INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORt

B.PHARMACY COLLEGE NAGROTA BAGWAN (KANGRA)

SUBMITTEDBY:- SUBMITTED TO:-

SAKSHI GULERIA ER.

PUNEET SHARMA

(h.o.d./o.i.c.)
CIVIL ENGG. ER.
NAMISH RANA

1
B ROLLNO.:- 1500061163031 ER. AJAY
PAMTA

INTRODUCTION
Civil construction falls in the category of civil engineering
which isall about designing, constructing and maintaining the
physical and naturally built environment. Civil construction in
the art of building, bridges, dams, roads, airports, canals, and
buildings.

Civil engineering is the oldest discipline of engineering. Since

the very beginning of the human existence, it has been the
aspect of life. One of the main aspect of life. One of the main
aspects of civil construction is structure in a way that it is
able to support itself successfully along with resisting loads.
The stability of the design will serve as the foundation of civil
construction.

In today’s society, there are huge projects ments for civil

construction and engineering the infrastructure used in our
daily lives all has been created because of civil construction
and engineering. The roads, railways, stadiums, harbours,
schools and other buildings constructed all are a construction
of civil engineer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A summer project is a golden opportunity for learning and
self development. I consider myself very lucky and honored

2
to have so many wonderful people lead me through in
completion of this project.

My grateful thanks to Mr. Pradeep Sharma (as a billing

engineer in MRC ) who in spite of being extraordinarily busy
with his duties, took time out of hear, guide and keep me on
the correct path. I don’t know where I would have been
without him. A humble Thank you sir.

Last but not the least there were so many who shared
valuable information that helped in the successful completion
of this project.

I am very thankful to the institution Govt. Polytechnic

Talwar, who gives me the opportunity to study the major
project which leads theoretical knowledge as well as practical
experience.

content
 STRUCTURE WORK
 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE

3
 LAYING OF FOUNDATION
 CEMENT
 AGGREGATE
 BRICK WORK
 REINFORCEMENT WORK
 COVER BLOCK
 SHUTTERING AND SCAFFOLDING
 CONCRETING
 POURING AND CONSOLIDATION
 COMPACTION
 CURING
 PLASTERING
 ELECTRICAL CONDUITS
 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
 PROBLEM FACE IN SITE

STRUCTURE WORK:-

4
PCC– Plain Cement Concrete:-After the
process of excavation, laying of plain cement concrete that is PCC is
done. A layer of 4 inches was made in such a manner that it was not
mixed with the soil. It provides a solid bas for the raft foundation and a
mix of 1:5:10 that is, 1 part of cement to 5 parts of fine aggregates and
10 parts of coarse aggregates by volume were used in it. Plain concrete

5
is vibrated to achieve full compaction. Concrete placed below ground
should be protected from falling earth during and after placing. Concrete
placed in ground containing deleterious substances should be kept free
from contact with such a ground and with water draining there from
during placing and for a period of seven days. When joint in a layer of
concrete are unavoidable, and end is sloped at an angle of 30 and
junctions of different layers break joint in laying upper layer of concrete.
The lower surface is made rough and clean watered before upper layer
is laid. L AYING O FF :
OUNDATION At our site, Raft
foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large
area, normally the entire area of the structure. Normally raft foundation
is used when large load is to be distributed and it is not possible to
provide individual footings due to space constraints that is they would
overlap on each other. Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing
differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential
movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or
loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a
larger area.In laying of raft foundation, special care is taken in
the reinforcement and construction of plinth beams and
columns. It is the main portion on which ultimately whole of
the structure load is to come. So a slightest error can cause
huge roblems and therefore all this is checked and passed by
the engineer in charge of the site.

Apart from raft foundation, individual footings were used in

the mess area which was extended beyond the C and D
blocks.
CEMENT:-
Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates and aluminate and
aluminoferrite It is obtained by blending predetermined proportions
limestone clay and other minerals in small quantities which is pulverized
and heated at high temperature – around 1500 deg centigrade to
produce ‘clinker’. The clinker is then ground with small quantities of
gypsum to produce a fine powder called Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC). When mixed with water, sand and stone, it combines slowly with
the water to form a hard mass called concrete. Cement is a hygroscopic
material meaning that it absorbs moisture In presence of moisture it
undergoes chemical reaction termed as hydration. Therefore cement
remains in good condition as long as it does not come in contact with
moisture. If cement is more than three months old then it should be
tested for its strength before being taken into use.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three
different grades The classification is mainly based on the compressive
strength of cement-sand mortar cubes of face area 50 cm2 composed of

6
1 part of cement to 3 parts of standard sand by weight with a water-
cement ratio arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are
(i) 33 grade
(ii) 43 grade
(iii) 53 grade
The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of
cement sand mortar in N/mm2 at 28 days, as tested by above
mentioned procedure.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is obtained by either intergrinding a
pozzolanic material with clinker and gypsum, or by blending ground
pozzolana with Portland cement. Nowadays good quality fly ash is
available from Thermal Power Plants, which are processed and used in
manufacturing of PPC.

