between the worship of Subrahmanya and of the
serpent. The common name Subba or Subbaraya found
among the Telugu, Canarese and Tamil people is explained
to be both a contraction of Subrahmanya and a synonym for
serpent. The sixth day of a lunar month ( shashthi) is held as
peculiarly sacred to Subrahmanya, as to the serpent god.
His riding on a peacock, his marriage with the forest maid
Valliyamman, and the fact that his most famous temples are
on hill tops, show that he is connected with the ancient tree-
and-serpent-worship and the sylvan deities. The Silpasiira
describes him under name Subbaraya as having six faces, three
eyes, the peacock vehicle and the weapons sakti, thunderbolt,
sword, etc. The Si!pasangraha describes him as having two
arms, the sacred thread, a tuft, girdle, kaupina and staff like
the unmarried students of the Vedas (brahmachiirin). It may
be noted that the day shashthi, sacred to serpent worship in
Southern India, is celebrated by feeding brahmach,irins and
presenting cloths to them.
The Kiisyapa-Silpa sets down that the image of Skanda may
be made of two, four, six or twelve hands and may have either
six faces or only one. The symbols generally are the sakti,
arrow, sword, discus, noose, a bunch of peacock's feathers,
shield, bow, plough, rosary and the postures abl,aya and
1111rada. When the image has two hanus, the left hand holds
a cock (k11kk11ta) and the right hand a sakti (the Tamil vii) 1•
Hemadri speaks of him as wearing a red cloth and riding on a
1 The famous image of Subrahman)a un the Pa.lni lhlls, called l'alani-
Andavar, has on!) two arms in one of \\hich he hulds the suNi, the other resting
freely on the "aist.
JZ
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
peacock. The illustration from Tiruvottiyur (fig. II3) shows

only four hands.
l:lHAUANANA- The most common variety however is the six-faced
SUBRAH- Shadanana-Subrahmanya, showing in his twelve hands the
)!ANYA,
symbols and weapons, rnkti, arrow, sword, discus, noose and
abhaya on the right and a kukktuta (cock), bow, shield, conch,
plough and varada on the left. He rides on the peacock
vehicle and may have on either side of him the attendants
Jaya and Vijaya (fig. 114), or perhaps the goddesses Valli and
Devayana or Devasena, " the army of gods." A fine stone
figure (fig. IIS) of Kurnara on the peacock vehicle, with a
single face and four arms and attended by the goddesses VallI
and Devayana, comes from Samayapuram in the Trichinopoly
district. A sketch from Chidambaram (fig. 116) shows Skanda
with three visible faces, ten arms and the peacock vehicle
fighting with giants-evidently Taraka and his retinue. In
four of his right hands he holds the weapons, sword, axe, arrow
and club while the fifth is in the posture of pulling the bow
string (missing in the illustration). The uppermost of his left
arms shows the vismaya posture, and the four others hold the
shield, bow, noose and bell. Subrahmanya may also be
shown with one face and ten hands and riding on the peacock
vehicle.
The worship of Skanda in India has been very ancient.
Dr. Bhandarkar in his work Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc., has
put forth literary and inscriptional evidence to prove that
Skanda was worshipped in the time of Patanjali and in the
early centuries of the Christian era. Si1draka, the author of
the drama Mrichchhakatik,1, introducing a thief as one of the
characters in his drama, makes him, before starting on his
profession, invoke the blessings of Skanda. The artisans of
the present day also resort to Skanda as one of the chief
deities who preside over their craft. In the south the worship
of Skanda-Kumara under the name Velayudha, Muruga, etc.,
is most popular. All classes are equally devoted to him, the
non-Brahmans being particularly so. It may be noted that the
shrines sacred to Skanda are always situated on hills, as at
Tiruttani, Palnis, Tirupparangunram, Kunnakudi or on the
seashore as at Tiruchchendi1r, etc. An ancient Tamil poem
called Tirumurugarruppadai probably written in the early
eighth century A.O. is devoted exclusively to describing
the shrines of Subrahmanya in Southern India. The god has
been included in Aryan theogony from very early ages. Like
most Saiva gods he may be the outcome of the fusion of
the ancient Aryan and Dravidian cults and this may
SIVA 179
-
- . ·- .,.-
:·
. . .-..,-.• ""
•
t ! :
&: ,.., ..., , :-.i-•
,_.
, - ..
FIG. 1 i3.-!:ikancla., ·riruvottJ) Ur.

.,.
-1 ··;
. ) J
-· -
. --• .f.:,;:.
i... . { -
: ' -. 1
-,
· "'
-----' -
'"
- ='--------
SlVA r8r
--------..·-•-,.,
fIG i 15. Skanda an,1 his con,orb , Sama) apura.m,

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
l· IG. II 6.-5kanda fighting with giants ; Chidam baram.

SIVA 183
account for the large number of devotees he claims among

the non-Brahman classes of Southern India. Like the other
Saiva attendants described above, who partake of the nature
of Siva and are made of his substance, Skanda is also one of
the leaders of the Saivite hosts ( ganas). He is a guardian
deity and is enshrined in almost every Siva temple of import-
ance in Southern India. He is par excellence the god of youth,
of energy and virility.
CHAPTER V.
SA KT I-GODDESSES.
With each of the chief and minor gods described 1 , bove

are intimately connected one or more goddesses who, so far as
the usual routine of worship in temples is concerned, play the
subordinate part of consorts, but considered in the higher
philosophical sense represent the peculiar energy or virtue of
the god without which he could not be in active communion
with the world. A cursory analysis of the Hindu cosmogony
resolves itself into groups of gods and goddesses, the former
being considered the agents or "the lords of karma" and
the latter their inseparable power or source of enPrgy. Thus
Brahma, the lord of creation, has the goddess SarasvatI (the
goddess of Learning or Speech) dwelling in his mouth. She
presides over learning and is the vach, loll.OS, (word) which
essentially is the first cause of creation; so is SrI or Lakshmi,
the consort of Vishnu, the presiding goddess of Wealth and
Happiness and hence, also, the energy that sustains or keeps
the world going. Siva's consort ParvatI or Uma likewise,
especially in her manifestation as Kalf, is the energy that
destrovs, that makes tht> world involve or draw itself into the
quiesc nt state from which it started or evolved. In fact a
sect of worshippers called Saktas, "the adherents of Sakti or
Energy," affirm that this Sakti, the feminine element in god, is
the sole, if not the preponderating, cause of all visible pheno-
mena. It may be noted that the word sakti is of the feminine
gender in the Sanskrit language. Almost every human or
divine activity has been personified as a goddess; even the
letters of the alphabet being supposed to have their presiding
deities. This theory of goddesses has pervaded even Jainism
and Buddhism, the latter especially in its Mahayana develop•
ment. Strict Sakti-worshippers do not make any rlistinction
of caste and creed. Perhaps it was thus that Sakti-faith
became one of the compromises providing a common meeting
ground for the different forms of religion prevailing in India . 1
1 J I a)Uf'abh,111ja, Introduction, p, J,cii.
SAK Tl-GODDESSES
Germs of the energy-creed may indeed be traced even in the

Upanishads-the early sacred books of the Hindus--though
its extreme development took place at a much later period.
II
Saktis may be found depicted in temples in any one of
the three aspects, the calm, the terrible or the ugly, as dis-
tinguished by the particular positions in which they are
placed or the circumstances under which they are worshipped.
When merely represented as the consorts of the gods they are
mild and pleasing in appearance and have only two hands,
in one of which is held the lotus bud. More often, however,
the goddesses have independent existence. The majority of
these latter are Saivite in their nature, i.e., wild, fearful and
destructive and are often propitiated only by bloody sacri-
fices.1 Before entering upon a description of these numerous
Saivite Saktis, a word may be said of each of the milder ones
associated with Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. It must be noted
that the characteristic feature in the worship of Saktis,
whether Saivite, Vaishnavite or otherwise, is the association
with them of mystic charms, or geometrical figures called
chakras, yantras or pithas, with conventional and often mystic
incantations and solemn ceremonials which make no appeal
to the gentler feelings of human nature.
III
SarasvatI or VagTsvarf, the consort of Brahma, may be SARAwA11 ur
represented with two or more hands- In the former case she VAGIWARt.
holds the book and the rosary, and in the latter the noose and
the hook in addition (fig. IIJ). 3 \TagTsvarT, who is referred to in
Mayiirabhanja (Introduction, p. lxxvi) as a goddess worshipped
both by the Buddhist and Hindu Tiintrikas, is described in
the Panchariitrltgama as having three eyes and four hands
holding in these latter the staff, book, rosary and the water-pot,
which as we have seen above, are the symbols of the creator
Brahma. Two other allied forms of Vagrsvarr are Dhenu-
Vagrsvarf and Saubhagya-Vagrsvarr, both of which are mild
in appearance and beautiful, but as Saktis in essence, they
display the Saivaite attributes of three eyes, the Jatiimakuto
1 A recogni,ed cL1s,iJicati,m of the S,1,kt1s under the heads \'oga, Bhoga and
Vira ha, been a\read referred to (above. p. u o , note 2). The first is defined to
be the godde,s " h " 1 , identical "ith the pede,tal ot Siva: the second is the god-
dess that stands to the left of S i , a or the Siva-/i,.g,1 as his consort and the third
is the inclcpcmlent g;ocldess g;cnerally instal\ecl in the third outer priikiir,1 of Siva
temple .
• In certain Cdses where she i , represcnte,l \\ilh four hands, she holds the
vmii and the \\ater-pot.
FIG, 117.-Sarasvati; Bagali,

