Principle, Application and

Instrumentation of Uv-Visible
Spectrophotometer
 Presentation Outlines

• Introduction • Instrumentation
– Spectroscopy – Light source
– EMR – Monochromator
– MOT – Detector
• Principle – Display
– Electronic transition • Application
– Beers law – Qualitative application
– Lambrts law – Quantitative
– Beer -Lambrts law • Summary

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 Introduction
• Spectroscopy is the branch of science that deals with
the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with matter.

• It is the most powerful tool available for the study

of atomic & molecular structure and is used in
the analysis of a wide range of samples .
Two main type
• Atomic Spectroscopy; This Spectroscopy is
concerned with the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with atoms
commonly in the lowest energy state called as
grownd state .
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 Introduction
• Molecular Spectroscopy ; This
Spectroscopy deals with the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with molecule.
• Electromagnetic radiation consist of discrete
packets of energy which are called as photons.
• A photon consists of an oscillating electric
field (E) & an oscillating magnetic field (M)
which are perpendicular to each other.

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Introduction

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 Introduction
• Frequency (ν):
– It is defined as the number of times electrical field
radiation oscillates in one second.
– The unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

• Wavelength (λ):
– It is the distance between two nearest parts of the
wave in the same phase i.e. distance between two
nearest crest or troughs.

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 Introduction
• According to MOT
• In molecules, atomic orbitals combine to form
molecular orbitals which surround the
molecule.
• Molecular bonds have lower potential energy
than in separate atomic orbitals.
• Thus, electrons prefer to stay in a molecular
bond.

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Introduction

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Principles of Uv-Visible Spectrometer
• The principle is based on the measurement of
spectrum of a sample containing atoms /
molecules.

• Spectrum is a graph of intensity of absorbed or

emitted radiation by sample verses frequency (ν)
or wavelength (λ).

• Spectrometer is an instrument design to measure

the spectrum of a compound.

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 Cont’d
Absorption Spectroscopy:
• An analytical technique which concerns with the
measurement of absorption of electromagnetic
radiation.
• The UV radiation region extends from 10 nm to 400 nm
and the visible radiation region extends from 400 nm
to 800 nm.
Near UV Region: 200 nm to 400 nm
Far UV Region: below 200 nm
• Far UV spectroscopy is studied under vacuum
condition.
• The common solvent used for preparing sample to be
analyzed is either ethyl alcohol or hexane
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 THE LAWS OF ABSORPTION
The absorption of light by any absorbing
material is governed by two laws .
 Bouger-Lambert law
 Beer’s law
Bouger-Lambert law
This law is suggested by Picre Bouguer
in 1729, its often attributed to Johann
Heinrich Lambert .

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 Bouger-Lambert law
• This law states that “ The amount of
the light absorbed is proportional
to the thickness of the absorbing
material & is independent of the
intensity of the incident light “

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Second law – Beer’s law
It states that, the amount of light absorbed by a material is
proportional to the number of
Absorbing molecules(concentration)
Beer Lamberts Law:

This combined law states that the amount of light absorbed is

proportional to the
Concentration of the absorbing substance & to the thickness of the
absorbing material.

A=εbc
A=absorbance
ε =molar absorbtivity with units of L /mol.cm
b=path length of the sample (cuvette)
c =Concentration of the compound in solution, expressed in mol /L
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 Cont’d
1.Electronic Energy Levels:
• At room temperature molecules are in the lowest
energy levels E0.

• When molecules absorb UV-visible light from

EMR, one of the outermost bond / lone pair
electron is promoted to higher energy state such
as E1, E2, …En, etc is called as electronic transition
and the difference is as:
∆E = h ν = En - E0 where (n = 1, 2, 3, … etc)
∆E = 35 to 71 kcal/mole
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 Electronic Transitions
• The possible electronic transitions are:
• σ → σ* transition
• π → π* transition
• n → σ* transition
• n → π* transition
• σ → π* transition
• π → σ* transition

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 σ → σ* transition

• σ electron from orbital is excited to

corresponding anti-bonding orbital σ*.

• The energy required is large for this transition.

• e.g. Methane (CH4) has C-H bond only and can

undergo σ → σ* transition and shows
absorbance maxima at 125 nm.
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 π → π* transition

• π electron in a bonding orbital is excited to

corresponding anti-bonding orbital π*.

• Compounds containing multiple bonds like

alkenes, alkynes, carbonyl, nitriles, aromatic
compounds, etc undergo π → π* transitions.
• e.g. Alkenes generally absorb in the region
170 to 205 nm.

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 n → σ* transition

• Saturated compounds containing atoms with lone

pair of electrons like O, N, S and halogens are
capable of n → σ* transition.

• These transitions usually requires less energy

than σ → σ* transitions.

• The number of organic functional groups with n

→ σ* peaks in UV region is small (150 – 250 nm).

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 n → π* transition

• An electron from non-bonding orbital is

promoted to anti-bonding π* orbital.

• Compounds containing double bond involving

hetero atoms (C=O, C≡N, N=O) undergo such
transitions.

• n → π* transitions require minimum energy and

show absorption at longer wavelength around
300 nm.

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 σ → π* transition & π → σ* transition

•These electronic transitions are forbidden

transitions & are only theoretically possible.

•Thus, n → π* & π → π* electronic transitions

show absorption in region above 200 nm which
is accessible to UV-visible spectrophotometer.