ADVANTAGES OF USING PORTLAND

POZZOLANA CEMENT OVER OPC:-
Pozzolana combines with lime and alkali in cement when water is added
and forms compounds which contribute to strength, impermeability and
sulphate resistance. It also contributes to workability, reduced bleeding
and controls destructive expansion from alkali-aggregate reaction. It
reduces heat of hydration thereby controlling temperature differentials,
which causes thermal strain and resultant cracking n mass concrete
structures like dams. The colour of PPC comes from the colour of the
pozzolanic material used. PPC containing fly ash as a pozzolana will
invariably be slightly different colour than the OPC.One thing should be
kept in mind that is the quality of cement depends upon the raw
materials used and the quality control measures adopted during its

7
manufacture, and not on the shade of the cement. The cement gets its
colour from the nature and colour of raw materials used, which will be
different from factory to factory, and may even differ in the different
batches of cement produced in a factory. Further, the colour of the
finished concrete is affected also by the colour of the aggregates, and to
a lesser extent by the colour of the cement. Preference for any cement
on the basis of colour alone is technically misplaced.

Settling Of Cement:-
When water is mixed with cement, the paste so formed remains pliable
and plastic for a short time. During this period it is possible to disturb
the paste and remit it without any deleterious effects. As the reaction
between water and cement continues, the paste loses its plasticity. This
early period in the hardening of cement is referred to as ‘setting’ of
cement.
Initial and finalbysetting determing
time of cement:-
Initial nt paste loses its plasticity and stiffens considerably. Final set is
the point when the paste hardens and can sustain some minor load. Both
are arbitrary points and these are ined Vicat needle penetration
resistance
Slow or fast setting normally depends on the nature of cement. It could
also be due to extraneous factors not related to the cement. The
ambient conditions play an important role. In hot weather, the setting is
faster, in cold weather, setting is delayed Some types of salts,
chemicals, clay, etc if inadvertently get mixed with the sand, aggregate
and set is when the ceme
water could accelerate or delay the setting of concrete.

Storage of Cement:-
It needs extra care or else can lead to loss not only in terms of financial
loss but also in terms of loss in the quality. Following are the don’t that
should be followed -
(i) Do not store bags in a building or a godown in which the walls, roof
and floor are not completely weatherproof.
(ii) Do not store bags in a new warehouse until the interior has
thoroughly dried out.
(iii) Do not be content with badly fitting windows and doors, make sure
they fit properly and ensure that they are kept shut.

(iv) Do not stack bags against the wall. Similarly, don’t pile them on the
floor unless it is a dry concrete floor. If not, bags should be stacked on
wooden planks or sleepers.
(v) Do not forget to pile the bags close together

8
(vi) Do not pile more than 15 bags high and arrange the bags in a
header-and-stretcher fashion.
(vii) Do not disturb the stored cement until it is to be taken out for use.
(viii) Do not take out bags from one tier only. Step back two or three
tiers.
(ix) Do not keep dead storage. The principle of first-in first-out should
be followed in removing bags.
(x) Do not stack bags on the ground for temporary storage at work site.
Pile them on a raised, dry platform and cover with tarpaulin or
polythene sheet.

COARSE AGGREGATE:-
Coarse aggregate for the works should be river gravel or crushed
stone .It should be hard, strong, dense, durable, clean, and free from
clay or loamy admixtures or quarry refuse or vegetable matter. The
pieces of aggregates should be cubical, or rounded shaped and should
have granular or crystalline or smooth (but not glossy) non-powdery
surfaces.Aggregates should be properly screened and if necessary
washed clean before use.
Coarse aggregates containing flat, elongated or flaky pieces or mica
should be rejected. The grading of coarse aggregates should be as per
specifications of IS-383.
After 24-hrs immersion in water, a previously dried sample of the
coarse aggregate should not gain in weight more than 5%.
Aggregates should be stored in such a way as to prevent segregation of
sizes and avoid contamination with fines.
Depending upon the coarse aggregate color, there quality can be
determined as:
Black => very good quality
Blue => good
Whitish =>bad quality
 
FINE AGGREGATE:-
Aggregate which is passed through 4.75 IS Sieve is termed as fine
aggregate. Fine aggregate is added to concrete to assist workability and
to bring uniformity in mixture. Usually, the natural river sand is used as
fine aggregate. Important thing to be considered is that fine aggregates
should be free from coagulated lumps.
Grading of natural sand or crushed stone i.e. fine aggregates shall be
such that not more than 5 percent shall exceed 5 mm in size, not more
than 10% shall IS sieve No. 150 not less than 45% or more than 85%
shall pass IS sieve No. 1.18 mm and not less than 25% or more than
60% shall pass IS sieve No. 600 micron.

BRICKWORK:-
9
Brickwork is masonry done with bricks and mortar and is generally used
to build partition walls. In our site, all the external walls were of
concrete and most of the internal walls were made of bricks. English
bond was used and a ration of 1:4 (1 cement: 4 coarse sand) and 1:6
were used depending upon whether the wall is 4.5 inches or 9 inches.
The reinforcement shall be 2 nos. M.S. round bars or as indicated. The
diameter of bars was 8mm. The first layer of reinforcement was used at
second course and then at every fourth course of brick work. The bars
were properly anchored at their ends where the portions and or where
these walls join with other walls. The in laid steel reinforcement was
completely embedded in mortar.

