Do you think that what exists today will

Unit III continue to be so, or the future is going to be

Chapter 6 different in some respects? It can be said with
some certainty that the societies will witness
demographic transition, geographical shift of
population, technological advancement,
degradation of environment and water scarcity.
Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest
challenge on account of its increased demand
coupled with shrinking supplies due to over
utilisation and pollution. Water is a cyclic
resource with abundant supplies on the globe.
Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s
surface is covered with it but fresh water
WATER RESOURCES constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total
water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh
water is effectively available for human use. The
availability of fresh water varies over space and
time. The tensions and disputes on sharing and
control of this scare resource are becoming
contested issues among communities, regions,
and states. The assessment, efficient use and
conservation of water, therefore, become
necessary to ensure development. In this
chapter, we shall discuss water resources in
India, its geographical distribution, sectoral
utilisation, and methods of its conservation and
management.

Water Resources of India

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s
surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water
resources and about 16 per cent of world’s
population. The total water available from
precipitation in the country in a year is about
4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface
water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869
cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be
put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable
water resource in the country is only 1,122
cubic km.

Surface Water Resources

There are four major sources of surface water.
These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. In
the country, there are about 10,360 rivers
and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.
The mean annual flow in all the river basins
in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
However, due to topographical, hydrological harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the
and other constraints, only about 690 cubic Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins.
km (32 per cent) of the available surface water
Groundwater Resources
can be utilised. Water flow in a river depends
on size of its catchment area or river basin The total replenishable groundwater
and rainfall within its catchment area. You resources in the country are about 432 cubic
have studied in your Class XI textbook “India km. Table 6.1 shows that the Ganga and the
: Physical Environment” that precipitation in Brahamaputra basins, have about 46 per
India has very high spatial variation, and it is cent of the total replenishable groundwater
mainly concentrated in Monsoon season. You resources. The level of groundwater
also have studied in the textbook that some utilisation is relatively high in the river basins
of the rivers in the country like the Ganga, lying in north-western region and parts of
the Brahmaputra, and the Indus have huge south India.
catchment areas. Given that precipitation is The groundwater utilisation is very high
relatively high in the catchment areas of the in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak and Tamil Nadu. However, there are States like
rivers, these rivers, although account for only Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Kerala, etc., which utilise
about one-third of the total area in the only a small proportion of their groundwater
country, have 60 per cent of the total surface potentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
water resources. Much of the annual water Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are utilising
flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, their ground water resources at a moderate
the Krishna, and the Kaveri has been rate. If the present trend continues, the

Table 6.1 : Basinwise Ground water Potential and Utilisation in India (Cubic Km/Year)
S. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of Groundwater
No. Ground Water Resources Utilisation (%)

1. Brahmani with Baitarni 4.05 8.45

2. Brahmaputra 26.55 3.37
3. Chambal Composite 7.19 40.09
4. Kaveri 12.3 55.33
5. Ganga 170.99 33.52
6. Godavari 40.65 19.53
7. Indus 26.49 77.71
8. Krishna 26.41 30.39
9. Kuchchh and Saurashtra including river Luni 11.23 51.14
10. Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.68
11. Mahanadi 16.46 6.95
12. Meghna (Barak & Others) 8.52 3.94
13. Narmada 10.83 21.74
14. Northeast Composite 18.84 17.2
15. Pennar 4.93 36.6
16. Subarnrekha 1.82 9.57
17. Tapi 8.27 33.05
18. Western Ghat 17.69 22.88
Total 431.42 31.97

Source: Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, New Delhi;

http://wrmin.nic.in/resource/gwresource1.htm

Water Resources 61
 Fig. 6.1 : India – River Basins

62 India : People and Economy

demands for water would need the supplies. of lagoons and lakes have formed. The States like
And such situation, will be detrimental to Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal have vast surface
development, and can cause social upheaval water resources in these lagoons and lakes.
and disruptions. Although, water is generally brackish in these
water-bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating
certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
Exercise based on Table 6.1 :
Water Demand and Utilisation
1. Which river basin has the highest total
replenishable ground water resource? India has traditionally been an agrarian
economy, and about two-third of its population
2. In which river basin is the level of ground
water utilisation the highest? have been dependent on agriculture. Hence,
development of irrigation to increase agricultural
3. Which river basin has the lowest total production has been assigned a very high
replenishable ground water resource? priority in the Five Year Plans, and multipurpose
4. In which river basin is the level of ground river valleys projects like the Bhakra-Nangal,
water utilisation the lowest? Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar,
Indira Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been taken
5. Draw a bar diagram to show the total
up. In fact, India’s water demand at present is
replenishable ground water resources
dominated by irrigational needs.
in 10 major river basins.
As shown in Fig. 6.2 and 6.3, agriculture
6. Draw a bar diagram to show the levels accounts for most of the surface and ground
of ground water utilisation of the same water utilisation, it accounts for 89 per cent of
10 major river basins for which you have the surface water and 92 per cent of the
made the first bar diagram. groundwater utilisation. While the share of
industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the
surface water utilisation and 5 per cent of the
Lagoons and Backwaters
ground-water, the share of domestic sector is
India has a vast coastline and the coast is very higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation
indented in some states. Due to this, a number as compared to groundwater. The share of

