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DNA, The Genetic Material

All cells share some common features including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA contained in a nucleoid or nucleus, and ribosomes. Prokaryotic cells like bacteria additionally have a cell wall but lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and various membrane-enclosed organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes that carry out specialized functions. Key cellular structures work together, such as the endomembrane system that transports molecules like proteins between organelles.

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Marinelle Tumanguil
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85 views6 pages

DNA, The Genetic Material

All cells share some common features including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA contained in a nucleoid or nucleus, and ribosomes. Prokaryotic cells like bacteria additionally have a cell wall but lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and various membrane-enclosed organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes that carry out specialized functions. Key cellular structures work together, such as the endomembrane system that transports molecules like proteins between organelles.

Uploaded by

Marinelle Tumanguil
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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All cells, whether they are

prokaryotic or eukaryotic,
have some common features.
These common features are:

DNA, the genetic material


contained in one or more
chromosomes and located in
a nonmembrane bound
nucleoid region in
prokaryotes and a
membrane-bound nucleus in
eukaryotes

Plasma membrane, a
phospholipid bilayer with
proteins that separates the
cell from the surrounding
environment and functions as
a selective barrier for the
import and export of
materials

Cytoplasm, the rest of the


material of the cell within the
plasma membrane, excluding
the nucleoid region or
nucleus, that consists of a
fluid portion called the
cytosol and the organelles
and other particulates
suspended in it

Ribosomes, the organelles


on which protein synthesis
takes place

Prokaryotic cells are fundamentally different


in their internal organization from eukaryotic
cells. Notably, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus
and membranous organelles. Prokaryotic cells
have the following features:

1. The genetic material (DNA) is localized to a


region called the nucleoid which has no
surrounding membrane.

2. The cell contains large numbers of


ribosomes that are used for protein synthesis.

3. At the periphery of the cell is the plasma


membrane. In some prokaryotes the plasma
membrane folds in to form structures called
mesosomes, the function of which is not
clearly understood.

4. Outside the plasma membrane of most


prokaryotes is a fairly rigid wall which gives
the organism its shape. The walls of bacteria
consist of peptidoglycans. Sometimes there is
also an outer capsule. Note that the cell wall
of prokaryotes differs chemically from the
eukaryotic cell wall of plant cells and of
protists.

5. Some bacteria have flagella which are used


for locomotion and/or pili, which may be used
to pull two cells in close contact, and perhaps
to facilitate the transfer of genetic material.

Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and numerous


membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus) not found in prokaryotes. Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are all
eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are
found in a great many different forms.

The nucleus contains most of
the genetic material (DNA) of the
cell. Additional DNA is in the
mitochondria and (if present)
chloroplasts. The nuclear DNA is
complexed with proteins to form
chromatin, which is organized as
a number of linear chromosomes.
Genetic control of the cell is
carried out by the production of
RNA in the nucleus (the process
of transcription) and the
subsequent transfer of this RNA
to a ribosome in the cytoplasm,
where protein synthesis (the
process of translation) is
directed. The resulting proteins
carry out cell functions. Also
located in the nucleus is the
nucleolus or nucleoli, organelles
in which ribosomes are
assembled. The nucleus is
bounded by a nuclear envelope,
a double membrane perforated
with pores and connected to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum
membrane system.
The cytoskeleton consist
s of microtubules,
intermediate fibers, and
microfilaments, which
together maintain cell
shape, anchor organelles,
and cause cell movement.
The microtubules and
microfilaments are
frequently assembled and
disassembled according to
cellular needs for
movement and
maintaining cell shape.
Intermediate filaments are
more permanent than
microtubules and
microfilaments.

The cell diagrams shown


here represent intestinal
epithelial cells with
fingerlike projections, the
microvilli. The location and
appearance of cytoskeletal
fibers in different cell
types will vary.

A ribosome is the site of protein synthesis in the


cell. Each ribosome consists of a large subunit
and a small subunit, each of which contains rRNA
(ribosomal RNA) and ribosomal proteins. In
protein synthesis the mRNA (messenger RNA)
moves through the ribosome while amino acids
attached to tRNAs (transfer RNAs) are brought to
the ribosome. The amino acids are joined to
produce the protein. You may access more
information on From Gene to Protein:
Translation. Ribosomes exist free in the
cytoplasm and bound to the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). Free ribosomes synthesize the
proteins that function in the cytosol, while bound
ribosomes make proteins that are distributed by
the membrane systems, including those which
are secreted from the cell.