Bricks can be of two types. These are:

1) Traditional Bricks-The dimension if traditional bricks

vary from 21 cm to 25cm in length,10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5 cm in
height in different parts of country .The commonly adopted normal size
of traditional brick is 23 * 11.5*7.5 cm with a view to achieve
uniformity in size of bricks all over country.

2) Modular Bricks-Indian standard institution has

established a standard size of bricks such a brick is known as a modular
brick. The normal size of brick is taken as 20*10*10 cm whereas its
actual dimensions are 19*9*9 cm masonry with modular bricks workout
to be cheaper there is saving in the consumption of bricks, mortar and

10
labour as compared with masonry with traditional bricks.

STRENGTH OF BRICK MASONRY:-

The permissible compressive stress in brick masonry depends upon the
following factors:
1. Type and strength of brick.
2. Mix of motor.
3. Size and shape of masonry construction.
The strength of brick masonry depends upon the strength of bricks used
in the masonry construction. The strength of bricks depends upon the
nature of soil used for making and the method adopted for molding and
burning of bricks .since the nature of soil varies from region to region
,the average strength of bricks varies from as low as 30kg/sq cm to 150
kg /sq cm the basic compressive stress are different crushing strength

There are many checks that can be applied to see the quality of bricks
used on the site.Normally the bricks are tested for Compressive
strength, water absorption, dimensional tolerances and efflorescence.
However at small construction sites the quality of bricks can be
assessed based on following, which is prevalent in many sites.
• Visual check - Bricks should be well burnt and of uniform size and
color.
• Striking of two bricks together should produce a metallic ringing
sound.
• It should have surface so hard that can’t be scratched by the
fingernails.
• A good brick should not break if dropped in standing position from one
metre above ground level.
• A good brick shouldn’t absorb moisture of more than 15-20% by
weight, when soaked in water For example; a good brick of 2 kg
shouldn’t weigh more than 2.3 to 2.4 kg if immersed in water for 24
hours.
Precautions to be taken in brick
masonry work:-
Bricks should be soaked in water for adequate period so that the water penetrates
to its full thickness. Normally 6 to 8 hours of wetting is sufficient.
• A systematic bond must be maintained throughout the brickwork. Vertical joints
shouldn’t be continuous but staggered.
• The joint thickness shouldn’t exceed 1 cm. It should be thoroughly filled with the
cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 (Cement: Sand by volume)
• All bricks should be placed on their bed with frogs on top (depression on top of
the
brick for providing bond with mortar).
• Thread, plumb bob and spirit level should be used for alignment, verticality and
horizontality of construction.
• Joints should be raked and properly finished with trowel or float, to provide good

11
bond.
• A maximum of one metre wall height should be constructed in a day.
• Brickwork should be properly cured for at least 10 days
REINFORCEMENT:-Steel reinforcements are used,
generally, in the form of bars of circular cross section in concrete
structure. They are like a skeleton in human body. Plain concrete
without steel or any other reinforcement is strong in compression but
weak in tension. Steel is one of the best forms of reinforcements, to
take care of those stresses and to strengthen concrete to bear all kinds

of loadsMild steel bars conforming to IS: 432 (Part I) and Cold-worked

steel high strength deformed bars conforming to IS: 1786 (grade Fe
415 and grade Fe 500, where 415 and 500 indicate yield stresses 415
N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2 respectively) are commonly used. Grade Fe
415 is being used most commonly nowadays. This has limited the use of
plain mild steel bars because of higher yield stress and bond strength
resulting in saving of steel quantity. Some companies have brought
thermo mechanically treated (TMT) and corrosion resistant steel (CRS)
bars with added features.

12
They should be closely spaced as per the drawing and properly tied to
the main/longitudinal reinforcement
TERMS USED IN REINFORCEMENT

Bar-bending-schedule
Bar-bending-schedule is the schedule of reinforcement bars prepared in
advance before cutting and bending of rebars. This schedule contains all
details of size, shape and dimension of rebars to be cut.

Lap length
Lap length is the length overlap of bars tied to extend the reinforcement
length.. Lap length about 50 times the diameter of the bar is considered
safe. Laps of neighboring bar lengths should be staggered and should
not be provided at one level/line. At one cross section, a maximum of
50% bars should be lapped. In case, required lap length is not available
at junction because of space and other constraints, bars can be joined
with couplers or welded (with correct choice of method of welding).

Anchorage Length:-This is the additional length of steel

of one structure required to be inserted in other at the junction. For
example, main bars of beam in column at beam column junction, column
bars in footing etc. The length requirement is similar to the lap length

13
mentioned in previous question or as per the design instructions

COVER BLOCK :-Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel

rods from touching the shuttering plates and there by providing a
minimum cover and fix the reinforcements as per the design drawings.
Sometimes it is commonly seen that the cover gets misplaced during the
concreting activity. To prevent this, tying of coverwith steel bars using
thin steel wires called binding wires (projected from cover surface and
placed during making or casting of cover blocks) is recommended.
Covers should be made of cement sand mortar (1:3). Ideally, cover
should have strength similar to the surrounding concrete, with the least
perimeter so that chances of water to penetrate through periphery will
be minimized. Provision of minimum covers as per the Indian standards
for durability of the whole structure should be ensured.
Shape of the cover blocks could be cubical or cylindrical. However,
cover indicates thickness of the cover block. Normally, cubical cover
blocks are used. As a thumb rule, minimum cover of 2” in footings, 1.5”
in columns and 1” for other structures may be ensured.

