25/04/2018

Design and Detailing of Special  By: Kerrin Burgess 
MSc, MIStructE, CEng
Reinforced Concrete Walls

Agenda

• Definition of a Shear Wall System

• Classification of Structural Walls
• Design Philosophy of Special RC Walls
• Positioning and Proportioning of Shear Walls
• ACI design provisions for Special Reinforced
Concrete Wall Systems
• ACI detailing requirements for Special
Reinforced Concrete Wall Systems

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Definition

Structural walls also commonly referred to as shear

walls are walls that are proportioned and detailed to
resist combinations of shear, moment and axial
force that are as a result of lateral load actions on
buildings derived from wind and earthquakes

Classification of Structural Walls – ASCE7

As a lateral system to resist earthquake loads

structural wall systems can be broadly grouped to
ordinary or special reinforced concrete walls that
are part of a bearing wall system, building frame
system or dual system

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Classification of Structural RC Walls – ASCE7

Bearing Wall Systems Building Frame Systems Dual Systems

Special RC  Ordinary RC  Special RC  Ordinary  Special RC  Ordinary 

Parameter Walls Walls Walls RC Walls Walls RC Walls
Response Modification Factor 5 4 6 5 7 6

Deflection Amplification Factor 5 4 5 4.5 5.5 5

Over‐strength Factor 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Seismic Design Category  B & C  B & C B & C  B & C B, C, D, E &  B & C
Permitted F
D, E & F D & E 
(h  160 ft) (h  160 ft)

F
(h  100 ft)

Bearing Wall vs Building

Frame Systems
• In bearing wall systems walls are both the
primary gravity and lateral load resisting
system

• In building frame systems walls are the

primary lateral load resisting system, where
as the beam and column frames function as
primary gravity load system

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Dual Systems

In a Dual System Structural walls

are coupled with Special Moment
Frames as the primary lateral load
resisting system

The Special Moment frames are

prescribed to be capable of
resisting at least 25% of the total
lateral force

Wall Types Encountered in Design

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Seismic Design Philosophy – Slender Walls ⁄ 2

Slender walls tend to be have like flexural 
cantilevers.

For slender coupled walls the target 
mechanism is to have ductile yielding of 
the coupling beams over the height plus 
ductile flexural yielding at the base of the 
walls.

Wall shear failure is to avoided as well as 
failure of diaphragms and foundations .

Seismic Design Philosophy – Squat Walls ⁄ 0.5

Squat walls tend to resist lateral forces through a 
diagonal struct mechanism

They have high inherent flexural strength and thus 
are prone to inelastic response in shear rather 
than flexural yielding

Squat walls are prone the two types of shear 
failures that are to be avoided.

• Shear yielding where the web of the wall web 
develops inclined cracks.

• Shear sliding tends to occur at construction 
joints including the wall‐foundation interfaces

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Story Drift

Walls must be proportioned to satisfy the strength and story drift requirements of ASCE7.

Wall Positioning
• Walls should be well distributed within the
building plan, with multiple walls providing
resistance to story shears in each principle
direction
• Long diaphragm spans are to be avoided

• Walls should be positioned such that their center

of resistance is close to the center of mass

• Walls located near the building’s perimeter

maximizes torsional resistance

• Tributary gravity loads help resist overturning

moments, therefore it may be desirable to move
walls inward from the perimeter and away from
adjacent columns

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Vertical Irregularities
Irregularities can lead to stress concentrations and
localised drift that may be difficult to accommodate
in design. The following design is recommended
• Weak stories should be avoided

• Gradual reduction in wall section with height is

preferred

• Openings disrupt flow of forces and are best

located in a regular pattern that produces
predictable force transfer.

• Where regular opening patterns are used, good

design practice keeps the vertical wall segments
(piers) stronger than beams, to avoid story
mechanisms

Wall
Foundations
• Spread footings may be adequate
for long walls supporting sufficient
gravity loads, as overturning
moments may be low
• For higher overturning demand,
piled foundations are recommend
• Outriggers can be used to spread
overturning demand over
foundations
• Foundations and their
connections are to remain elastic
and consideration of capacity of
vertical elements framing into the
foundation should be made

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Wall Configurations

Effective flange widths shall extend from the face of

the web a distance equal to the less of:
• One-half the distance to an adjacent wall web
• 25% of the total wall height above the level in
question