Source: Earth Trend 2001, World Resource Institute, as given in Govt. of India (2002) Report
Fig. 6.2 : Sectoral Usage of Surface Water Fig. 6.3 : Sectoral Usage of Groundwater

Water Resources 63
agricultural sector in total water utilisation is rainfall like West Bengal and Bihar, breaks in
much higher than other sectors. However, in monsoon or its failure creates dry spells
future, with development, the shares of detrimental for agriculture. Water need of
industrial and domestic sectors in the country certain crops also makes irrigation necessary.
are likely to increase. For instance, water requirement of rice,
sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can
Demand of Water for Irrigation be met only through irrigation.
In agriculture, water is mainly used for Provision of irrigation makes multiple
irrigation. Irrigation is needed because of cropping possible. It has also been found that
spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the irrigated lands have higher agricultural
country. The large tracts of the country are productivity than unirrigated land. Further, the
deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. high yielding varieties of crops need regular
North-western India and Deccan plateau moisture supply, which is made possible only
constitute such areas. Winter and summer by a developed irrigation systems. In fact, this
seasons are more or less dry in most part of is why that green revolution strategy of
the country. Hence, it is difficult to practise agriculture development in the country has
agriculture without assured irrigation during largely been successful in Punjab, Haryana and
dry seasons. Even in the areas of ample western Uttar Pradesh.

Fig. 6.4 : The Ganga and its Tributaries and Towns Located on them

64 India : People and Economy

 In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Emerging Water Problems
Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net
The per capita availability of water is dwindling
sown area is under irrigation. Wheat and rice day by day due to increase in population. The
are grown mainly with the help of irrigation in available water resources are also getting
these states. Of the total net irrigated area 76.1 polluted with industrial, agricultural and
per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryana domestic effluents, and this, in turn, is further
are irrigated through wells and tube wells. This limiting the availability of usable water
shows that these states utilise large proportion resources.
of their ground water potential which has
resulted in ground water depletion in these Deterioration of Water Quality
states. The share of area irrigated through wells Water quality refers to purity of water, or water
and tube wells is also very high in the states without unwanted foreign substances. Water
given in table 6.2. gets polluted by foreign matters such as micro-
organisms, chemicals, industrial and other
Table 6.2 : Percentage of net irrigated area wastes. Such matters deteriorate the quality of
to total by wells and Tube-wells water and render it unfit for human use. When
toxic substances enter lakes, steams, rivers,
State Percentage ocean and other water bodies, they get dissolved
or lie suspended in water. This results in pollution
Gujarat 86.6
of water whereby quality of water deteriorates
Rajasthan 77.2
affecting aquatic systems. Sometimes, these
Madhya Pradesh 66.5
pollutants also seep down and pollute
Maharashtra 65
groundwater. The Ganga and the Yamuna are
Uttar Pradesh 58.21
the two highly polluted rivers in the country.
West Bengal 57.6
Tamil Nadu 54.7

Find out which are the major towns/cities located on

What is the pattern of well and Tube-well the bank of the Ganga and its tributaries and major
irrigation discernible from the above table? industries they have.

What are the implications of using ground Water Conservation and Management
water in drought prone area of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu? Since there is a declining availability of fresh
water and increasing demand, the need has
The over-use of ground water resources arisen to conserve and effectively manage this
has led to decline in ground water table in these precious life giving resource for sustainable
states. In fact, over withdrawals in some states development. Given that water availability from
like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increased sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinisation,
fluoride concentration in ground-water, and this is considered negligible, India has to take quick
practice has led to increase in concentration of steps and make effective policies and laws, and
arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar. adopt effective measures for its conservation.
Besides developing water saving technologies
and methods, attempts are also to be made to
prevent the pollution. There is need to
Intensive irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar encourage watershed development, rainwater
Pradesh is increasing salinity in the soil and depletion harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and
of ground water irrigation. Discuss its likely impacts on conjunctive use of water for sustaining water
agriculture. supply in long run.