Things to Note
Reinforcement should be free from loose rust, oil paints, mud etc. it should be cut,
bent and fixed properly. The reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in
position by providing proper cover blocks, spacers, supporting bars, laps etc.
Reinforcements shall be placed and tied such that concrete placement is possible
without segregation, and compaction possible by an immersion vibrator.
For any steel reinforcement bar, weight per running meter is equal to d*d/162 Kg,
where d is diameter of the bar in mm. For example, 10 mm diameter bar will weigh
10×10/162 = 0.617 Kg/m

14
Three types of bars were used in reinforcement of a slab. These include straight
bars, crank bar and an extra bar. The main steel is placed in which the straight
steel is binded first, then the crank steel is placed and extra steel is placed in the
end. The extra steel comes over the support while crank is encountered at
distance of ¼(1-distance between the supports) from the surroundings supports.
For providing nominal cover to the steel in beam, cover blocks were used which
were made of concrete and were casted with a thin steel wire in the center which
projects outward. These keep the reinforcement at a distance from bottom of
shuttering. For maintaining the gap between the main steel and the distribution
steel, steel chairs are placed between them

SHUTTERING AND SCAFFOLDING:-

DEFINITION
The term ‘SHUTTERING’ or ‘FORMWORK’ includes all forms, moulds,
sheeting, shuttering planks, walrus, poles, posts, standards, leizers, V-
Heads, struts, and structure, ties, prights, walling steel rods, bolts,
wedges, and all other temporary supports to the concrete during the
process of sheeting.
FORM WORK:-

Forms or moulds or shutters are the receptacles in which concrete is placed, so

that it will have the desired shape or outline when hardened. Once the concrete
develops adequate strength, the forms are removed. Forms are generally made of
the materials like timber, plywood, steel, etc.
Generally camber is provided in the formwork for horizontal members to
counteract the effect of deflection caused due to the weight of reinforcement and
concrete placed over that. A proper lubrication of shuttering plates is also done

15
before the placement of reinforcement. The oil film sandwiched between concrete
and formwork surface not only helps in easy removal of shuttering but also
prevents loss of moisture from the concrete through absorption and evaporation.
The steel form work was designed and constructed to the shapes, lines and
dimensions shown on the drawings. All forms were sufficiently water tight to
prevent leakage of mortar. Forms were so constructed as to be removable in
sections. One side of the column forms were left open and the open side filled in
board by board successively as the concrete is placed and compacted except
when vibrators are used. A key was made at the end of each casting in concrete
columns of appropriate size to give proper bondings to columns and walls as per
relevant IS.

CLEANING AND TREATMENT OF

FORMS:-
All rubbish, particularly chippings, shavings and saw dust, was removed
from the interior of the forms (steel) before the concrete is placed. The
form work in contact with the concrete was cleaned and thoroughly
wetted or treated with an approved composition to prevent adhesion
between form work and concrete. Care was taken that such approved
composition is kept out of contact with thereinforcement.

DESIGN
The form-work should be designed and constructed such that the
concrete can be properly placed and thoroughly compacted to obtain the
required shape, position, and levels subject

ERECTION OF FORMWORK
The following applies to all formwork:
a) Care should be taken that all formwork is set to plumb and true to
line and level.
b) When reinforcement passes through the formwork care should be
taken to ensure close
fitting joints against the steel bars so as to avoid loss of fines during the
compaction of
concrete.
c) If formwork is held together by bolts or wires, these should be so
fixed that no iron is
exposed on surface against which concrete is to be laid.
d) Provision is made in the shuttering for beams, columns and walls for
a port hole of
convenient size so that all extraneous materials that may be collected
could be
removed just prior to concreting.
e) Formwork is so arranged as to permit removal of forms without
jarring the concrete.

16
Wedges, clamps, and bolts should be used where practicable instead of
nails.
f) Surfaces of forms in contact with concrete are oiled with a mould oil
of approved
quality. The use of oil, which darkens the surface of the concrete, is not
allowed. Oiling
is done before reinforcement is placed and care taken that no oil comes
in contact with
the reinforcement while it is placed in position. The formwork is kept
thoroughly wet
during concreting and the whole time that it is left in place.
Immediately before concreting is commenced, the formwork is
carefully examined to ensure the following:
a) Removal of all dirt, shavings, sawdust and other refuse by brushing
and washing.
b) The tightness of joint between panels of sheathing and between
these and any hardened core.
c) The correct location of tie bars bracing and spacers, and especially
connections of
bracing.
d) That all wedges are secured and firm in position.
e) That provision is made for traffic on formwork not to bear directly on
reinforcement
steel.