Wall Segments

• Vertical wall segments are bounded horizontally by two openings or 
by and opening and an edge
• Horizontal wall segments is bounded vertically by two openings or by 
an opening and an edge

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Wall Piers – ACI 318 Definition

A wall pier as defined by ACI 318 is a vertical wall segment having ⁄ 6 and ⁄ 2

NB. ACI 318 requires special design provisions for wall piers

Modelling Considerations

1. Fixed base restraints are recommended for the determination of seismic forces

2. Cracked Section Stiffness – Wall are to be analysed using cracked and uncracked stiffnesses of
segments. e.g yielded segments can be modelled as cracked and non-yielded segments
uncracked

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Wall Reinforcement

• Special structural walls must have distributed web reinforcement in

both the vertical and horizontal directions.
• Special structural wall will also typically have concentrated vertical
reinforcement at their ends to provide additional resistance to
moment and axial force.
• Longitudinal reinforcement is enclosed in transverse reinforcement
to confine the concrete and restrain longitudinal bar buckling.
• Boundary elements are portion along the structural wall edges that
is strengthened by longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
• Where combined axial loads and moments result in high
compressive stresses, ACI requires special boundary elements.

Web Reinforcement

• Web reinforcement ratios (vertical reinforcement) and (horizontal reinforcement) must be at least
0.0025
• and are permitted to be reduced if shear force
• Reinforcing spacing in each direction is not to exceed 18 inches
• At least two curtains (layers) of reinforcement are required if 2
• If ⁄ 2 then is not to be less than the provided .

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Achieving Ductile Yielding

The walls critical section should be capable of multiple

cycles of inelastic yielding. To improve wall ductility the
following are key factors for design

1. Keep compressive and shear stresses low

(Ensure tension controlled wall section)

2. Design a confined, stable flexural compressive

zone

3. Avoid splice failure (ACI 318 requires lap splice

lengths at least 1.25 times for fy in tension, with
no requirement for confinement)

Avoiding Shear Failure

Shear failure of slender walls can lead to rapid strength lost at drifts below anticipated design levels. This is
especially so for walls resisting high shear forces.

Shear failure can also compromise wall axial strength

It is for these reasons a capacity approach is recommended in designing for shear resistance, where shear failure
is avoided altogether.

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Avoiding Shear Failure

Walls are designed to provide with

flexural capacities which are larger than
design values.

Consequently the lateral force required

to yield the wall in flexure and the
resulting wall shears, will be higher than
design values.

This can be accounted for in design by

amplifying shears with an overstrength
factor, which represents the amount of
flexural overstrength in the wall
⁄

Avoiding Shear Failure

Anticipating that walls will develop

even higher flexural strengths due to
material overstrengths and strain-
hardening, SEAOC (2008)
recommends
⁄

(NB. Both Mn and Mpr depend on axial

force and varies for various load
combinations)

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Avoiding Shear Failure

If this capacity approach is taken ACI318

permits a higher resistance factor to be
applied to shear strength

i.e. In cases where shear demand is

amplified by flexural overstrength

use 0.75

Where as when wall shears do not account

for flexural overstrength.

use 0.6

Nominal Shear Capacity of Structural Walls

The nominal shear capacity of a vertical segment of a structural wall is given by:

Where:

lightweight concrete modification factor

3 for… ⁄ 1.5
2 for… ⁄ 2.0
Values of are interpolated for 1.5 ⁄ 2.0
reinforcement ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement

The maximum allowable shear strength of all vertical segments resisting a common lateral force:

8
For an individual vertical segment: 10

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Nominal Shear Friction Capacity of Structural Walls

Shear friction capacity is applicable where shear is transferred across an interface of two concrete
volumes cast at different times, e.g. connection of wall to foundation.

Nominal shear friction is given by:

NB. is as previously defined when we discussed diaphragms

is the area of distributed vertical steel in the wall web

Nominal Shear Friction Capacity of Structural Walls

Alternatively shear friction is permitted to be calculated as:

(where a permanent net compression Nu is applied perpendicular to the wall)

(where a transient net tension Tu,net is applied perpendicular to the wall)

The maximum permitted value of nominal shear friction strength is defined as follows:

0.2 ; 480 0.08 ; 1600 (psi)

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Flexure and Axial Forces

Design for Flexural and Axial Load involves the following steps

1. Preliminary Proportioning

2. Boundary Element Transverse Reinforcement layout

3. Analysis for P-M Strength

4. Iterations to optimise the layout considering boundary element vertical and horizontal
reinforcement and section strength.