•The UV spectrum is of only a few broad of

absorption.
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The possible electronic transitions can
graphically shown as:

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 Instrumentation
Components of UV-Visible spectrophotometer
• Source
• Filters & Monochromator
• Sample compartment
• Detector
• Recorder

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Instrumentation

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 Five Basic Optical Instrument
Components
• 1) Source – A stable source of radiant energy at the desired
wavelength (range).
• 2) Wavelength Selector – A device that isolates a restricted
region of the EM spectrum used for measurement
(monochromators, prisms & filters).
• 3) Sample Container – A transparent container used to
hold the sample (cells, cuvettes, etc).
• 4) Detector/Photoelectric Transducer – Converts the
radiant energy into a useable signal (usually electrical).
• 5) Signal Processor & Readout – Amplifies or attenuates
the transduced signal and sends it to a readout device as a
meter, digital readout, chart recorder, computer, etc.

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 LIGHT SOURCES
Various UV radiation sources are as follows
a. Deuterium lamp
b. Hydrogen lamp
c. Tungsten lamp
d. Xenon discharge lamp
e. Mercury arc lamp
Various Visible radiation sources are as follow
a. Tungsten lamp
b. Mercury vapour lamp
c. Carbonone lamp
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 Wavelength Selectors
• Wavelength selectors output a limited, narrow,
continuous group of wavelengths called a band.
Two types of wavelength selectors:
A) Filters
B) Monochromators

A)Filters –
Two types of filters:
a) Interference Filters
b) Absorption Filters
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 Cont’d
B. Monochromators
• Wavelength selector that can continuously scan a
broad range of wavelengths.
• Used in most scanning spectrometers including
UV, visible, and IR instruments.
• PRISM TYPE
– Refractive type
– Reflective type
• GRATING TYPE
– Diffraction type
– Transmission Type

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 SAMPLE COMPARTMENT
• Spectroscopy requires all materials in the beam path, the analyte
should be as transparent to the radiation as possible.
• The geometries of all components in the system should be such as to
maximize the signal and minimize the scattered light.
• The material from which a sample cuvette is fabricated controls the
optical window that can be used.
• Some typical materials are:
– Optical Glass - 335 - 2500 nm
– Special Optical Glass – 320 - 2500 nm
– Quartz (Infrared) – 220 - 3800 nm
– Quartz (Far-UV) – 170 - 2700 nm

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 Detectors
• After the light has passed through the sample, we want
to be able to detect and measure the resulting light.
• These types of detectors come in the form of
transducers that are able to take energy from light and
convert it into an electrical signal that can be recorded,
and if necessary, amplified.
• Three common types of detectors are used
 Barrier layer cells
 Photo emissive cell detector
 Photomultiplier

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 Applications of U.V. Spectroscopy:

1. Detection of Impurities
• UV absorption spectroscopy is one of the best methods for
determination of impurities in organic molecules.

• Additional peaks can be observed due to impurities in the

sample and it can be compared with that of standard raw
material.

• By also measuring the absorbance at specific wavelength, the

impurities can be detected.

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U.V. Spectra of Paracetamol (PCM)

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2. Structure elucidation of organic compounds.

• UV spectroscopy is useful in the structure elucidation of

organic molecules, the presence or absence of
unsaturation, the presence of hetero atoms.

• From the location of peaks and combination of peaks, it

can be concluded that whether the compound is saturated
or unsaturated, hetero atoms are present or not etc.

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3. Quantitative analysis

• UV absorption spectroscopy can be used for the quantitative

determination of compounds that absorb UV radiation. This
determination is based on Beer’s law which is as follows.

A = log I0 / It = log 1/ T = – log T = abc = εbc

Where :
ε -is extinction co-efficient,
c- is concentration, and
b- is the length of the cell that is used in UV spectrophotometer.

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Beer’s law

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4. Qualitative analysis
• UV absorption spectroscopy can characterize those
types of compounds which absorbs UV radiation.

• Identification is done by comparing the absorption

spectrum with the spectra of known compounds.

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U.V. Spectra's of Ibuprofen

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5.Chemical kinetics

• Kinetics of reaction can also be studied using

UV spectroscopy.

• The UV radiation is passed through the

reaction cell and the absorbance changes can
be observed.

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6. Detection of Functional Groups

• This technique is used to detect the

presence or absence of functional group
in the compound
• Absence of a band at particular
wavelength regarded as an evidence for
absence of particular group
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Benzene TOLUNE

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 7. Quantitative analysis of
pharmaceutical substances
• Many drugs are either in the form of raw material or
in the form of formulation. They can be assayed by
making a suitable solution of the drug in a solvent
and measuring the absorbance at specific wavelength.

• Diazepam tablet can be analyzed by 0.5% H2SO4 in

methanol at the wavelength 284 nm.
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 8. Examination of Polynuclear Hydrocarbons

• Benzene and Polynuclear hydrocarbons have characteristic

spectra in ultraviolet and visible region. Thus identification of
Polynuclear hydrocarbons can be made by comparison with the
spectra of known Polynuclear compounds.
• Polynuclear hydrocarbons are the Hydrocarbon molecule with
two or more closed rings; examples are naphthalene, C10H8, with
two benzene rings side by side, or diphenyl, (C6H5)2, with two
bond-connected benzene rings. Also known as polycyclic
hydrocarbon.

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Naphthalen DIPHENYL
e

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9. As HPLC detector
• A UV/Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a
detector for HPLC.

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