VERTICALITY OF THE STUCTURE

All the outer columns of the frame were checked for plumb by plumb-
bob as the work proceeds to upper floors. Internal columns were
checked by taking measurements from outer row of columns for their
exact position. Jack were used to lift the supporting rods called props

STRIPPING TIME OR REMOVAL OF

FORMWORK
Forms were not struck until the concrete has attained a strength at least
twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of
removal of form work. The strength referred is that of concrete using the
same cement and aggregates with the same proportions and cured
under conditions of temperature and moisture similar to those existing
on the work. Where so required, form work was left longer in normal
circumstances
Form work was removed in such a manner as would not cause any
shock or vibration that would damage the concrete. Before removal of
props, concrete surface was exposed to ascertain that the concrete has
sufficiently hardened. Where the shape of element is such that form
work has re-entrant angles, the form work was removed as soon as

17
possible after the concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking
occurring due to the restraint imposed. As a guideline, with temperature
above 20 degree following time limits should be followed:
CONCRETING:-

Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, stone aggregates and water. A

cage of steel rods used together with the concrete mix leads to the
formation of Reinforced Cement Concrete popularly known as RCC.
Concrete has two main stages
1)Fresh Concrete
2)Hardened Concrete
Fresh Concrete should be stable and should not segregate or bleed
during transportation and placing when it is subjected to forces during
handling operations of limited nature. The mix should be cohesive and
mobile enough to be placed in the form around the reinforcement and
should be able to cast into the required shape without loosing continuity
or homogeneity under the available techniques of placing the concrete
at a particular job. The mix should be amenable to proper and through
compaction into a dense, compact concrete with minimum voids under
the existing facilities of compaction at the site. A best mix from the
point of view of campactibility should achieve a 99 percent elimination
of the original voids present.
SEGREGATION
The stability of a concrete mix requires that it should not segregate and
bleed during the transportation and placing. Segregation can be defined
as separating out of the ingredients of a concrete mix, so that the mix is
no longer in a homogeneous condition. Only the stable homogeneous
mix can be fully compacted

18
The segregation depends upon the handling and placing operations. The
tendency to segregate, amount of coarse aggregate, and with the
increased slump. The tendency to segregate can be minimized by:
a.Reducing the height of drop by concrete.
b.Not using the vibration as a means of spreading a heap of of concrete
into a level mass over a large area.
c.Reducing the continued vibration over a longer time, as the coarse
aggregate tends to settle to the bottom and the scum would rise to the
surface.
d.Adding small quantity of water which improves cohesion of the mix.

Bleeding
Bleeding is due to the rise of water in the mix to the surface because of
the inability of the solid particles in the mix to hold all the mixing water
during settling of particles under the effect of compaction. The bleeding
causes formation of a porous, weak and non durable concrete layer at
the top of placed concrete. In case of lean mixes bleeding may create
capillary channels increasing the permeability of the concrete. When the
concrete is placed in different layers and each layer is compacted after
allowing certain time to lapse before the next layer is laid, the bleeding
may cause a plane of weakness between two layers. Any laitance formed
should be removed by brushing and washing before a new layer is
added. Over compacting the surface should be avoided.

Hardened Concrete
One of the most important properties of the hardened concrete is its
strength which represents the ability if concrete to resist forces. If the
nature of the force is to produce compression, the strength is termed
compressive strength. The compressive strength of hardened concrete is
generally considered to be the most important property and is often
taken as the index of the overall quality of concrete. The strength can
indirectly give an idea of the most of the other properties of concrete
which are related directly to the structure of hardened cement paste. A
stronger concrete is dense, compact, impermeable and resistant to
weathering and to some chemicals. However, a stronger concrete may
exhibit higher drying shrinkage with consequent cracking, due to the
presence of higher cement content.
Some of the other desirable properties like shear and tensile strengths,
modulus of elasticity, bond, impact and durability etc. are generally
related to compressive strength. As the compressive strength can be
measured easily on standard sized cube or cylindrical specimens, it can
be specified as a criterion for studying the effect of any variable on the
quality of concrete. However, the concrete gives different values of any
property under different testing conditions. Hence method of testing,
size of specimen and the rate of loading etc. are stipulated while testing

19
the concrete to minimize the variations in test results. The statistical
methods are commonly used for specifying the quantitative value of any
particular property of hardened concrete.

Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the load which causes
the failure of specimen, per unit area of cross-section in uniaxial
compression under given rate of loading. The strength of concrete is
expressed as N/mm2. The compressive strength at 28 days after casting
is taken as a criterion for specifying the quality of concrete. This is
termed as grade of concrete. IS 456 – 2000 stipulates the use of 150
mm cubes.

Tensile Strength
The concrete has low tensile strength; it ranges from 8-12 per cent of its
compressive strength. An average value of 10 per cent is generally
adopted.

Shear Strength
The concrete subjected to bending and shear stress is accompanied by
tensile and compressive stresses. The shear failures are due to resulting
diagonal tension. The shear strength is generally 12-13 per cent of its
compressive strength.

Bond Strength
The resistance of concrete to the slipping of reinforcing bars embedded
in concrete is called bond strength. The bond strength is provided by
adhesion of hardened cement paste, and by the friction of concrete and
steel. It is also affected by shrinkage of concrete relative to steel. On an
average bond strength is taken as 10 per cent of its compressive
strength.

Facts about Cement and Concrete

1) Water required by 1 bag of cement is something in the range of 25-28
litres
2) Quality of concrete has nothing to do with its color.
3) The mortar / concrete should be consumed as early as possible after
addition of water to it. The hydration of cement starts the moment
water is added to it. As the hydration progresses the cement paste
starts stiffening and loses its plasticity. The concrete should not be
disturbed after this. Normally, this is about 45 – 50 minutes.