Water Resources 65
 Discuss the issues highlighted in the
news items.

data obtained from these stations show that

Prevention of Water Pollution
organic and bacterial contamination continues
Available water resources are degrading to be the main source of pollution in rivers. The
rapidly. The major rivers of the country Yamuna river is the most polluted river in the
generally retain better water quality in less country between Delhi and Etawah. Other
densely populated upper stretches in hilly severely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati at
areas. In plains, river water is used intensively Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the
for irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigai
purposes. The drains carrying agricultural at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and the
(fertilisers and insecticides), domestic (solid and Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi. Groundwater
liquid wastes), and industrial effluents join the pollution has occurred due to high
rivers. The concentration of pollutants in rivers, concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride
especially remains very high during the summer and nitrates at different parts of the country.
season when flow of water is low. The legislative provisions such as the Water
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974,
in collaboration with State Pollution Control and Environment Protection Act 1986 have not
Boards has been monitoring water quality of been implemented effectively. The result is that
national aquatic resources at 507 stations. The in 1997, 251 polluting industries were located

66 India : People and Economy

along the rivers and lakes. The Water Cess Act, The Central and State Governments have
1977, meant to reduce pollution has also made initiated many watershed development and
marginal impacts. There is a strong need to management programmes in the country. Some
generate public awareness about importance of of these are being implemented by non-
water and impacts of water pollution. The public governmental organisations also. Haryali is a
awareness and action can be very effective in watershed development project sponsored by
reducing the pollutants from agricultural the Central Government which aims at enabling
activities, domestic and industrial discharges. the rural population to conserve water for
drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.
Recycle and Reuse of Water The Project is being executed by Gram
Another way through which we can improve Panchayats with people’s participation.
fresh water availability is by recycle and reuse. Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme
Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad
waste-water would be an attractive option for (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up
industries for cooling and fire fighting to reduce constructions of various water -harvesting
their water cost. Similarly, in urban areas water structures such as percolation tanks, dug out
after bathing and washing utensils can be used ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through
for gardening. Water used for washing vehicle people’s participation. Tamil Nadu has made
can also be used for gardening. This would water harvesting structures in the houses
conserve better quality of water for drinking compulsory. No building can be constructed
purposes. Currently, recycling of water is practised without making structures for water harvesting.
on a limited scale. However, there is enormous Watershed development projects in some
scope for replenishing water through recycling. areas have been successful in rejuvenating
environment and economy. However, there are
only a few success stories. In majority of cases,
the programme is still in its nascent stage. There
Observe the quantity of water used at your home in is a need to generate awareness regarding
various activities and enlist the ways in which the water benefits of watershed development and
can be reused and recycled in various activities. management among people in the country, and
through this integrated water resource
Class teachers should organise a discussion on recycle management approach water availability can be
and reuse of water. ensured on sustainable basis.
Rainwater Harvesting
Watershed Management
Rain water harvesting is a method to capture
Watershed management basically refers to and store rainwater for various uses. It is also
efficient management and conservation of used to recharge groundwater aquifers. It is a
surface and groundwater resources. It involves low cost and eco-friendly technique for
prevention of runoff and storage and recharge preserving every drop of water by guiding the
of groundwater through various methods like rain water to bore well, pits and wells. Rainwater
percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, harvesting increases water availability, checks
in broad sense watershed management includes the declining ground water table, improves the
conservation, regeneration and judicious use of quality of groundwater through dilution of
all resources – natural (like land, water, plants contaminants like fluoride and nitrates,
and animals) and human with in a watershed. prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrests
Watershed management aims at bringing about salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to
balance between natural resources on the one recharge aquifers.
hand and society on the other. The success of Rainwater harvesting has been practised
watershed development largely depends upon through various methods by different
community participation. communities in the country for a long time.