Flexure and Axial Forces – Preliminary Proportioning

We start by equating the moment demand at the critical

section to its moment capacity. The steel reinforcement
areas can then be solved for the capacity equation.
1. , , ⁄
2. ,

Where:
- tributary dead load and self weight
- location of center of gravity
- tension capacity of web reinforcement
(NB. You can initially assume As1 = 0.0025Acv)
- tension capacity of boundary reinforcement
0.4 - lever arm of web reinforcement
0.8 - lever arm of boundary reinforcement

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Flexure and Axial Forces – P-M Strength Calculations

Having established preliminary proportions, the next step

is to confirm P-M strength and neutral axis depth using
section analysis
The strength calculations for walls directly match the
calculations for concrete columns
The calculation assumes
• linear strain distribution
• Idealized stress strain limits per ACI 318

NB. P-M interaction software can facilitate the calculation

See example 
attached

Boundary Elements
Where combined seismic and gravity loading results in
high compressive demands on the wall edge, ACI 318
requires special boundary elements

Where compressive stress demands are lower, special

boundary elements are not required, but boundary
element transverse reinforcement still is required if
longitudinal reinforcement ratio at wall boundary satisfies
the following condition

, 400

,

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Boundary Elements
u ACI 318 provides two methods for determining whether special
boundary elements are required. The preferred method applies to
walls or wall segments that are effectively continuous from the
base of the structure to the top of wall segment
Procedure:

1. Determine u at top of wall, i.e.

2. Determine neutral axis length c, for the factored axial force Pu

and nominal moment strength Mn at the critical section,
consistent with the design displacement u. This can be done
from the strength calculations we looked at earlier

3. If ⁄
a boundary element is required

Boundary Elements
PLACEMENT

• The special boundary element should extend vertically above and

below the critical section a distance not less than the greater of
and ⁄4

• It is to extend horizontally from the wall edge a distance not less

than the greater of 0.1 and ⁄2.

• In flanged section the boundary element must include the effective

flange width in compression and must extend at least 12 inches
into the web

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Boundary Elements
AT FOUNDATIONS

At interfaces with footings, foundation mats, pile caps or other supports

• Longitudinal reinforcement must be fully developed for tension

• Where yielding of longitudinal reinforcement is likely due to lateral drift

the development length is calculated for 1.25fy

• Transverse reinforcement must extend at least 12 inches into the

foundation

• Where a boundary element has an edge within one-half the footing

depth from an edge of the footing, the transverse reinforcement must
extend into the support at least ld

Boundary Elements

ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR DETERMINING BOUNDARY ELEMENTS

The second method recommended by ACI 318 for boundary elements is 
based on nominal compressive stress. It is preferred use for irregular or 
discontinuous walls.

Procedure:

• For wall cross‐section determine nominal stress 
⁄ ⁄ ⁄

• Special boundary elements are required if the nominal stress exceeds 
0.2 .

• Once the stress falls below 0.2 An ordinary boundary element is 
continued until the stress falls below 0.15 .

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Boundary Elements

CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT

Special boundary elements shall be provided with confinement 
reinforcement (hoops and ties) meeting the following :

1. Area provided  0.9 ⁄

Where

s = spacing of transverse reinforcement

bc = dimension of confined core of the boundary element 
measured out‐to‐out of the transverse reinforcement

Boundary Elements

CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT

Special boundary elements shall be provided with confinement 
reinforcement (hoops and ties) meeting the following :

2. The spacing provided shall be the minimum of b/3; 6db; 4

in; 6 inches

3. The Horizontal web reinforcement shall extend to within 6 
inches of the wall end and shall be anchored within the 
confined core of the boundary element to develop the full 
tensile strength of the reinforcement

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Termination of Vertical Reinforcement

Vertical reinforcement can be terminated where it is no

longer required to resist flexure and axial force. The
requirements of ACI 318 are as follows

1. Terminated bars must be developed beyond points of

maximum stress.

2. Terminated bars must extend 0.8lw beyond the point

at which they are no longer required to resist flexure
and axial force

Wall Piers

Wall piers are narrow vertical wall segments that are

essentially a columns, but whose dimensions do not
satisfy requirements for special moment frame columns.