20
4) MPa is abbreviated form of mega Pascal, which is a unit of pressure.
1 MPa is equivalent to a pressure of 10Kg /cm2. The strength of
concrete & cement is expressed in terms of pressure a standard cube
can withstand. The Ordinary Portland Cement, commonly called OPC is
available in three grades namely 33, 43 & 53 grades. Thus, for 43 grade
cement standard cement & sand mortar cube would give a minimum
strength of 43 MPa or 430 Kg /cm2 when tested under standard curing
conditions for 28 days.

Compressive Strength of Concrete

depends on following factors
(i) w/c ratio
(ii) Characteristics of cement
(iii) Characteristics of aggregates
(iv) Time of mixing
(v) Degree of compaction
(vi) Temperature and period of curing
(vii) Age of concrete
(viii)Air entertainment
(ix) Conditions of testing

Precautions for water to be used in

concrete
It is good to use potable quality of water.
It should be free from impurities and harmful ingredients.
Sea water isn’t recommended.
The water fit for mixing is fit for curing too Use of minimum quantity of
mixing water, consistent with the degree of workability required to
enable easy placing and compaction of concrete, is advisable.
Ensure that water is measured and added.
Low water to cement ratio is essential for good performance of the
structure in the long run.

Common Reasons for lack of quality in

concrete work
Use of too much or too little water for mixing, or water carelessly added
during mixing
Incomplete mixing of aggregate with cement
Improper grading of aggregates resulting in segregation or bleeding of
concrete.
Inadequate compaction of concrete
Using concrete which has already begun to set.

21
Placing of concrete on a dry foundation without properly wetting it with
water.
Use of dirty aggregate or water containing earthy matter, clay or lime.
Too much troweling of the concrete surface.
Leaving the finished concrete surface exposed to sun and wind during
the first ten days after placing without protecting it and keeping it damp
by proper methods of curing.
Construction joints are the joints provided between successive pours of
concrete that have been carried out after a time lag. As far as possible
the construction joints should be avoided and every care should be
taken to keep their numbers minimal. Since, presence of these joints
creates a plane of weakness within the concrete body, these joints
should be preplanned and their location should be such that they are at
places where they are subjected to minimum bending moment and
minimum shear force.

COMPACTION:-
Green concrete has all the three phases – solids, water & air. In order
to make the concrete impervious & attain its maximum strength it is
required to remove the entrapped air from the concrete mass when it is
still in plastic state. If the air is not removed completely, the concrete
loses strength considerably. It has been observed that 5% voids reduce
the strength by about 30% and 10% voids reduce the strength by over
50%. Compaction eliminates air bubbles and brings enough fine
material both to the surface and against the forms to produce the
desired finish. One can use such hand tools as steel rods, paddling
sticks, or tampers, but mechanical vibrators are best. Any compacting
device must reach the bottom of the form and be small enough to pass

22
between reinforcing bars. Since the strength of the concrete member
depends on proper reinforcement location, be careful not to displace the
reinforcing steel.
C Compacting reinforced concrete work is very important and is done
using iron rods. In case the thickness of concrete layers should be more
than 15 cm. the most satisfactory method for compacting concrete
properly is to consolidate each layer separately so that its top surface
become level and fairy smooth before the next layer is placed. While
tamping is carried out, care should be taken that the rod should
penetrate the full layer of the last layer placed and to some extent into
lying to ensure proper bond between bond between them. Secondly the
reinforcement and formwork should not be disturbed from their
positions.

Mechanical Compaction
Mechanical compaction is done by the use of vibrators. Compaction of
concrete by vibration is considered essential for all important works
especially in situations where reinforcements are congested or the
member is required is to have exposed to concrete surface finish. When
vibraters are used leaner but stiff, concrete mix should be used to obtain
greater durability and highest strength, mixes which are to stiff to
consolidate by hand compaction can be easily compacted by mechanical
compaction, in case the concrete is compacted by vibrations ,during
which the vibrator communicates rapid vibrations to the particles,

23
increases the fluidity of concrete. Due to vibrations the particles occupy
a more stable position and concrete fills all the space and present is
force out to the surface, resulting in dense and durable concrete.