SAKTI-GODDESSES 187
and the crescent. The former, who is logos (Sabda-Brahma)
incarnate, is identical with the illustration from Bagali given
above. Sarasvati, when represented as the goddess Sarada
(the form in which she is worshipped at Sringeri-matha,
in Mysore) presiding over the sixty-four sciences ( chatushsh-
ashtikalii), has five faces and ten arms. The worship of
SarasvatI generally held on the ninth day of the Dasara is
conducted by invoking her presence in a library of books and
offering fruits, flowers, sandal and incense.
IV
The two consorts of Vishnu are LakshmI (Wealth) and LAK,1rni or
PrithvI (Earth). The former is seated or standing on a red SPRRiI l'HVI ao<l_
or
lotus pedestal, has four hands, holds two lotus flowers in MAHi.
her upper arms, the other two hands being either in the
boon-giving and protecting postures or holding a vessel and a
fruit. She is said to have sprung from the ocean at the time
of its being churned for nectar. The latter, Prithvi, 1 has only
two hands of which the right is raised in the abhaya posture
and the left holds the fruit of the pomegranate. Her left
leg is represented also as stepping upon a pot of treasures.
When LakshmI accompanies Vishnu she has only two hands.
Eight forms of LakshmI, known as Ashta-MahalakshmI, are
remgnized. O f these, Gaja-LakshmI is the most popular. GAJA-
She is generally found figured on the lintels of door-frames, LAKSHMi,
has four arms and is seated in the same posture as Vinayaka,
on a full-blown lotus of eight petals. In her right hand she
holds a lotus flower with a long stem which reaches her
shoulder ring and in her left a pot of nectar. The two
other hands of the goddess hold the bilv,1-fruit and the
conch. Behind her are represented two elephants pouring
water from two pots held by their trunks over the head of
the goddess. The Manasiira describes the same goddess with
two hands as Samanya-Lakshmi and says that she is figured S A M A N , -
.
on door-ways. I n the S'/ - th'1s go dd ess 1s ca II edth e two- 1LAKSHMI•
I pasara N DRA -
'
handed Indra-Lakshmi. A fine representation of Samanya- LAKSHMi,

Lakshmi comes from Mahabalipuram (fig. 118). 2 The central
figure of the group is seated on a pedestal of lotus flower,
whose open petals are seen hanging down and decorating
with their edges the rim of another lotus pedestal at the
1
.l/ii,zasiira describing her under the name Mahi says, that she is ligurt:d
standing or seated to the left of Vishnu with a blue lotus in her right hand, the
left hand banging down or showing the varada posture.
9 11/ayiirabhaHJa, Introduction, p. !xvi.
....
' .
-
..
.>,
,::l
"
(fl
V
GAVRt or The general form of the goddess GaurI, ParvatI or Uma,
PARVATi. the consort of Siva, as given in the Kasyapa-Silpa and
the Manasiira, is that she has two hands when accom-
panying the god Siva and four when represented independ-
ently. In the former case she is fully decorated, is standing
or seated on a lotus pedestal, holds a blue lily in the right
hand, while her left hangs down loose "like the tail of a
cow." She wears a band on the forehead called phalapatta,
has one of her legs slightly bent (kunchita) and the other
placed straight (lambita or svastika) on the pedestal; she stands
to the left of the image of Siva or the Siva·linga and wears
the head-dress karandamakuta, kiritamakuta or kesabandha
(fig. ug). In the latter case also she is fully decorated, has
a jatiimakuta like a male deity, and presents with her lower
hands the varada and abhaya postures, while in the upper two
she holds the red and the blue lotuses. Earlier authorities
state that she may also exhibit in these hands the lily and
the rosary. The illustration from Paramewaramangalam
(fig. 120) shows in the upper hands the noose and the hook.
Gaurr is usually represented with the ornaments of an
unmarried girl (kanyaka), sometimes doing penance with the
object of securing Siva for her husband (fig. 121), and in this
form she is worshipped by the Mahesvaras.
VI
The Saivite goddesses, who are either the independent
manifestations of ParvatI or the dependent groups of her
following, are too many to mention. 1 Most of the village
goddesses mentioned in Chapter VI, below, will be counted by
the orthodox Brahmana among these classes.
The SAPTA• We may begin the description of the Saivite Sakti deities
l!ATRIKAS, with the group of goddesses known as Saptamatrikas, 2 or the
' ' Seven
Mothers.'' "Seven Mothers." They are :-Brahmr, Mahesvarr, Kaumarr
Vaishnavf, Varahi, Mahendrr and Chamunda. 3 These with
Maha-Lakshmr, described below, are sometimes counted as
"Eight Mothers." They have generally two hands, are red in
1 Hem:idri, for instance, ha,; included names such as V:ima, Jyeshtha, J<audri,
Kali, Kala,·ikarani, Balavikarani, Balapramathani, Sarvabhiitadamanl and Manon.

man! "hich are merely different synonyms of Siva, Y<ith the feminine terminations
added on to them.
• See Burgess's Elur,1 Cave Temples, Plate XXXIV.
" N:irasimhi with the face of the man-lion god Narasimha is sometimes
mentioned in place of Ch:imund:i. It is also sometimes stated that the Seven
JothefS are but different forms of Chandi (i.e. Ch:imunda).
SAK TI-GODDESSES I9I
.... ,
..
FIG, II9.-P,irvati ; Bolumampatti.

,•
--
•...._..,._
• t
FIG, 120. - Piirrnti ; Paramesvaramangalam.

......
J
SAKTI-GODDESSES 193
FIG. 121.-Pa.1.-atl in penance; Pattisv.,ram.

colour and hold a skull and a lotus. Some authorities like the
Silpasangraha state that as representing the active energy of
Brahma, Mahesvara, Kumara, Vishnu, etc., they have the same
vehicles as their lords and hold the same weapons. BrahmI
(also called Brahman I) consequently has four faces, six arms l
and the swan vehicle, and she is of yellow
. hue. MahesvarI """
._____
(BhairavI) rides on a bull, has five faces, three eyes and ten
arms, and is decorated with the crescent. Kaumari" has six 'l
faces and twelve arms and rides on a peaco VaishnavI
is of blue colour and rides on Garuda, has six arms a n d Hie "
garland of flowers called ·;,anamiilii (peculiar to Vishnu).
VarahI has the face of a sow/ is black in colour, has a big
ping belly and rides on a buffalo. 3 Mahendrr (IndranI) '
has a thousand eyes, like her consort Indra, is of pleasing
appearance and of golden hue, and rides on an elephant. She
has apparently also six arms and displays the symbols i•arada,
noose and thunderbolt in her right arms and the abhaya,
4
vessel and lotus in her left. Cda is black and fearful 7
with protruding teeth, long tongue, erect hair, emaciated body,
sunken red eyes and a withered belly. It is stated that she
can change her appearance at will. She rides on a corpse,
wears a garland of skulls am! has jewels of serpents. In her
ten arms she holds the shield, noose, bow, staff and spear on
the left side, and the pestle, disc, fly-whisk, goad and sword
on the right. The Mayamata adds that she wears a tiger's
skin, has red hair glowing like fire, and the bdnner of a
kite. She may have four, eight or ten hands. According to
the same authority these Seven Mothers are to be flanked by
VIrabhadra and Vinayaka on either side (fig. 122). In front
of the Saptamatrikas the god Siva may be seated on a lotus
flower under the banyan tree Some of these goddesses are
1 The illustration in the Elura Caz,e Tonffrs shoY.s only four hands.
2 In the panel of Saptamii.trikas (ibid. Plate XXXIV, No. 1) Vii.rah! is repre-
sented with a fine human face and the usual ornaments but has the soY.-vehicle.
In No. 3 on the same plate, however, the goddess has the face of as.ow.
3 The Si/pasa11gra/1a says that Varahi was born of Yama, the God o f Death.
According to Her.,ii.dri the goddess Yamyii., evidently identical Y.ith Varii.hi, rides
on the buffalo, holds a staff and drinks blood from a skull, Three other ::;oddesses
with sow-face are mentioned in the Lalitopiikhy i'm a and the Viiriihikalpa.
Dandanii.tha-Varii.hi is one, seated on the golden lotus. She has eight arms and
a staff by her side. Svapna.Vii.rii.hi has the gleaming tu ks of a sow and four arms.
She rides on a horse. Suddha.Viirii.h! has also tusks and four arms. I t may be
noted that Bii.rtii.11 (Battii.li) is. a Buddhist goddess o f similar description, some-
times also referred to in the Hindu Ta11tras (illayurabha11ja, Introduction, p. xcv).
• This image has perhaps to be distinguished from Mahishii.suramardini•
Chamundii. described beloy..
SAKTJ-GODDE3SES 195
13-A
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
said to have each a tree specially sacred to them, e.g., KaumarI