Water Resources 67
 Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:
A Case Study
Ralegan Siddhi is a small village in the district of Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra. It has become an
example for watershed development throughout the country.
In 1975, this village was caught in a web of poverty and illicit liquor trade. The transformation took place
when a retired army personnel, settled down in the village and took up the task of watershed development.
He convinced villagers about the importance of family planning and voluntary labour; preventing open
grazing, felling trees, and liquor prohibition.
Voluntary labour was necessary to ensure minimum dependence on the government for financial
aids. “It socialised the costs of the projects.” explained the activist. Even those who were working
outside the village contributed to the development by committing a month’s salary every year.
Work began with the percolation tank constructed in the village. In 1975, the tank could not hold
water. The embankment wall leaked. People voluntarily repaired the embankment. The seven wells
below it swelled with water in summer for the first time in the living memory of the people. The people
reposed their faith in him and his visions.
A youth group called Tarun Mandal was formed. The group worked to ban the dowry system, caste
discrimination and untouchability. Liquor distilling units were removed and prohibition imposed. Open
grazing was completely banned with a new emphasis on stall-feeding. The cultivation of water-intensive
crops like sugarcane was banned. Crops such as pulses, oilseeds and certain cash crops with low
water requirements were encouraged.
All elections to local bodies began to be held
on the basis of consensus. “It made the
community leaders complete representatives
of the people.” A system of Nyay Panchayats
(informal courts) were also set up. Since then,
no case has been referred to the police.
A Rs.22 lakh school building was constructed
using only the resources of the village. No
donations were taken. Money, if needed, was
borrowed and paid back. The villagers took pride
in this self-reliance. A new system of sharing
Ralegan Siddhi before mitigation approach
labour grew out of this infusion of pride and
voluntary spirit. People volunteered to help each other in agricultural operation. Landless labourers also
gained employment. Today the village plans to
buy land for them in adjoining villages.
At present, water is adequate; agriculture is
flourishing, though the use of fertilisers and
pesticides is very high. The prosperity also brings
the question of ability of the present generation
to carry on the work after the leader of the
movement who declared that, “The process of
Ralegan’s evolution to an ideal village will not
stop. With changing times, people tend to evolve
new ways. In future, Ralegan might present a
Ralegan Siddhi after mitigation approach
different model to the country. ”

What a mitigation approach can do? A success story.

68 India : People and Economy

 Fig. 6.5 : Various Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

Traditional rain water harvesting in rural areas to understand various ways of rainwater
is done by using surface storage bodies like harvesting).
lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In Rajasthan, There is a wide scope to use rainwater
rainwater harvesting structures locally known harvesting technique to conserve precious
as Kund or Tanka (a covered underground water resource. It can be done by harvesting
tank) are constructed near or in the house or rainwater on rooftops and open spaces.
village to store harvested rainwater (see Fig. 6.5 Harvesting rainwater also decreases the

Water Resources 69
community dependence on groundwater for Apart from the above mentioned factors,
domestic use. Besides bridging the demand- the issue desalinisation of water particularly
supply gap, it can also save energy to pump in coastal areas and brackish water in arid and
groundwater as recharge leads to rise in semi-arid areas, transfer of water from water
groundwater table. These days rainwater surplus areas to water deficit areas through
harvesting is being taken up on massive scale inter linking of rivers can be important
in many states in the country. Urban areas remedies for solving water problem in India
can specially benefit from rainwater (read more about inter linking of rivers).
harvesting as water demand has already However, the most important issue from the
outstripped supply in most of the cities and point of view of individual users, household
towns. and communities is pricing of water.

Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002

The National Water Policy 2002 stipulates water allocation priorities broadly in the following order:
drinking water; irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses. The policy stipulates
progressive new approaches to water management. Key features include:
• Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component, wherever
there is no alternative source of drinking water.
• Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the first priority.
• Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater.
• Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased programme
should be undertaken for improving water quality.
• The efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be improved.
• Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered.
• Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and
disincentives.

Source : Govt. of India (2002), ‘India’s Reform Initiatives in Water Sector’, Ministry for Rural Development, New Delhi

EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Which one of the following types describes water as a resource?
(a) Abiotic resource (c) Biotic Resource
(b) Non-renewable Resources (d) Cyclic Resource

70 India : People and Economy

 (ii) Which one of the following rivers has the highest replenishable ground
water resource in the country?
(a) The Indus (c) The Ganga
(b) The Brahmaputra (d) The Godavari
(iii) Which of the following figures in cubic kilometres correctly shows the
total annual precipitation in India?
(a) 2,000 (c) 4,000
(b) 3,000 (d) 5,000
(iv) Which one of the following south Indian states has the highest
groundwater utilisation (in per cent) of its total ground water potential?
(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Karnataka (d) Kerala
(v) The highest proportion of the total water used in the country is in which
one of the following sectors?
(a) Irrigation (c) Domestic use
(b) Industries (d) None of the above
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) It is said that the water resources in India have been depleting very fast.
Discuss the factors responsible for depletion of water resources?
(ii) What factors are responsible for the highest groundwater development
in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu?
(iii) Why the share of agricultural sector in total water used in the country is
expected to decline?
(iv) What can be possible impacts of consumption of contaminated/unclean
water on the people?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Discuss the availability of water resources in the country and factors
that determine its spatial distribution?
(ii) The depleting water resources may lead to social conflicts and disputes.
Elaborate it with suitable examples?
(iii) What is watershed management? Do you think it can play an important
role in sustainable development?

Water Resources 71