Types of vibrators
Following are the type of vibrates usually used to compact concrete:
1. Internal vibrators
2. External vibrators
3. Surface vibrators
4. Vibrating table
Internal vibrator consists of metal road like vibrating head which is
immersed in the full depth of concrete layer. It is also known as poker
or needle vibrator and is consider to be most effective type of vibrator
as it comes into intimate contact with concrete. External vibrators are
placed against the concrete form-work and vibrating force for
compaction is conveyed to the concrete through the form work. These
vibrators are also called form vibrators. The vibrator is rigidly clamped
to form work resting on a elastic spot, so that both the form and
concrete are vibrated. Incase considerable proportion of work done is
consumed in vibrating resulting in low efficiency of the system. Surface
vibrators are mounted on platform and are generally used to compact
and finish bridge, road slab etc. These are also external vibrators and
are suitable for precast concrete work. It provides a reliable means of
compaction of pre-cast concrete and has the adv of offering uniform
vibration. Vibrating table is used for consolidation of pre-cast units.
Surface vibrators is used there a wide horizontal surface occurs such as
dams and very thick walls .large type of surface vibrators is there but
pen type vibrator are used most. When concrete is placed on such
tables, mechanical compaction takes place which has many advantages.
Each vibrator have its own advantages and disadvantages, hence the
choice between different types should be made correctly. Concrete to be
compacted by vibration, should be designed properly. The consistency
of concrete depends of conditions of placing, type of mix, and the
efficiency of vibrator. The slum of such concrete should not be more
than 5 cm in any case; otherwise segregation of concrete will take
place, which should never be allowed to occur.
FINISH TO CONCRETE WORK:
a) All concrete while being poured against form work was worked with
vibrator
rods & trowels as required so that good quality concrete is obtained.
b) All exposed surface of RCC lintels, beams, columns etc. were
plastered to match
with adjoining plastered face of walls after suitably hacking the concrete
surface.

Concrete Mixers and Batching Plant:-

24
Concrete Plant, also known as a Batch Plant, is a device that combines
various ingredients to form concrete. Some of these inputs include
sand, water, aggregate (rocks, gravel, etc.), fly ash, potash, cement,
and other ingredients to create concrete. There are two types of
concrete plants, ready mix plants and central mix plant. A concrete
plant can have a variety of parts and accessories, including but not
limited to: mixers (either tilt-up or horizontal (or in some cases, both),
cement batchers, aggregate batchers, conveyors, radial stackers,
aggregate bins, cement bins, heaters, chillers, cement silos, batch plant
controls, and dust collectors (to minimize environmental pollution).

CURING:-
The term ‘curing’ is used to include maintenance of a favorable
environment for the continuation of chemical reactions, i.e. retention of
moisture within, or supplying moisture to the concrete from an external
source and protection against extremes of temperature.

Beams and columns–

The beams and columns can be maintained wet by tying gunny bags
around the periphery and by maintaining it wet always.
Ponding, continuous sprinkling, covering with wet cloth, cotton mats or
similar materials, covering with specially prepared paper, polyethylene,
sealing coat applied as a liquid commonly known as ‘curing compound’
which hardens to form a thin protective membrane, are some of the
methods by which concrete is cured. Curing should be started just after
the surfaces begin to dry. Normally 7 to 14 days curing is considered
adequate.

25
PLASTERING:-The best Way to test the admixture is by
making trial mixes with the concrete materials to be used on the job
and carefully observing and measuring the change in the properties.
This way the compatibility of the admixture and the materials to be
used, as well the effects of theadmixture on the properties of fresh and
hardened concrete can beobserved. The amount of admixture

recommended by the manufacturer or the optimum quantity determined

by laboratory tests should be used.

Plaster protects structure from temperature variations; external attacks

of sulphates, chlorides, etc. Plaster also provides smooth & aesthetic
surface on RCC & Brickwork surface. The proportion of mortar used at
site for ceiling coat is 1:4 and wall coat is 1:3. A plaster of 10 mm is
done at ceiling and a plaster of 12.5mm is done at wall. Various
precautions to be taken while the work of plastering is going on are:-

•Preferably use cements which releases low heat of hydration.

•Use optimum water at the time of mixing.
•Do not use dry cement on the plaster surface.
•At the junction of Brickwork & RCC, chicken mesh or fiber mesh may
be used.
•Wet the surface before plastering and cure the surface for at least 10
to 12 days
ELECTRICAL CONDUITS :-
26
Separate conduits are laid for following systems:
a) Normal light, fan

b) Power points
c) AC points
d) Internet wiring
e) Fire alarm system

Concrete Mix Design As Per Indian

Standard Code
Concrete Mix Design:-
Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining
their relative amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the
required, strength, durability, and workability as economically as
possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of
ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of
concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the
plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and
compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital
importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally
considered to be an index of its other properties, depends upon many
factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and aggregates;
batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of
concrete is made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The

27
variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact that the cement is
several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as
lean a mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may
lead to high shrinkage and cracking in the structural concrete, and to
evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may cause
cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required
for producing a minimum mean strength called characteristic strength
that is specified by the designer of the structure. This depends on the
quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality control
adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is often an
economic compromise, and depends on the size and type of job. The
cost of labour depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of
inadequate workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a
degree of compaction with available equipment.
Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of
mix ingredients are :
a )The minimum compressive strength required from structural
consideration
b)The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the
compacting equipment available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to
give adequate durability for the particular site conditions
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to
temperature cycle in mass concrete.
Types of Mixes
1.Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of
cement, fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-
aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are termed nominal
mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a
margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability
of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability varies
widely in strength.

2.Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary
widely in strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this
reason, the minimum compressive strength has been included in many
specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of
grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation
the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28 day
cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20

28
and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6),
(1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

3.Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the
designer but the mix proportions are determined by the producer of
concrete, except that the minimum cement content can be laid down.
This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with
specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics.
The approach results in the production of concrete with the appropriate
properties most economically. However, the designed mix does not serve
as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for
the prescribed performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard
mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic
meter and by slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the
28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control
testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the
ingredients.
Factors affecting the choice of mix
proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1.Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences
many other describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean
compressive strength required at a specific age, usually 28 days,
determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor
affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a
prescribed temperature is the degree of compaction. According to
Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is inversely
proportional to the water-cement ratio.