has the fig-tree (udumbara), VaishnavI, the pipal, Vara.hi, the
karanja, Indrani, the celestial tree kalpadruma, and Chamunda,
the banyan.
The Saptamatrikas thus described are generally found
figured together in a group on the same panel and are quite a
common sight in South-Indian villages and Siva temples.
When installed within the enclosure of a temple, they are
seen often without a shrine built over them, and may receive
such attention as the other minor deities of that temple. In
villages and in Pidari temples built exclusively for goddesses,
they are worshipped regularly. The Selliyamma temple at
Alambakkam in the Tanjore district possesses an important
shrine for the Saptamatrikas. The order in which the
Saptamatrika images are cut on the stone differs according
to circumstances. For the destruction of enemies and safety
to villages BrahmI or BrahmanI must be made to occupy the
centre. If Chamunda be placed there instead, the village
will grow in population.
At the entrances to the shrines of Saptamatrikas are
placed two guardian deities. Evil spirits, demons and demi-
gods, holding tridents in their hands, may also be installed
in the same place. It is enjoined that the daily worship and
festivities in the Saptamatrika shrines are to be performed
according to rules prescribed by the Yamala·ma11trasiistra.
VII
Sakti- The following three goddesses, viz., Durga, Chamunda
goddesses
with Vaish- and MahishasuramardinT, though they partake mainly of the
navite sym- nature of ParvatI, 1 are however seen holding the Vaishnavite
Lols.
symbols of the discus and the conch. The Puriinas say
that Durga was born of Y asoda, in order to save the life of
Krishna who was just then born to DevakI. The children
were exchanged under divine intervention. Kamsa, the
cruel brother of DevakI, who had vowed to kill all the
children of his sister, thought this female child was DevakI's
and dashed it against a stone ; but, then, the child flew into
the air and assuming the form of Durga mocked him and
went away. On account of this incident she is known as
the sister of Vasudeva-Krishna. The Silpasara mentions a
Chandika (Chamunda) of eightern arms to whom the god Siva
presented the trident, Krishna (Vishnu), the conch and Agni,
1 l t is stated that the active energy of Siva, "hich is Vishnu himself, recei,es
the name Kiili while it assumes an angry mood, that in battles it is recuguizecl as
Durgii and that in peace and pleasme it takes the form Bhaviini (i.e. Pa.Fati).
SAKTI-GODDESSES 197
the weapon called sakti. According to the Markandeya-

Puri'ina the goddess that killed the buffalo-demon (Mahisha-
suramardinr) was made up of the fierce radiance of Siva,
Vishnu and Brahma while all the other gods contributed the
powers peculiarly characteristic of them for the formation of
her limbs and ornaments.
Chamunda 1 may be represented with eight, ten (fig. 123), C H A t u N n A .
twelve or sixteen arms and made either of wood or of mortar.
When in the dancing posture she must have eight, six or four
hands. Chamunda is known by the name KaralI or Bhadra-
kalI when she has eight arms, Kala bhadra when she has six
arms, and Ka!I, when she has four. BhadrakalI has a terri- BHADR,KAI.1.
blf' face, fat breasts, protruding teeth and a long tongue aml
wears a garland of skulls. She rides on a lion and stamps
under her foot the head of the buffalo-demon. Hemadri
quoting the V1s/111udliar111ottara says that Bhadrakalr has
eighteen arms and is seated in the /ilidha posture in a car
drawn by four lions. When worshipped by Brahmanas she
has ten arms, the Jatil111ak11ta and all ornaments. The second,
Kalabhadra, has a beautiful white form but is fierce, being KALA-
worshipped in burial-grounds under the name of Karala- HHADRA.
bhadra, seated in the 11irllsana posture with the foot placed over
the head of the buffalo-demon. The same goddess, when wor-
shipped by the Kshatriyas, is called KalI or MahakalI. 2 In KALi or
this form she ordinarily holds a trident or sword in one hand MAHAKALi.
and a skull or a cup of wine (fire?) in the other, rides on
a corpse and has a lean stomach. The owl is her vehicle.
She wears the tiger's skin, a scarf of elephant's hide and a
garland of heads ; has three eyes and ear-ornaments shaped
like conches; and is fond of flesh, blood and life. She is
followed by evil spirits who fill the four quarters with their roar
and she roams about the earth riding ,on their shoulders.
Hemadri, calling her also by the name Sivaratri, describes
her as having four hands, being black like collyrium, terrible
with protruding teeth and tongue (but at the same time
beautiful with broad eyes and slender waist), wearing a
garland of trunks (of human bodies) and a wreath of serpents.
1
Chii.munda , suppose.\ to he the form of Piuvati when she killed the giant
called Chanda-Munda.
2 l\lahiikali is de,cribed m the Cliawiiltalpa as having ten faces, ten legs and
ten arms in which are held all "capons of war. In this form she is stated to have
heen invoked hy Brahma to kill the demons '.\ladhu and Kaitabha who were
attempting to smash Vishnu in his sleep (see above, p. 52). The Kiira,.agama
meutions an eight-armed Kali or ;\J ahakall among the Durgiis. Kalika is a goddess
supposed to be the wife of Nairrita (below, p. 243).
198 SOUTH-I DI:\'.\ Il\lAGES
\l --· . ,,
f,.':..;··
>'
t/'f;;_
.
"'"' .,. ... '""'-'$..'--
,·
',' .\:
FtG. 123.-Chiimundii {Mahakali); Tiruchchengodu,

SAKTI-GODDESSES 199
KalI represented sometimes also with twelve or sixteen arms
is worshipped by the Vaisyas and Sud.ras under the names
Charchara and BhairavI respectively.
Durga is a very popular deity. The name is indifferently ouaGA.
applied to all goddesses with a terrible appearance and in a
fighting attitude. The general description of Durga given in
the Kasyapa-Silpa represents her as having four arms, two
eyes, high hips, high breasts, and all ornaments. She holds
the conch and the discus in her upper hancls,1 while her right
lower hand presents the abhaya posture and the left lower
rests on the waist. She stands on a lotus-pedestal and has a
breast-band of serpents and a red petticoat. According to
the Silparatna, Mula-Durga holds in her lower hands the bow MiiLA-
and the arrow. From Mahabalipuram comes the figure of a DuaGA.
Durga (fig. 124) who stands on the buffalo's head. She has
eight arms, in the uppermost of which are found the discus
and the conch. The other weapons held are the sword and
the bell on the right side and the bow and shield on the
left. The lowest of the right hands holds evidently a sriphala
or the bel-fmit and the corresponding left has a parrot
perching on it and rests freely on the waist of the goddess.
The necklace, breast-band and the garment hanging in
folds clown to her feet deserve to be noticed. The absence
()f finger rings on the eight hands of the goddess is pecu-
liar. The illustration shows also other figures surrounding
the goddess, viz., two male devotees with peculiar head
dress kneeling at her feet, two female attendants on either
side holding the sword and the bow, two demi-gods one
of whom is carrying a chauri, and a lion and a deer. In
another mandapa at Mahabalipuram is a sculpture evidently of
the same goddess with the lion and the deer, pairs of demi-
gods on the sides and devotees at the feet, one of whom
is in the act of either cutting off his hair or his neck. The
goddess has only four arms and stands on an ordinary
pedestal but not on the buffalo's head (fig. 125). A t Srr-
mushnam in the South Arcot district is an image of Durga
with eight arms showing almost the same symbols as those
of the figure at Mahabalipuram described above, the only
exception being that instead of the bell in one of the right
1 Rai Bahadur \ enkayya says in South-Ind. l,iscrs, Vol. I L lntrod., p.
41, note 1 : - " Durgii is represented "ith a sheep's head standing on the giant
Simhamukhiisura whom she killed. Her head 1s fiery and adorned with different
jewels. On her forehe"d she wears a crescent made "ith sacred ashes of burnt
cow-clung. In five of her six hands she holds, respectively, a ring, a sword, a
trident, a goad, and a skull."
t IG. I 24. - Durg.i ; St:ven Pagodas.

