Electrodynamics Ch1

CHAPTER 1
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
1.1 Electrodynamics Before Maxwell
• So far, we have encountered the following laws, specifying the divergence and curl of
electric and magnetic fields:
• If you apply the divergence to number (iii), everything works out:
• The left side is zero because divergence of curl is zero; the right side is zero by virtue of
equation (ii).
• But when you do the same thing to number (iv), you get into trouble:
• The left side must be zero, but the right side, in general, is not.
• For steady currents, the divergence of J is zero, but when we go beyond magnetostatics,
Ampère’s law cannot be right.
• The problem is on the right side of continuity equation, which should be zero, but isn’t.
1.2 How Maxwell Fixed Ampère’s Law
• Applying the continuity equation and Gauss’s law, the offending term can be rewritten:
• If we were to combine ϵo(∂E/∂t) with J, in Ampère’s law, it would be just right to kill off
the extra divergence:
• Such a modification changes nothing, as far as magnetostatics is concerned: when E is

constant, we still have ∇ × B = μ × B = μoJ.
• In fact, Maxwell’s term is hard to detect in ordinary electromagnetic experiments, that’s

why Faraday and the others never discovered it in the laboratory.
• Maxwell called his extra term the displacement current:
• Finally we put the finishing touches on Maxwell’s equations:

1.3 Magnetic Charge
• There is a pleasing symmetry to Maxwell’s equations; it is particularly striking in free

space, where ρ and J vanish:
• If you replace E by B and B by −μμoϵo E, the first pair of equations turns into the second,
and vice versa.
• This symmetry between E and B is spoiled, though, by the charge term in Gauss’s law
and the current term in Ampère’s law.
• What if we had
• Then ρm would represent the density of magnetic “charge,” and ρe the density of
electric charge;
• Jm would be the current of magnetic charge, and Je the current of electric charge.
• Both charges would be conserved:
• The former follows by application of the divergence to (iii), the latter by taking the
divergence of (iv).
• Maxwell’s equations beg for magnetic charge to exist—it would fit in so nicely. And yet,
in spite of a diligent search, no one has ever found any.
• As far as we know, ρm is zero everywhere, and so is Jm ;
• B is not on equal footing with E: there exist stationary sources for E (electric charges)
but none for B.
• (This is reflected in the fact that magnetic multipole expansions have no monopole term,
and magnetic dipoles consist of current loops, not separated north and south “poles.”)
• Apparently God just didn’t make any magnetic charge.
1.4 Maxwell’s Equations in Matter
• Maxwell’s equations are complete and correct. However, when you are working with
materials that are subject to electric and magnetic polarization there is a more
convenient way to write them.
• For inside polarized matter there will be accumulations of “bound” charge and current,
over which you exert no direct control.
• It would be nice to reformulate Maxwell’s equations so as to make explicit reference

only to the “free” charges and currents.
• We have already learned, from the static case, that an electric polarization P produces a
bound charge density.
• Likewise, a magnetic polarization (or “magnetization”) M results in a bound current

• In the nonstatic case: Any change in the electric polarization involves a flow of
(bound) charge (call it Jp ), which must be included in the total current.
• suppose we examine a tiny chunk of polarized material (Fig. 7.47). The polarization
introduces a charge density σb = P at one end and −μσb at the other.
• If P now increases a bit, the charge on each end increases accordingly, giving a net
current
• The current density, therefore, is
• This polarization current has nothing to do with the bound current Jb.
• Jb is associated with magnetization of the material and involves the spin and orbital
motion of electrons;
• Jp , by contrast, is the result of the linear motion of charge when the electric polarization
changes. If P points to the right, and is increasing, then each plus charge moves a bit to
the right and each minus charge to the left; the cumulative effect is the polarization
current Jp.
• The total charge density can be separated into two parts:

• and the current density into three parts:
• Gauss’s law can now be written as
• or
• where, as in the static case,
• Meanwhile, Ampère’s law (with Maxwell’s term) becomes
• or
• where
• In terms of free charges and currents, then, Maxwell’s equations read

1.5 Boundary Conditions
• In general, the fields E, B, D, and H will be discontinuous at a boundary between two

different media, or at a surface that carries a charge density σ or a current density K.
• The explicit form of these discontinuities can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations, in
their integral form using
• Divergences theorem: ∫ (∇ · v)d τ = ∮ v · da .

V s
• Stokes’ theorem: ∫ (∇ ×v) · da = ∮ v · dl

s p
• Suppose we draw a wafer-thin Gaussian pillbox, extending just barely over the edge in
each direction (Fig. 2.36).
• Gauss’s law says that
• we obtain:
• in the limit as the thickness of pillbox goes to zero, so the component of D that is
perpendicular to the interface is discontinuous in the amount.
• Identical reasoning, applied to equation (ii), yields
• Turning to (iii), a very thin Amperian loop straddling the surface
• gives
where But in the limit as the width of the loop goes to zero, the flux vanishes.
• Therefore,
• That is, the components of E parallel to the interface are continuous across the boundary.
• The same token, implies to (iv)

• where I f enc is the free current passing through the Amperian loop. No volume current
density will contribute (in the limit of infinitesimal width),
• but a surface current can. In fact, if n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the interface
(pointing from 2 toward 1), so that ( n̂ × l) is normal to the Amperian loop (Fig. 7.49),
then
• and hence
• So the parallel components of H are discontinuous by an amount proportional to the free

surface current density. These are the general boundary conditions for electrodynamics.
• In the case of linear media, they can be expressed in terms of E and B alone:

Electrodynamics Ch1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrodynamics Ch1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrodynamics Ch1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Electrodynamics Before Maxwell

• If you apply the divergence to number (iii), everything works out:

• Such a modification changes nothing, as far as magnetostatics is concerned: when E is

• In fact, Maxwell’s term is hard to detect in ordinary electromagnetic experiments, that’s

• Maxwell called his extra term the displacement current:

• Finally we put the finishing touches on Maxwell’s equations:

• There is a pleasing symmetry to Maxwell’s equations; it is particularly striking in free

• Both charges would be conserved:

• As far as we know, ρm is zero everywhere, and so is Jm ;

• Apparently God just didn’t make any magnetic charge.

1.4 Maxwell’s Equations in Matter

• It would be nice to reformulate Maxwell’s equations so as to make explicit reference

• Likewise, a magnetic polarization (or “magnetization”) M results in a bound current

• The current density, therefore, is

• The total charge density can be separated into two parts:

• Gauss’s law can now be written as

• where, as in the static case,

• Meanwhile, Ampère’s law (with Maxwell’s term) becomes

• In terms of free charges and currents, then, Maxwell’s equations read

• In general, the fields E, B, D, and H will be discontinuous at a boundary between two

• Divergences theorem: ∫ (∇ · v)d τ = ∮ v · da .

• Stokes’ theorem: ∫ (∇ ×v) · da = ∮ v · dl

• Identical reasoning, applied to equation (ii), yields

• Turning to (iii), a very thin Amperian loop straddling the surface

• The same token, implies to (iv)

• So the parallel components of H are discontinuous by an amount proportional to the free

You might also like