2015

Special Relativity
with Einstein
By Er. D. B. Dhone
The Author has exercised hard on Relativity. He generated about
more than fifty numbers of ingenious self explanatory figures
discussing Relativity principles with reference to each. He has
proved in this book; the relativistic phenomena, ‘space
contraction and time dilation’ are apparent phenomena. With
the help of Special Relativity, he has tried well a focus on mass-
energy relation and gravity. He has claimed two modes of energy
transmission by e.m.f. (1) field mode and (2) photon mode.

Er. D. B. Dhone, Retd. Executive Engineer (Electrical &

Mechanical), (Hydro Projects), (Maharashtra State), Mumbai.
Retd. Faculty of Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupury, NANDED.
3 AUDIOBOOK COLLECTIONS

6 BOOK COLLECTIONS
SPECIEL RELATIVITY WITH
EINSTEIN
2015
By

ER. D. B. DHONE

2
This book ‘Special Relativity with Einstein’ is the outcome of individual efforts of the author
towards perception of the Relativity. On the eve of “Relativity centenary”, the author, declares his
research works, in honor of the topmost scientist, EINSTEIN,

This month 29th December is the punyadin of my SriGuru, Jeer Swami

Keshawacharya Maharaj. Above efforts are
Dedicated to him.

The book is dedicated to my wife late

Shrimati Sau. Kanta Dadarao Dhone;
She always believed in crystalclear Trueth
All over.

All rights reserved with author. No part of this book/paper be reproduced in whole or in part or
stored in a retrievel system.
Or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written pemission of the author.Er. D. B. Dhone, m. h. no. 1-17-660,
IndraprasthaNagar, Tukaram Nivas, NANDED 431 602.
e-mail: <[email protected]>

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 PREFACE

In 1965, at my first year of engineering degree course, there was physics as one of
the course subject. Then, though it was not in our syllabus, due to enthusiasm; I
have studied, the chapter on, ‘Relativity’ present in the course book. At my
electrical engineering final, at Govt. College of Engineering, Aurangabad in 1969,
I have delivered non-academic voluntary seminar on ‘Einstein’s Special
Relativity’ with the due permission of the H.O.D. And, to my gladness, most of
the teaching staff along with the H.O.D. Prof. Pandit were present to it. There that
time I have stressed on the fact that, all inertial frames are equal in themselves and
special relativity is something like a parallax in light. Hence, though some say
that, special relativity is not real; we cannot neglect it. Because, all we work
mathematically scientifically, that we see or observe; and, derive results based on
it. With the help of relativity the real facts regarding space and time, we know
from relativistic transformations. The seminar was really applauded by my
teachers and friends-the students. That, moral energy kept me in touch with
relativity always. Whenever, time permits, and information on relativity is
available, it became a hobby to work on it.

The main cause which kept me always in touch with relativity is spiritual reason.
In-fact, the spiritual objects and their behaviors, are very microscopic. Study of
relativity, study of science based on basic particles also need microscopic view.
Therefore, I had chosen my carrier in electrical engineering and voluntary self
study of relativity to develop the sharpness of my mind and the intellect.

I was impressed spiritually very much by Einstein’s statements that, ‘something

moving is energy’, ‘mass-energy transfer relation E = mc2 and someone either
Einstein himself or other one’s statement that, an electron is nothing but, an
‘energy store’; representing as a mass.

The relativity is the threshold between the spiritual world and the material
world.

4
I have submitted two nos. of research papers on special relativity naming,
‘Perception of Ultimate Speed, Paper-I’ and, “……Paper-II” to Current Science,
Bangalore, National Physical Lab. New Delhi, Astro Physical Journal uchicago,
America, .Astronomy and Astrology at Paris in France, during the period from
2002 to 2004. But, all of them wanted sophisticated experiments in that respect.
But, myself being a Government servant, fully involved in works done
Departmentally, and not affiliated to any capable research organization; remained
unable in that respect.

Then collecting natural intuitions that,

(1) The largest laboratory in the world is ‘the human brain’ that, every human
being is having with him;

(2) The intellect is the scientist in that lab;

(3) Pure logic is the unique instrument for any experiment. And;

(4) Observations around, and available reading material is the intellectual

stuff that paves way through anything;

I have continued my work on relativity as and when time permitted me.

For, arriving to this mile stone, the greatest contribution is of my Grandfather,

Late Shri. Tukaramaji Vikramaji Kadam Mali Patil Somathana, tq.
Basamathnagar, who, dwelled me since my birth, taught me and gave the best
moral thoughts, cared to percolate them into me.

The next one but, not least one than my grandfather, is my late wife, Sau. Kanta.
She suffered a lot monetarily and mentally as well due to my unlimited time
spending on my Govt. allotted works and research works without any fruitful
gain; which would have been helpful to my family. It was one of her will that; I
should complete my research work.