SAKTI-GODDESSES 201
''
1:.· ' -
. '..:...a.,."--
hands she is holding, perhaps more correctly, the arrow. The

figure stands on the head of a buffalo without any other
accompanying attendants and has an umbrella overhead (fig.
126). Images of Durga with four or more arms standing on
the head of a buffalo are generally found placed in a niche
on the north wall of the central shrine of Siva temples in
Southern India (fig. 127 ). Occasionally, however, they may
stand on ordinary pedestals without the buffalo's head, as at
Tiruvottivur near Madras. In the Vishnu temple at Tiru-
malisai, Chingleput district, is a similar image (fig. 128) placed
in a niche on the north wall of the central shrine. It is said
to be Lakshmr but perhaps represents Durga without the
KkrvAYANi. buffalo's head. The Mayamata, describing the figure of
Katyayanr with four arms, says that she holds the conch and
the discus in the upper hands and exhibits the abhaya and the
varada postures with the lower. With eight arms and a parrot,
this same figure is stated to receive the name of Durga. The
description of the sculptures from Mahabalipuram and Srr-
mushnam agrees with what has been said of Katyayanr m
the Mayamata.
The Saiva ama specifically describes nine varieties of
Durga, all of which have two arms but different weapons
SAILAPUTRI. and vehicles. The first, known as SailaputrI, rides on a bull,
wears the crescent on her head and holds a trident in her
hand; the second BrahmacharinI holds the rosary and the
water-pot; the third Chandakhanda rides on the kite and
has an angry look; the fourth Skandamata rides on a lion and
holds lotus buds in her hands ; the fifth Kushmanda-Durga is
distinguished by a pot full of wine (or blood) which she holds
in both of her hands; the sixth Katyayanr riding on a tiger,
holds a drawn sword in her hands and is killing a giant; the
seventh KalaratrI is of fearful appearance and has a grim
smile on her face; the eighth Maha-GaurI rides on a white
elephant; and the ninth SiddhidayinI is attended by demi-
gods. The Kiiraniigama quoting the Skanda-Yamala describes
these nine Durgas under different names and says that one of
them has eighteen arms while the rest have sixteen each.
They are generally shown standing naked with one leg
placed on the head of the buffalo-demon and hold in their fist
a tuft of the giant's hair. One of the Durgas with sixteen
arms called Shodasa bhuja-Durga has three eyes and serpent-
jewellery and holds tridents in all her sixteen arms.
MAHISHA- MahishasuramardinI (also called Chamunda, ChandI) is
SURAMAR- represented in the Nrisimhapriisiida as the youthful but angry
DINI.
form of ParvatI with three broad eyes, a slender waist,
heaving breasts, one face and twenty hands. Below her is the
SAKTI-GODDESSES
TIP
FIG, 126.-Durga; Srfmushnam.

204 SOUTH-INDI AN IMAGES
·•
.,. •,1',.,,.
FlG. 127.-Durga; Dharasuram.

SARTI-GODDESSES
205
}IG, ?2/j,-lJurga-Lakshmi,
Tirurnalis,.i,
buffalo-demon with his head cut off and rolling on the ground.
A man emerging from the buffalo's neck is seen holding a
weapon in his hand, abject with fear. Pierced by the trident
of the goddess, he is vomiting blood. The lion too on which
Chandika is riding attacks the giant with its mouth while the
noose held by the goddess is tightly fastened round his neck.
The goddess's right leg is placed on the lion while the other
steps on the body of the demon. 1 This form of ChandI is
propitiated by those who wish to destroy their enemies. The
ruling family of Mysore has Chamund:i-ChandI for its tutelary
deity.
A goddess with sixteen arms killing the buffalo-demon
and as such to be classed among the Saivite Saktis, is also
MAHA- called Maha-Lakshmr. The Maha-LakshmI, described in the
LAK'iH li. Chandikalpa, has twenty :urns, ° holds all the destructive
weapons and is seen in the act of killing the buffalo-demon.'
It will be observed that this Maha-LakshmI is only another
form of Durga.
Various postures of MahishasuramardinI in the act of
killing the buffalo-demon are depicted in South-Indian Saiva
temples, some of them being of excellent workmanship. It is
not always easy to distinguish the images which are thus
engaged in the act of killing the buffalo-demon, and to
say whether they be representations of Chamunda, Durga,
Mahishasuramarclinr or Maha-LakshmI. It may, however, be
suggested that figures with a breast-band standing upright
on the severed head of the buffalo are genera-Hy those of
Durga-Lakshmr, while those in the actual fighting attitude
are either Chamunda, Mahishasuramardinr or Maha-LakshmI.
They generally have eight arms and hold weapons, the
conch, discus, bow, shield, sword, bell, noose and trident.
The demon may be shown with a human body, or a human
body with a buffalo's head,' or a buffalo from whose severed
trunk proceeds a human figure. The illustrations given
show some of the fighting postures of Mahishasuramardinr
(figs. 129, 130, 131). In the Mahisha.sura-mandapa at Mahabali-
puram is seen a relief on the proper left wall, which repre-
sents the fight between Durga-Mahishasuramardinr and the
J Hcmadri speaking of Katyayani with ten arms, gives almost the same
description.
2 .Maha-Sarasvall mentioned in the same work, is said to be an emanation of
Gauri. She has eight arms and is engaged in destroying the demon Sumbha
and his retinue.
Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate IV, fig. 7, shows the giant as a man
"1oith buffalo's horns.
SAKTI-GODDESSES 207
,-····;
•'
.-. ,·
.I
.'' t
·'
. I
·......J
FIG. 129.-Mahishiisuramardinl , (;angaikonda.solapuram.
---c:: - ?:S ! ? -
h._ JI I cz.;..,..p ,.. . . fM
. .,
Fm. 130.- i\Jahishii.suramardinl ; Dharasuram.

SAKTl-GODDESSES 209
Frc;, IJI. -Mahishiisura.mardina; Durgi,

0
b
O.
c
d
p
...
"
a
"
>
Ul
SAKTI-GODDESSES 2II
buffalo-demon (fig. 132). Dr. Vogel gi\'es the following de-

scription of the relief:--" The goddess astride on her \'ehicle,
the lion, is eight-armed. With two hands she shoots arrows
at the demon king. The emblems held in her remaining six
arms are a disc (chakra), a bell (glu111W) and a sword (klwdga)
to the right and a conch (sankha), a noose (pc7sa) and an
indistinct object, to the left. A quiver is visible over he
left shoulder.
" S h e is surrounded by a host of dwarfs, evidently the
ganas of Siva, her spouse. One, behind her, holds a parasol
over her head; another at her side waves a fly-whisk (chlimara).
The remainder carry weapons, usually a round buckler and a
curved sword, in shape like the kukri of the Gurkhas. One in
the foreground is in the act of shooting an arrow from a bow.
'' Distinct from these ga11as is a female figure fallen on her
knees in front of the lion and raising a sword with her right
hand. Possibly this figure represents Kali, an emanation of
Durga, though she does not present the terrific appearance
peculiar to the black goddess.
"Right opposite Durga stands the colossal figure of the
buffalo-headed demon-king. His royal rank also is indicated
by a parasol held over his head- He carries a heavy mace in
his two hands and has, moreover, a sword fastened to his left
hip. His attitude is that of yielding to the onslaught of the
warlike goddess.
" H i s army is represented by seven demons. Two of these
are prostrated in the foreground-one slain and another
wounded. The latter raises his right hand with two fingers
raised. What is the meaning of this gesture? Is it that of a
vanquished warrior imploring his victorious enemy to spare
his life? O f the remaining asuras one is retreating, whereas
the others seem to offer a feeble resistance. It is worthy of
notice that with the exception of l\fahishasura himself, the
demons are shown in a purely human shape.''
VIII
Many other Saivite goddesses of fearful appearance,
worshipped by people who wish to destroy their enemies or to
receive some desired object of life, are described in the Tantrik
works. Some of these which are mentioned below may pos-
sibly be, as some suggest, the Aryanized forms of aboriginal
deities still worshipped in the Pidari temples of the South.
Kalaratri already referred to as one of the nine Durgas, KALARATRI.
has a single braid of hair and japa-flowers for her ear-
ornaments; she is naked, rides on an ass, has hanging lips
I4•A
and is bathed in oil. In her left hand she holds a human head
severed from the body and on the left leg is worn an anklet
of metallic wire.
TvARITA Tvarita is stated to be a goddess of the Kiratas or a 'hun-
ers.' She has two hands, is decorated with peacock's feathers
on the head, and wears a cloth of leaves (as some of the
wild tribes of to-day), a garland of gunja-seeds and a (head)
jewel of eight serpents. N agendra Natha Vasu finds in this
goddess a close resemblance to Nagamata "the mother of
serpents," Skandashashthi or Manasa, and to the goddess
Tavita of the Scythians. 1
TRIPURA- Tripura-Bhairavr has four arms, wears a garland of heads
BHAIRAVi,
and has her breasts bathed in blood.
VAJRAPRA'>- VajraprastarinI 2 is stated to be seated on a lotus, in a boat
Ti\.RINI.
of blood floating in an ocean of blood. The limbs of her body
as well as her head are also bathed in blood.
Sura, wine personified, is represented as a terrible
unmarried goddess of eighteen arms and of three eyes. She
is tall of form and is as dangerous as destructive fire. She is
a terror to the demons and a blessing to angels. In plain
language Uma herself is described to be the goddess of wine
and Siva (her consort) to be the power of intoxication thereof.
SURAPRIYA. Surapriya is a goddess seated in a meditative posture
cross-legged and attended by a group of Saktis called Ash-
tangayoginis. On either side of her are the deities Purnasva
and Pushkala. Madhukara, a fat man with hanging belly;---__
two hands and a smiling face, stands on the left side of the
goddess. A pot of wine and a staff are also placed near
her. The goddess is installed in the houses of prostitutes
and small villages or towns, undc'r different names such as
Devabhavi, Jnanabhavi and Grtabhavi. 3
SRiVIDYA- SrividyadevI has fierce fangs protruding from her mouth,
D1<:Vi.
sits on a serpent couch and wears necklaces of human bones.
PRANA'iAK1 I. Pranasakti, like VajraprastarinI, is seated on a lotus
springing from a boat of blood, in an ocean of blood, and
holds among other weapons a human skull filled with blood.
' .lfa;iiraMa11p1. Introduction, p. xx,ix f. The Silparat,.,1 adds that Tvaritii