The plasma membrane (also called


the cell membrane) is a phospholipid
bilayer with embedded proteins that
encloses every living cell. This
membrane blocks uncontrolled
movements of water-soluble
materials into or out of the cell. The
various proteins embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer penetrate into
and through the bilayer three-
dimensionally. It is the proteins of
the membrane that are responsible
for the specific functions of the
plasma membrane. These functions
include controlling the flow of
nutrients and ions into and out of the
cells, mediating the response of a cell
to external stimuli (a process called
signal transduction), and interacting
with bordering cells. All membranous
eukaryotic cell organelles have the
common feature of a phospholipid
bilayer, although the proteins differ
in each case.

Mitochondria (singular =
mitochondrion) are the sites of
cellular respiration, a process
that generates ATP from
substrates in reactions using
oxygen. All eukaryotic cells
contain mitochondria, often
many hundreds per cell. Each
mitochondrion is about 1-10
um long. Mitochondria contain
the enzymes and other
components needed for the
enzyme complexes that
catalyze respiration. The
primary function of
mitochondria is to synthesize
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
from ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and Pi (inorganic
phosphate).

Mitochondria are large organelles containing DNA and surrounded by a double


membrane. The inner membrane is highly convoluted, with deep folds called
cristae. The membranes divide the mitochondrion into two compartments, the
central matrix, and the intermembrane space. DNA, in the form of a circular or
linear molecule, is found in the matrix. The mitochondrial DNA encodes many
of the components for mitochondrial function, while nuclear DNA encodes the
remaining components. Components of the protein synthesizing machinery
specific for mitochondria-ribosomes, tRNAs and specific proteins and enzymes-
are also found in the matrix.

All eukaryotic cells have within them a functionally interrelated membrane


system, the endomembrane system which consists of the nuclear envelope,
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, vesicles and other organelles
derived from them (for example, lysosomes, peroxisomes), and the plasma
membrane. Many materials, including some proteins, are sorted by the
functionally cellular membranes of the endomembrane system. The various
membranes involved, though interrelated, differ in structure and function.

The endomembrane system plays a very important role in moving materials


around the cell, notably proteins and membranes (the latter is called
membrane trafficking). For example, while many proteins are made on
ribosomes that are free in the cytoplasm and remain in the cytoplasm, other
proteins are made on ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER). The latter proteins are inserted into the lumen of the RER,
carbohydrates are added to them to produce glycoproteins, and they are then
moved to cis face of the Golgi apparatus in transport vesicles that bud from the
ER membrane. Within the Golgi, the protein may be modified further and then
be dispatched from the trans face in a new transport vesicle. These vesicles
move through the cytoplasm to their final desinations using the cytoskeleton.
We can think of the system as analogous to a series of switching yards and
train tracks, where materials are sorted with respect to their destinations at the
switching yards and sent to those destinations along specific tracks in the
cytoskeleton.

Proteins destined for secretion are made


on ribosomes bound to the RER. The
proteins move through the
endomembrane system and are
dispatched from the trans face of the
Golgi apparatus in transport vesicles that
move through the cytoplasm and then
fuse with the plasma membrane
releasing the protein to the outside of the
cell. Examples of secretory proteins are
collagen, insulin, and digestive enzymes
of the stomach and intestine. (In a
similar way, proteins destined for a
particular cell organelle move to the
organelle in transport vesicles that
deposit their contents in the organelle by
membrane fusion.)

Like secretory proteins and some other


proteins, proteins destined for lysosomes
are made on ribosomes bound to the RER
and move through the endomembrane
system. In this case the lysosomal
protein-containing vesicle that buds from
the trans face of the Golgi apparatus is
the lysosome itself.

The figure below illustrates at a glance the structures that are common to both
animal and plant cells, as well as the structures that are unique to each.
Structures that are common to both plant and animal cells are labeled between
the cells; structures that are unique to plants are labeled on the left of the cells
and those unique to animals are labeled on the right.
Chloroplasts are plant cell
organelles that contain
chlorophyll and the enzymes
required for photosynthesis, the
light-dependent synthesis of
carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Oxygen (O2) is a product of the
photosynthesis process, and is
released into the atmosphere.
Chloroplasts are large
organelles bounded by a double
membrane and containing DNA.
Unlike the mitochondrial double
membrane, the inner
membrane is not folded.
Distinctly separate from the
double membrane is an internal
membrane system consisting of
flattened sacs and called
thylakoids. The space between
the thylakoid and the outer
membranes is called the
stroma. The stroma contains
the chloroplast DNA as well as
components of the protein
synthesizing machinery specific
for the chloroplast, namely the
ribosomes, tRNAs, and specific
proteins and enzymes. Most of
the components of
photosynthesis are located in
the thylakoids. The thylakoid
membranes are organized into
stacks called grana. The interior
of the thylakoid is the lumen.

diffen.com/difference/Eukaryotic_Cell_vs_Prokaryotic_Cell

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