2.Workability:- The degree of workability required

depends on three factors. These are the size of the section to be
concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction
to be used. For the narrow and complicated section with numerous
corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high workability
so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of
effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired
workability depends on the compacting equipment available at the site.
3.Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive
environmental conditions. High strength concrete is generally more

29
durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when the high
strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that
high durability is vital, the durability requirement will determine the
water-cement ratio to be used.
4.Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement
requirement for a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability
of concrete increases with increase in maximum size of the aggregate.
However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease
in size of aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the
aggregate should be as large as possible.

5.Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified
workability and water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be
mix which can be used. Very lean mix is not desirable since it does not
contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio
for the desired workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An
important feature of a satisfactory aggregate is the uniformity of the
grading which can be achieved by mixing different size fractions .

6.Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in
test results. The variation in strength results from the variations in the
properties of the mix ingredients and lack of control of accuracy in
batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the difference
between the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the
cement-content required. The factor controlling this difference is termed
as quality control.

Mix Proportion designations:-

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a
concrete mix is in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that
cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts
of coarse aggregate. The proportions are either by volume or by mass.
The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass
Factors to be considered for mix
design
The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of

30
concrete.
The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive
strength of concrete.
Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as
large as possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is
related to the size and shape of section, quantity and spacing of
reinforcement and technique used for transportation, placing and
compaction.

TESTCONDUCTED ON SITE FOR QUALITY

CONTROL
Compression test
The Compression Test is a laboratory test to determine the characteristic
strength of the concrete but the making of test cubes is sometimes
carried out by the supervisor on site. This cube test result is very
important to the acceptance of insitu concrete work since it
demonstrates the strength of the design mix.
The procedure of making the test cubes is as follows: -
150 mm standard cube mold is to be used for concrete mix and 100 mm
standard cube mold is to be used for grout mix.
2. Arrange adequate numbers of required cube molds to site in respect
with the sampling sequence for the proposed pour.
3. Make sure the apparatus and associated equipment ( see Fig 7 – 6 )
are clean before test and free from hardened concrete and superfluous
water .
4. Assemble the cube mold correctly and ensure all nuts are tightened.
5. Apply a light coat of proprietary mold oil on the internal faces of the
mold.
6. Place the mold on level firm ground and fill with sampled concrete to
a layer of about 50 mm thick.
7. Compact the layer of concrete thoroughly by tamping the whole
surface area with the Standard Tamping Bar. (Note that no less than 35
tamps / layer for 150 mm mold and no less than 25 tamps / layer for
100 mm mold).
8. Repeat Steps 5 & 6 until the mold is all filled. (Note that 3 layers to
be proceeded for 150 mm mold and 2 layers for 100 mm mold).
9. Remove the surplus concrete after the mold is fully filled and trowel
the top surface flush with the mold.
10. Mark the cube surface with an identification number (say simply 1,
2, 3, etc) with a nail or match stick and record these numbers in respect
with the concrete truck and location of pour where the sampled
concrete is obtained.
11. Cover the cube surface with a piece of damp cloth or polythene

31
sheeting and keep the cube in a place free from vibration for about 24
hours to allow initial set .
12. Strip off the mold pieces in about 24 hours after the respective pour
is cast. Press the concrete surface with the thumb to see any denting to
ensure the concrete is sufficiently hardened, or otherwise de-molding
has to be delayed for one more day and this occurrence should be
stated clearly in the Test Report.
13. Mark the test cube a reference number with waterproof felt pen on
the molded side, in respect with the previous identification number.

14. Place the cube and submerge in a clean water bath or preferably a
thermostatically controlled curing tank until it is delivered to the
accredited laboratory for testing.

Checking Quality of Fine Aggregates

and Bricks
For checking the quality of fine aggregates, a field test was conducted in
which the sand was placed in a flask containing water. The sand was
allowed to settle for some time and then after few hours the reading of
the silt or other impurity layer is takenIf that reading is less than 5% of
the total sand that is put in the flask, then we accept the sand but if it is
more than 5% the sand is rejected. Bricks were sent to the college
laboratory for testing and thereby checking the quality of the bricks used
at site.

PPROBLEMS FACED IN SITE:-There were numerous

problems which were faced at site. Some of these were purely due to the

human errors and poor workmanship but some were due to unseen
factors.
32
 There was a problem in providing beams at one location as per the
standard drawings so the drawings were changed by consulting the
structural designers and architect
 There was problem pouring concrete in one beam due to small
area available for pouring and compacting. The solution to this problem
was that the size of steel was increased but the number of steel bars
was decreased so as to provide the total area same.
 No window was there in staircases which lead to complete
darkness, so it was decided to change the drawing by consulting the
concerned authorities.
 The depth if beam above the door was 3’5” earlier but to keep the
size of the door as per the standard it was changed to 3’.
 Frequent power cuts lead to increase in the cost of construction as
generators were used to meet the power requirements
 Laying of foundations was postponed by 1 month due to the
rainy season.

33