rides CJn a crow and is considered to be a widow.
According to the Silf,arat11a this goddess is-. form of Parvati, has six hands,
is s<:ated on a red lotus, e hibits in her hands a sugarcane-bow, a flower.arro11·, the
z•arada and aMaJ·a postures, a noose and a skull, and is engaged in van<Juishing
J\liira thc god of Love.
3
fn the names l'iirniisva, Pushkal.i and Madhukara we ma_ v see an apparent
analogy to Piiranai, Pudgalai and Ma,lurai-Viran mentioned under village deities
(belo,\S p. 230).
SAKTI-GODDESSES 213
This is, as it should be, in the case of a goddess who presides

over the centres of physical life (priina). 1
SvasthavesinI is of scarlet colour, inspires dread in those S v A s T H A -
who see her, dwells amidst corpses, has three faces and two VE:,INi.
arms holding the kettle-drum and the trident, dark eyes,
lean body and three braids of thick black hair. She is of the
nature of forest fire.
SatruvidhvamsinI, "the destroyer of enemies," has like- S A T R u v r n H -
. ·· ·
. t hree f aces, 1s as crue 1 as the fl ames of fi re, has red eyes, VA\ISINi
wise
fearful fangs, red hair, and a capacious belly. She is naked.
Ugra-Tara, the goddess presiding over various diseases, VGRA.TARA
stands in the iilidha posture, carries a corpse over her
head and roars terribly. Short of stature, she has braids of
black colour mixed with yellow and is surrounded by dreadful
serpents. In a skull she holds the diseases of the three worlds
together, with the object of killing them.
DhumravatI or Dhumra-KalI has a reel body and wears a red I >H ihr nA -
cloth. Her ear-rings are like the trunks of an elephant and VATi.
her fangs, terrible. She wears a necklace of skulls, is
surrounded by devils, and holds in her hands a drawn sword
and a skull.
Sulin I with her eight arms, is likewise a goddess who stuNi.
inspires fear. She holds a trident, rides on a lion and is
accompanied by four unmarried girls with swords and shields
in their hands.
Pratyangira has four arms and a face as terrible as that of PRATYAN-
a lion. Her hair stands erect on her head: In her hands she GIRA,
holds a skull, trident, kettle-drum and the noose (niigapasa).
She is seated on a lion and by her power destroys all enemies
(figs. 133 and 134). 2
SitalaclevI (or Mariyamma), the goddess of small-pox, is SirA1.Ao&vt
represented as riding naked on an ass with a winnow on her
head and a broom and water-pot in her hands. 3
Trikantakidevi has a body which is black below the navel, TR1KANTAKi-
red between the navel and the neck and white above it. o&vi.
The terrible fangs protruding from her four faces are so long
and crooked that they pierce out through her belly. In her
four hands she holds two lamps, a conch and a discus.
- - · - - - - ------------------
' The goddess l'rii.n.ts.tktt 1 ' invoked by llr.ihmanas, in ccrcmontcs ,. here the
prii11apratishthii, "rnfusing (an 1ma'sei \\ith life,"' has to be observed.
' The lion vehicle is miss mg m the Tiru ppaliitturai bronze. The Tiruchchen-
godu figure has the sw.,rd .tod sh1elcl in place of skull and ll'.)Ose and a brea,t-band
like Durga. Both are called Bhadrak.ili by the people.
3 The
illustration of this ima:;:e given by :-,;agemlra Natha Vasu(J/ay,,r ,bkaJij,z,
Plate, facing p. xcvi, fig. 51) and classed by him as one of the Buddhist and
7 a n trik goddesses, is not naked. X either does she carry a winnow on her bead.
f
J.
_
...
-, .
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1-
,·•
,, ll
"'r- 1
:,,
J ·"llli
-r,;. 13,.- - Prat)anl{ira; Tirnchchengiidu
SAKTI-GODDESSES 215
.',f
¢ I
,,
1·1,;, 13 .-l'ratyang1ra ·?) 1metal); T1ruppaiatturai.
BHDTAMATA. Bhutamata, "the mother of goblins" has her seat under a

pipal-tree and is followed by numerous demons, goblins and
demi-gods. She has two hands in which are held a linga (or,
sometimes a sword) and the shield. She rides on the lion and
has dishevelled hair.
S1vAouTi, Sivadutr has a dejected appearance, emaciated body and
the face of a jackal. She wears a garland of skulls, is
fearful and is surrounded by serpents. She may have four
or more arms,1 holding in the former case, a vessel of blood,
the sword, the trident and a flesh-pot.
IX
YF.SHTIIA or Jveshtha or Jyeshtha-LakshmI, so called on account of her
YKSH1 HA-
LAKsH\li, being supposed to be the elder sister of LakshmI/ is a black
goddess with hanging lips, stunted nose, pendant breasts and
a big belly. She revels in blood. In one hand she holds
a lotus made of iron while the other hand rests on her seat.
But sometimes she is seen holding lotuses in both her hands.
The legs of the goddess are stretched and hang clown from the
seat, in the so-called European fashion. Her parting curly
hair is made up in the form 'I'tisik11ha11dlw. A pair of crows
represents her banner. On her right side is seated a bull-faced
figure said to be her son, holding a staff in the right hand and
exhibiting a pointing finger Isiiclzi) in the left. On the corre-
sponding left side of Jyeshtha, is seated her daughter, said to
be a fair lady (fig. 135). Sometimes the goddess is represented
as red in colour and then receives the name Rakta-Jyeshtha.
The goddess Jyeshtha with the hanging belly, attended by
women on either side and wearing a reel cloth, is generally
installed outside villages. Her following consists of goblins,
demons and spirits. She is the goddess of ill-luck.'i
The worship of Jyeshtha appears to have been once quite
familiar in the Tamil country. Like the shrines of Pidari, her
shrines were also exempted from tax:ition, as stated in early
Chola records. From an inscription on a pillar in the rock-
cut temple of Subrahmanyasvamin at Tirupparangunram near
Madura, we learn that about the eighth century A . D . a shrine
---------- ---- --- ---- - - - - - - - - --- ----
1 A Sivadiiti of eight arms is mentioned among the Nit}ak:mnatle,atas of the
L1litopakhy ii n,1.
2 Nirrit1 is the mme hy \ \hich this gocldess of ill.luck, Alakshmi, the elder
sister of Lakshmi, is mentioned in the I'admolt,1rzkl,,111d,1. She is said to reside
in the pi;,,,l-tree. Conse'luentl} also this tree is not Lo be tuuched except 0n
Saturd1ys \\hen, Lakshmi coming to see her sister, makes the tree auspic-ous.
'South-1,idian lHscrip tio11s, \'ol. I i , p. 60.
SAKTI-GODDESSES 217
'
--
.
'.(
-. ,i
for the goddess Durga and one for Jyeshtha were caused to
be made in that temple. 1 A t Kukkanur in the Nizam's
Dominions, there is a celebrated Brahmanical temple dedi-
cated to Jyeshtha. In Southern India her worship nowadays
is much neglected, if not altogether avoided, she being
supposed to be the goddess of misfortune and poverty.
X
In contrast to the ugly and fearsome goddesses mentioned
above, there exist in the Hindu Pantheon other Saivite
goddesses who are described as mild and extremely beautiful.
BALA- Among these may be mentioned Bala-TripurasundarI of
TRlPURA- dazzling brilliance, "like a thousand suns bursting forth at
SllNDARi.
SAUBHAGYA- the same time"; Saubhagyabhuvanesvarr, of red hue, a
BHUVAN&s- jewelled crown, a smiling face and heaving breasts, who
VARI.
holds a pot of gems in one hand and a red lotus in the other
(fig. 136) and who places her right foot on a treasure of gems;
ANNAPUR:-.A. Annapurna 2 of two or four arms who, in the former case,
holds gracefully in one hand a jewelled vessel coutaining
food and in the other a spoon to distribute the same (among
her devotees), or in the latter, holds the noose and the hook
in two hands and shows the protecting and the boon-giving
GAvATRI, postures in the others; the goddesses Gayatrr/ Savitrr and
SAVITRi and - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SARASVATi 1 Ind. A11t., Vol. X X I I , p. 68. lt may be noter! that Mr. T. A. Gopinatha
Rao in his Elements of Hindtt lo11ograpl,y (p. 391 f) considers the figures of
Subrahmanya and his consorts worshipped in one of the chief rock-cut shrines of
the temple to be Jyeshtha "ith her bull-faced son on one side and her fair
daughter on the other. The figures are, indeed, muth worn out and their
features are indistinct; nor are the crow-banners characteristic of Treshthii,
clearly visible. Two cod.s, ho\\e, er, the banner of Subrahmanya, engraved on
the rocky side walls of the same shrine and contemporaneous \\ith the images,
prove beyond doubt that the group is one of Subrahman) a and hi; two consorts and
not of Jyeshtha. The shrine of the latter goddess, referred to in the inscription,
is in a different compartment, in the lower storey of the same rock.cut temple. At
Anamalai, not far from .Madura, is a similar rock-cut shrine of Subrahmanva but
with only one goddess. The cock-banner of the god is, again, very clearl/shown
on the side walls, as in the Tirupparangunram shrine. People call it Sramanan-
koyil ., the temple of Sramana (i.e., a Buddhist or a Jaina)" though the actual
name must have been Saravanan-koyil, " t h e temple of Saravanan" which latter
name is connected with Saravanodbhava, a synonym of Skanda-Subrahmanya.
2 Literally, •mewl,,, i , full of food (to give to her devotees). This is tl:e name
of the famous oddess in Benares, who is also sometimes called V 1sal.ib hi. •• the
hroad-e-) ed.''
3 Gayatri is of the nature of fire (or Brahma), has lour or ten arms and four
faces and ndes on a s " a , , ; SiiYitrl is of the substance of Rudra has four arms
four faces, twelve eyes and the bull vehicle ; Sarasvatl partakes o f the nature of
Vishnu, rides on Garuda, has four arms and one face and holds in her hands the
Vaishnavite symbols, the discus, conch and the club as also the palm of protection.
SAKTI·GODDESSES 219
f
..
- --,-•- ._-_-,-'_-
'•
----:--,_,: -
I I
I '
'
·. -- :.,- ...____
F m . 136.-Saubha.g)abhuvanesrnri; Dha.ra.suram.
SarasvatI who preside over the morning, mid-day and evening