ACI define wall piers as vertical wall segments with

dimension ⁄ 6.0 and ⁄ 2.0

Design of wall piers follow requirements for vertical wall

segments with additional requirements

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Wall Piers

Wall piers are required to satisfy some requirements of columns of

special moment frames. These include:

1. Limitation on the longitudinal reinforcement 0.01 0.06

2. Lap splices are to be located in the center half of the member

length

3. Confining transverse reinforcement to be provide over from each

joint face. Spacing requirements are the same as that for columns

4. Design shear shall be calculated from considering the maximum

forces that can be generated at the joint face. Can we calculated
assuming Mpr acting at each end of the pier

Wall Piers

Alternatively if ⁄ 2.5 designs shear force is permitted to be

determined at both ends form the over-strength factor Ω times the
shear determined by analysis of the structure for design load
combinations.

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Wall Piers

In cases were wall piers are at the edge of a wall, ACI

318 requires horizontal reinforcement in adjacent wall
segments above and below the wall pier

This must be proportioned to transfer the design shear

force from the wall pier to adjacent wall segments

Coupling Beams

ACI 318 classifies coupling beams into three categories

based on aspect ratio ⁄ and shear demand.

1. Coupling beams with ⁄ 4 – these must satisfy the

detailing requirements of special moment beams

,
2. Coupling beams with ⁄ 2 and 4 -
these are required to be reinforced with two
intersecting groiuips of diagonally placed bars
symmetrically about the midspan.

3. Other coupling beams – these do not fall within the

limits previously prescribed, and can be reinforced as
either special moment frame beams or diagonally
reinforced beams.

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Coupling Beams - Classification

Coupling Beams – Designed as SMF Beams

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Coupling Beams – Diagonally Reinforced Beams

1. Each group of diagonal bars consists of a minimum of
four bars provided in two or more layers
2. Diagonal bars are required to extend straight into the wall
a distance at least 1.25 times the development length for
fy in tension.
3. Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement is required
around the beam section
4. Longitudinal reinforcement (typ. No 4 or No 5) should
extend only a short distance into the wall boundary.
5. Transverse reinforcement varies depending on the option
selected for confinement

Coupling Beams – Diagonally Reinforced Beams

1. Each group of diagonal bars consists of a minimum of
four bars provided in two or more layers
2. Diagonal bars are required to extend straight into the wall
a distance at least 1.25 times the development length for
fy in tension.
3. Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement is required
around the beam section
4. Longitudinal reinforcement (typ. No 4 or No 5) should
extend only a short distance into the wall boundary.
5. Transverse reinforcement varies depending on the option
selected for confinement

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Coupling Beams – Diagonally Reinforced Beams

The diagonally reinforced coupling beam can be idealized as
a truss with tension and compression diagonals along the
axes of the diagonally placed reinforcement. Thus

2 10

(NB. A good starting point is to assume that the centroid

depth at the critical section is 8)

For strength design:

Where:
- Shear force determined from analysis
0.85

Columns Supporting Discontinuous Walls

• Full-height confinement is required for the column over all stories beneath the discontinuous walls, if
axial force related to earthquake effects exceed ⁄10

• The confinement must extend upward into the discontinuous wall at least the development of the
longitudinal reinforcement

• If column terminates into a wall the confinement reinforcement must extend the same distance
downward into the wall below

• If it terminates into a footing or mat, extension 12 inches into the footing or mat is required,

• unless it terminates within one-half the footing depth from the edge of the footing, in which case it
must extend at least ld (calculated for fy) of the largest column reinforcement

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Other Requirements

• The specified compressive strength of the concrete fc’ shall not be less than 3000 psi (21 MPa) cylinder
strength

• Where high-strength concrete is used is restricted to an upper-bound of 100 psi (8.3 MPa) for any
calculation of shear strength or anchorage/development. This does not apply to beam-column joints
however.

• Deformed reinforcement resisting earthquake-induced flexural and axial forces in frame members must
confirm to specification ASTM A706.
• Alternatively ASTM A615 Grades 40 and 60 are permitted if
i. actual yield strength based on mill test does not exceed fy by more than 18000 psi (120 MPa)
ii. the ratio of actual tensile strength to actual yield strength is not less tan 1.25
iii. Minimum elongation in 8 inches is at least 14% for bar sizes No3 – No6, at least 12% for bar sizes
No7 to No11, and at least 10% for bar sizes No 14 and No 18.

Conclusion – Topic 6
Question

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