prayers of the twice-born classes and represent the Vedas,
Rik, Yajus, and Sa.man or the three sacred fires, Ciirhapatya,
TULATA- Dakshi11ii1;ni and the Aha·vaniya, respectively; Tulaja-BhavanI,
BHAVANi
who like Annapurna holds in one hand a vessel of delicious
food and in another a spoon for distributing the same;
RAJA- Rajamatangf who is absorbed in listening to the talk of a
l.ATANGi.
parrot and stands with 0ne of her feet placed on a lotus,
LAGHUSYA.- while her hands are fondly playing upon the 7_iinii; Laghusya-
IALA. mala, a damsel who has just attained her youth and who plays
upon the 1•i11i, with a vessel of wine near her and with eyes
VARUXi. betraying signs of intoxication; Varunr, SudharnalinJ or
Amritesvarr, "the goddess of boats," who is seated on a boat
bedecked with gems and surrounded by an army of Saktis,
bright as the growing sun, maddens the three worlds by her
glance, decorates her tresses with the flowers of the pari}ata-
tree and holds a vessel of wine, a lotus and a cooked piece
1'.URCKl'LLA, of flesh in her hands; and Kurukulla, 1 also a goddes.s of
boats, fully drunk with wine, riding on a boat of gems and
VINDHYAYA- holding in her hands a paddle of gems. VindhyavasinI,
I Ni o r classed as one of the Ourgas, is called Mukambika in the
MiiKA,1HIKA
Silpas(ira. She is said to be seated on a golden lotus, to have
four arms and to be dazzling as lightning. By her side stands
the lion, her vehicle.
The most famous of these milder deities, however, are
LAL!TA, Lalita, Tripura-Sundari and Rajarajesvarr (fig. 137). All are
TR!PIJBA-
SUNDARiand
highly beautiful and of dazzling brilliance. They have four
RAJARA.JES- hands each and hold the symbols: noose (or, fruit), goad (or,
VARi. conch), sugarcane-bow (or, mirror) and five arrows (or, a
lotus or a cup of collyrium). Their worship is directly
connected with the mystic geometrical drawings known as
diakras and Pithas. Images of these goddesses are not
honoured so much as the chakras or pithas over which they
are supposed to preside. The worship offered consists in
throwing over the chakras a profusion of red turmeric powder
called kunkumam, which is generally worn on the forehead by
all Hindu ladies whose husbands are alive. The throwing
of kunkumam is accompanied by the repetition of long strings
of the names of Lalita consisting of synonyms-a thousand,
three hundred, or one hundred and eight in number. Each
name is prefaced with the sacred syllable Om. The goddesses
- - - - - - - - -----
1 This is a goddess common t" both tht: Umdu and the Buddhist T,111t-r,,s;
4lf.t) UJ a1'liil11Jtl, p lx:xx1x
2 In the Ankalamma temp!e at J,;,irempudi (Guntur district) is an inscription
of A D I 164, which refers to that village goddess, as Yindhyavasini.

SAKTI-GODDESSES 221
- - · :\_ : . : /,.:::-J
i'iifr:J
--:._: :!-_;{ :;"" ---I
-,1-
- ii: : : :;;-J
- ,<
: ,i .<, , ;ijl
FIG. 137.-Rajara jesvari; Ramesvaram.
are always presumed to be standing on a chakra imbedded in

the earth and hence the worship is offered at the feet of the
goddesses. In exceptional cases, however, as in the Kamak-
shi-amman temple at Conjeeveram, the chakra is placed in
front of the goddess. Bala-Sakti, holding a book, rosary,
goad and noose, is the presiding goddess of the six chakras
as stated in the Silpasara. The particular yantra sacred
to her is known as Bala-yantra which is described as a geo-
metrical drawing having in its centre a clot (bindu) closed in
by a triangle, a hexagon, a circle, a lotus of eight petals,
a square and another square with openings at the cardinal
points, consecutively. The Sri-chakra c;onsisting of a larger
number of intersecting triangles surrounded by circles and
squares is another such mystic figure considered to be highly
sacred to the goddess Lalita. The latter is stated to have
under her control innumerable fairy goddesses, some of whom
are so delicate that they can enter, by the order of their
mistress, into every atom of creation. Some with braided
hair and beautiful tilakas of kunkumam on their foreheads
are as sharp as fire ancl hold bows, arrows, swords and
shields of flames. They are the personifications of almost
every beneficent activity in the universe and are engaged in
putting down the Evil Principle. Lalita is said to have
fought and killed, with the aid of these deities, several
demons named Bhandasura, Sumbha, Nisumbha, Chanda-
Munda and Mahishasura. All these, apparently, represent
the powerfully persistent evil desires of men.
CHAPTER VI.
VILLAGE DEITIES.
I
Most of the Saivite goddesses described above have been Village
found to be of fearsome appearance, fond of flesh, blood and de,tie 1
wine I and intimately connected with goblins, spirits, demons ;;l t o 0
and diseases. One of them Tvarita, it was seen, was the Tantrik
. goddesses.
go dd ess of the K .ira_t as, an d v ·mdh yavasmr was ev1'd ent ly
another living on the Vindhya Mountain. Apya (Durga) is
described in the Harivamsa as the goddess of the Sabaras,
Pulindas, Barbaras and other wild tribes and as fond of wine
and flesh. It will not now be difficult to trace a connexion
between these and the village goddesses whose shrines are
generally the haunts of malevolent demons and who are often
appeased only by the slaughter of fowls, sheep, goats and
buffaloes. Almost every village in South India, however
insignificant it may be, has a shrine for one or more goddesses
of this nature. Generally they are situated outside the village
in groves of trees much dreaded by the people and are consi-
dered to be the grama-devatas, the guardian deities of the
village. Often there are no temples properly so called, and
where there are structures, they are crude and simple
enshrining within them rough unhewn stones representing the
amma or "mother" sacred to that village. Sometimes there
is only a spear or a trident fixed up straight in the ground in
place of the goddess-stones. The goddesses bear different
names. Some are called after the villages where their primary
shrines exist, such as Kollapuri-amma, Huskur-amma, Pung-
(i.e., Punganur-)amma, Hosur-amma, Uchchangi-amma, etc.
Other popular names among village deities are the " Seven
Kanniyamar," Bhadrakalr, Kaliyamma, Mariyamma, Mutyal-
amma, Ponnamma, Ellamma/ Ankalamma, Kolumamma,
1
In the Si!pasiira, "here the Chau,hashti-Yogin's are described, some are
stated to feed on dead bodies, some to wa.1cler at nights like de,·ils arnl some to
be quarrelsome demons with ugly eyes and erect hair on hear:!. Eighteen wel I-
known shrines of these goddesse; in India and Ceylon ( Lanka) a r e enume1atecl.
Nagendra Natha \'asu in his M,iyur,zbk,rn;a speaks of a Gr ek i;odJess called
Ella and connects her with Ajaikapa,l, one of the form, of Rudra, already
mentioned,
224 SOUTH-INDIAN 11\IAGES
Selliyamma, Pattalamma, Vandi-Kaliyamma, Alagiyanach-

chiyamma, Ulagattal, Pidari, Pechi, Katteri, Poleramma.
Gangamma, 1 Chaudamma, Durgamma, Nukalamma, Paid-
amma, 1\siramma, Padalamma, Gontyalamma, Paraclesamma,
Neralamma, Mallamma, Peddintamma, Somalamma, Matan-
girala, Talupulamma, Sellandiyamma, etc. Some of these
names like Bhadraka!I, Kollapuri-amma (Kollapura-Maha-
lakshmI), Kaliyamma or Kala-Pidari (Ka.II), Gangamma
(Ganga), Chaudamma (ChandI ?), Durgamma (Durga) and
Matangirala (MatangI, a recognized synonym of Parvatr)
are clearly mentioned m the Tantrik works ; and others
can easily be traced to the same source. Mariyamma,
for instance, under the name Marika occurs in the Puranas
as the goddess presiding over small-pox and other infectious
diseases. Kolumamma or Kulumayamma, Selliyamma (Tsal-
lamma of the Telugus) and Sellandiyamma are evidently
synonymous with Sitala. Poleramma, the village goddess
commonly worshipped in the Telugu country, is also supposed
to correspond to Sitala. Peddintamma is perhaps Jyeshtha.
It is, however, difficult to explain similarly the origin of
names like Ankalamma, Pattalamma, etc. O f these again, a
few are of a flattering nature such as Mutyalamma," the pearl-
like mother" (fig. 138), Ponnamma or Bangaramma, "the
golden mother," Alagiyanachchiyamma, "the beautiful queen
mother," etc. Ellamma probably means the goddess of
boundaries (Telugu, ella).
Kala-Pidari and Durga-Paramesvariof four arms are names
of village goddesses which occur in early Chola inscriptions.
The shrines of these are generally termed tinimurram. a
But sometimes, when they are structures, well endowed and
1
In parts uf the Guntiir district (;angamma is seen with the crocodile vehicle,
e.g., at l'ullagunta in the Palnad taluk Eddently she represents the pre,iding
deity of the river Ganges. In the epic poell/ Ramay ana, where the heroine
Sita is m><de to worship the goddess Ganga (Ganges), she promises to offer, on
her safe return from exile, fowls, buffaloe, and wine to that goddess.
2 Sltalii or Sitaladevi is recognized as the goddess presiding over small-pox
both in the Canarese and the Telugu districts.

·' Rai Bahaclur Venkayya describes Pidari as a seated goddess "ith "fire
issuing from her whole body to indicate her great wrath. On her head she wear, a
cro" n, various ornaments in her locks, on her forehead the mark of Siva, bulk)
jewels in the large holes of her ears and t\\ o tlowers behind them. She has four
hands holding in them, respectively, a kettle-drum with a snake, a trident, the skull
oi Brahma and a goad Her throne is an altar Pidari temples contain also an image
of Vighnesvara and the entrance is guarded by two horrible door-keepers called
\fanna.diyar She has eighteen generals. Pidiiri is said to be the cha s tizer of aI. I
evil spirits because those who hang or poison themselves,or die any violent death,
are turned into malignant demons who would destroy the whole human race if not
kept in check by Pidari;" SI.I, Vol. I I . Introduction, p. 41, note I.
VILLAGE DEITIES 225
FIG, 138.-Mutyalamma; Avani.

15
patronized like the other orthodox Hindu temples, they are

called srikiJyil. Four varieties of the goddess Pidari are
known from the records of Rajaraja I of the first quarter of
the eleventh century A.D., viz., Punnaitturainangai, "the
goddess (living on a river bank), in a grove of punnai trees,"
Poduvagai-ur-udaiyal, "the village deity common to all
(classes)," Kuduraivattam-udaiyal "the deity surrounded by
(clay) horses," and Tiruval-udaiyal, "the deity of the sacred
banyan tree."
II
Worship of The worship in the shrines of village goddesses is generally
the,e deities. performed by non-Brahmans. In the Chingleput and North
Arcot districts are a class of priests known as Ochchans 1 who
are exclusively devoted to service in Pidari temples. They
say that they are Brahmanas of the Sakta creed and perform
the worship according to the Tantrik ritual. Sometimes, but
very rarely, Brahmanas also worship these fearful goddesses
installed even within the sacred precincts of orthodox temples. 2
For example, Vattapirai-amman, "the mother who wears the
circular crescent (on her head) " at Tiruvottiyur near Madras,
is a goddess of this kind to whom animal sacrifices are offered
on fixed days in the year. On such occasions it is stated that
the Sudra priest takes the place of the usual Brahmana and
an entrance opening directly into the outer courtyard of the
temple-kept closed on other days of the y e a r - i s now thrown
open for the goddess to receive animal sacrifices and worship
from her Sudra or other devotees. After the annual festival
is over, the goddess is purified. The buffalo sacrifices, which
these village deities are generally fond of, indicate their
connexion with MahishasuramardinI, the slayer of the
buffalo-demon and with other similar Tiintrik goddesses
mentioned above.
Peculiar Some of the ceremonies peculiar to the temples of the
ceremonies. village goddesses, besides animal sacrifices, are (I) fire-
walking, (2) swinging on the sidi with a hook passed through
the skin during what is otherwise known as the chakra-puja,
(3) lashing oneself with a whip, (4) piercing a metallic wire
right through the tongue or through the sides of the mouth, (5)
slashing at the breast and forehead with swords until the blood
1 Thurston's" Castes and Tribes," Vol. V, p 4t9f
2 In many important Siva temples of the South, I have observed processional
images of village goddesses kept in a separate room and worshipped. It is
gathered from the priests of the temples that before commencing any imponant
festivals in the Siva temple, these images are carried in procession and the village
deities are first appeased, the expense being met from the Siva temple.
VILLAGE DEITIES 227
spurts out, (6) thrusting a spear through the abdomen 1 and

(7) carrying on head the karaJam, lamps of ghee, or earthen
pots with blazing fire in them. Annual festivals called jatras
are generally held in honour of the village deities. But when
infectious diseases among men and cattle prevail, special
worship is arranged for, to appease the deities by sacrificing
animals, offering heaps of cooked rice mixed with blood, or
by carrying the karagam. This last is celebrated by dressing
the selected person who has taken a vow to perform the
ceremony, in the yellow cloths of a woman, putting on him
the ornaments of women and making him carry on his head
a pot or pots profusely decorated with flowers and margos,1
leaves and supposed to contain in them the spirit of the
particular goddess for whose propitiation the ceremony is
gone through. A class of Tamil-speaking gardeners, called
Tigalas in Mysore and allied to the Pallis or Vanniyans of
other districts, are particularly devoted to the five Pandavas
of the Mahlibharata story, and to their common wife, DraupadI. DRAt'PADi
The illustration from the courtyard of the Draupadf temple temple, a11<l
kari1J[alll.
at Kumbakonam (fig. 139) shows a group, in which the
figure of Bhadrakalf with eight arms and a flaming crown,
crushing the head of a giant under her left foot, is dis-
tinctly seen. The original goddess of the temple is, however,
Draupadr whose metallic figure with that of Arjuna, one
of her five husbands, is preserved in the central shrine.
The two huge heads seen in the illustration, next to Bhadra-
kalr, are those of the hero, A r a v a n - s a i d to be a son of
Arjuna by a Naga princess. He is believed to have been
offered as a sacrifice on the great battle-field of Kurukshetra,
especially with the object of securing success to the Pandava
brothers. Substantial big temples are built for DraupadI and
the Pandavas under the name Dharmaraja in the country
round Kolar and Bangalore. The karagam-carrying ceremony
is performed every year and attracts immense crowds of
excited sightseers. The central figure of the ceremony is
the priest who, as he madly trips along with the sacred weight
over his head, like a high tiara decorated with flowers, is
closely followed by a select number of m e n - t h e supposed
attendant deities-with drawn swords in their hands. This
scene very strongly reminds one of the goddess SolinI, who
has been described above to be one of the Tantrik goddesses,
1Some of these inhuman practices seem to be hut remnants nf the older
human sacrifices \\hich were once quite a common feature of Sakti v.or.hip.
Epigraphical evidence has been adduced to show that voluntary human sacritices
were offered even to the male <lett) Virabha<lra (abo,·e, p. 161, footnote 2 .
IS-A
VILLAGE DEITIES 229
followed by four unmarried girls with swords and shields in

their hands or of a form of the goddess Durga surrounded by
maids with drawn swords. The Saptamatrikas of the Tantras
are also counted among village deities and are, perhaps, the
same as "the Seven Kanniyamar (unmarried girls)" or the
" Seven Sisters." They are frequently appeased by special
worship when any unforeseen and sudden illness takes hold
of a man. The local fortune-teller, often a woman of the
Korava caste, being consulted, says that the patient is pos-
sessed by the "sisters " while walking alone in untimely hours
of the clay near tanks, gardens or groves. At once the god-
desses are propitiated. A temporary shrine is constructed.
Seven small stones are planted in a row, near a tank, almost
touching the edge of the waters, and a small shed erected over
them with leaves and flowers. Coconuts, plantains, fried rice
and pulse are then offered to the stones and not unfrequently
also a fowl. Even Brahmanas worship the "Seven Sisters" in
this way, but when a fowl is to be sacrificed they get a Suc!ra
to do it. The worship is enjoined to be performed in wet cloth
after bathing.
The practice of honouring and even worshipping women Sati-worship
nd
who committed sati appears to have been very old in Southern 6are-wa Ik'mg
India. Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil poem Silappadi- ceremony.
garam, died on hearing of the unjust death inflicted upon her
husband by the Pandya king of Madura. She was thence-
forth worshipped in shrines built for her throughout Southern
India and Ceylon. In the latter island she is known as Pattin I
and is very popular. The mother of Rajaraja I is stated to
have committed sati and in consequence of this act, evidently,
an image of her was set up in the temple at Tanjore. Peran-•
talamma, a woman who committee! sati, is equally reputed in
the Telugu districts. Kanyaka-ParamesvarI who is the tutelar
deity of the Vaisya (Komati) caste is also connected with the
story of a woman entering the sacred fire. The fire-walking
ceremony peculiar to the temples of village goddesses may
have some connexion with sati.
III
The village gods are not so many in number as the god- AIYANAR.
<lesses. Aiyanar, Hariharaputra or Maha-Sasta is supposed to
be, as his name implies, a son of Siva and Vishnu. 1 When the
celestial nectar was obtained by the devas and asuras after
churning the ocean (seep. 139f, above) they quarrelled about
1
For a fuller description of A1yanar and his position among village deities, see
S.I.I., Vol. II, Introrluction, p. 40, note.
the distribution of it. Vishnu assumed the form of a beautiful

young woman, called MohinI, and by her attractions enticed
the asuras and made them agree to depute her to distribute
the precious liquid equally to all. She of course deceived them
and gave the nectar to the gods alone. Siva saw MohinI at
the time and was enamoured of her. He wedded her, and the
result of their union was Hariharaputra. This deity is largely
worshipped in Malabar and parts of Tinnevelly and Tanjore.
In these districts he is not assigned the subordinate position
of a village deity as in others. In the latter, however, he is
one of the guardian deities of the village and, as such, is
attended by bhutas and pisachas. He has long curly hair, a
crown and ear-rings of gold-leaves. In his two arms he holds
the bow and the arrow. He is dark of colour and is seated
on a throne below a banyan tree. In the illustration given
(fig. 140) the position of the hands of what is believed to be
a figure of Aiyanar does not appear to suit the weapons, bow
and arrow, which he is stated to hold. 1 In the figure from
Valuvi1r he is seen riding on an elephant in the very same
posture, holding in his right hand what looks like a whip or
an elephant goad (fig. 141). In front of his temple are placed
figures of horses, elephants and other animals, made of wood
or of painted brick and chunam, which are supposed to serve
him as vehicles in his nightly perambulations. A third figure
from Ramesvaram(fig. 142) represents him as riding on a horse.
Puranai and Pudgalai are stated to be his two wives, and
Madurai-VIran and Pavadairayan, his generals. Madurai-
Vrran is a historical person whose adventures are noticed in
the South Arcot District Gazetteer. 2 Kuttisattan, Sattan,
Karuppan, Mundan and Gulikan are the names of some of
the malignant demons that attend upon Aiyanar.
].;:,;l{f"Pl'A'.\· Karuppannasami is a similar god worshipped by the
"N.\..,A \II.
Kallars of Madura. Chains, clubs, spears and bill-hooks are
his symbols ; and these are presented by devotees at his
shrines as votive offerings. They are generally found either
hung on the trees or stuck into the ground. A similar god
much dreaded by the people is Munisvara whose name is
quite popular. He is represented by a block of stone, a bush
or sometimes a tree. Men and women called Muniyappa,
Munisami, Muniyamma, etc., are so named because they were
evidently born as the result of propitiating Munisvara. It
1 \\"c ban, a similar figure of stone within the Nataraja temple at Chidam-
baram, "hich people call Ardhajama-Alagar.

\' ol. I , p. 101.
VILL:\GE DEITIES 231
,·. ,_ . ·' -.:··

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FIG. 140.-Aiyanar (metal) ; Tiruppalatturai.
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
FIG. 141.-Aiyaniir (metal); Valuviir.

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THACKER,\: Co. ( Ltd.), P, 0 4)-' ,

IN Tl-• UNITED KINGDOM.

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF CODS AND

( PRICE, 5 rupees S anuas. J [8 ,l,il!im;s 3 pence,]

THE TANJORE TE)IPLJ:.

GODS AND GODDESSES , r '

H. KRISHNA SASTRI, ILA., RAO SAHEB,

:-."'l'RA 1, ARCH:\ EOLO r ·

704--94-0 '-75 /+5

T H IS little book owes its origin to a :;u. ·p:estion made

My chief source of information in compiling this

" q . Vishnu ancl his consorts; 1riyamhakkam 21

" 69. U masahita do. 112

" 79. Do. Dharasurarn 126

" 82. Gajahamiirti ; I>harasuram 130

8q. I >o. Chandragin 139

" 138. 1\Iutyalarnma ; Asani 225

qo. .\iyanar (metal) Tiruppalitturai 231

1-f9• Nairrita; .-\hohalam 240

15 I. Vayu do. 249

155• Dvarapala ; Tiruvottiyur 2 55

156. I >o. I Jharasuram 256

: I,::. J·,: tt-- .....,:!. . : .•·

GODS AND GODDESSES

published l,y the Pii.nini Press, Allahabad.

and the ninth centuries of the Christian era. 1 The more

FIG, I. -GOp11ra, Xar.1;;11nha temple; ).l.1ngala iri.

Fn;. 4.-Processional 1m.,ges (metal); :\fadnra.

up in the fashion known as jata-makuta and he is attended by

FIG. 6.-Brahma ; Seven Pagodas.

FIG. 9 . - B r a h m a and Sarasvatl; Kandiyiir.

..._:;• . .., ·--,,-,, ..

FIG. 10.--Brahm.i on swan vehicle; Chidambaram.

FIG. I 1.-\·1shm. (A,htabhuja); CunJee,eram.

FIG. 13.-Yishnu; Paramesvaramangalam.

from Ariyambakkam in the Chingleput district illustrates the

found in the shrine of the Varaha-Perumal cave-temple. The

FIG. 16.-Xara.;1mha bursting forth from the pillar : Ahobala.m.

by Vishnu in his Varaha-1matar. Hiranyakasipu then becamE'

1 A <letailed description of the images in the rock-cut temples at Nama],kal

h t ; , 18.-l'gra-Narasimha \metal) ; la,lns :\ln,et:m.

FIG. r9. -Voga-Nara.imha; Tirupati Hill.

the same description of him, states that the cruel form of

1 There is alsu a panel in the rvck cut lemflt: at Niima.kka.1, .reprt:Senting

FIG, 21.-Trivik rama: Kumbakonam,

FIG, 25.-Butter-dance of Bala-Krishna (metal); Madras Must um

in one hand began to r:lance heavily on his raised hoods. The

l"IG. 26.-Serpent-dance of Kali:a-Krishna (metal); i\ladra, i\lusemu

FIG. 27.-Venu-Gopala: Iadras Museum.

FIG. 30.-Krishna on the p,,nnai-tree (wood) ; Kumbakooam.

Fru. 3 r . - Parthasiirathi teaching the Bhag11v,1d-Gila to Af)un a ; J'ushpa g i n .

regarded by some as an avatar designed to lead the asuras

description of Vishnu, which comes very near to what has been

;' ' ' f·,., ...I

FIG. 34.-Lakshmi-Narayana ; Namakkal.

Figures of Vishnu, with four arms seated in a meditative Y6Gii.svARA•

FIG. 36.--Garuda-Narayana and l;ajendra moksha. Kumbakonam.

FIG. 37 .-Yogcsvara-Vishnu ; Hiivinahadagalli.