5
This book is dedicated to her very gladly from my deep heart.

My grandson Master Krushna Kamalkishor Jadhav; always cares for me, to solve
my difficulties with computer. Looks after my food-timings and arranges fresh
environment around me. My daughter Mrs. Kalpana Kamalkishor Jadhav, does all
house work without any load on me. Similarly, my son-in-law Mr. Kamalkishore
Anandrao Jadhav does all field works without any burdon on me. It is said that,
one can stand in society, when he is honorable in his home. So, I am very much
thankful to above trio from my deep heart.

I am very much grateful to my colleague friend Er. Shri, Mohan Murlidhar

Pandit, who assisted to handle the office and erection works’ site administration
all in three shifts daily. Therefore only I could give some time for relativity along
with allotted Govt. work. He always encouraged me, whenever I found depressed
myself to continue the research work.

Er. Shri. Ramesh Babaso Patil, helped a lot in performing experiments in

respect of relativity daily for months together after the Govt. allotted works hours.
Hence, I am very much thankful to him. His manner of working and personal
assistance was very encouraging me.

The contribution of above two colleague friends in Maha. Gov. Hydro Services,
offered their valuable help in giving me their personnel time, after the Gov.
allotted works and duty well in time; is very much appreciable.

Prof. Dr. Dongre at Department of Physics, Shivaji University Kolhapur, helped

and encouraged me time to time during my stay at Warana Hydro-Electric Project
Distt. Sangali during the period 1999 to 2005. I feel him as my Guardian. His
personal care of me was so sensitive, that I can't never forget it. Then after my
retirement at Feb. 2005, during my stay at Nanded, my home-city; Prof. Dr.
Aundhkar H.O.D. of Astro-department at MGM college of Engineering, Nanded,
had conveying the role of shri. Dongre Sir, in my respect. I remain always very
grateful to both of them.

6
Mauli shri. Shivaji shinde rightly referred me to Shri Kalamse Sir, Retd. Principle
of Science college Nanded. He accompanied me for some couple of days to
discuss on my findings. Those discussions helped me for better explainations of
the facts that I have noticed. I am very grateful to shri. Kalamse sir.

At the last but not the least, more over atop all; my lot of thanks goes to my
spiritual Master Mauli Shri, Dr. Shiwaji Shinde; who cared my neurologically ill
wife Kanta, his spiritual sister, by providing her high class medical aids, I.C.U.
and other facilities at my home; for couples of years together without expectation
of any enumeration. This book/paper write up is completed just in these three
months. Maulee wanted it to complete it by me. He had followed up his perusal
with me daily.

And all that is because of the blessings of Shri Guru Shriman Keshawacharya Jeer
Swami, Mahant, Shri. Balaji Mandir, Gadipura, Nanded, at the last. “Tasmaie
Shree Guruve Namah”.
Er. D. B. Dhone.
Author.

Mauli shri. Shivaji shinde rightly referred me to Shri Kalamse Sir, Retd. Principle of Science
college Nanded. He accompanied me for some couple of days to discuss on my findings. Those
discussions helped me for better explainations of the facts that I have noticed. I am very grateful to
shri. Kalamse sir.

REQUEST

Author is confident about his findings noted in this book. The readers are
requested to peruse this book with sharp attention. If some basic concepts will be
found to have shaken; don’t keep aside them. Please, try to to verify the facts by
performing experiments. It is written very thoughtfully.. Since his engineering
first in 1965, he has spent about 5000 hrs. with relativity to perceive it. When he
was satisfied with himself, he put on to write on Relativity luckily in the year
2015 the centenary of Relativity by Einstein. Thank You.
Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author.
7
 ABOUT AUTHOR

The author, Er. Dadarao Babarao Dhone of this original research work is now a
retired Executive Engineer (E. & M., H. P., M. S. Mumbai). Since, 2005. He has
contributed in erection, testing, commissioning, operation, maintenance; and,
special repairs, and modifications, particularly solving technical and
administrative bottle-necks, imparting training to the operating staff, at hydro
power generating plants; and, Lift Irrigation Schemes of Govt. of Maharashtra.
The author does not liked contract works. He always liked works to be done and
completed departmentally; with the help of Departmental labors technicians
guided and supervised by the Departmental junior officers. It was his experience
that, the Departmental works at works’ sites; always remained superior, were
completed fully and within their scheduled time.

At every project, the author has paved wave through bottle necks. Hydro-project
gathers speed after first embedment of its machinery part. Due to his full
dedication to allotted works without caring for himself and completing the works
by solving all technical, administrative as well social difficulties by himself not
only in respect of his works but, any work belonging to the project. He never
demanded any remuneration towards it. His colleagues counted about one billion
rupees Govt. savings because of his works. He always thought whatever hurdles
he crossed over, that was due to his academic collegian studies only. Therefore,
he did not consider it something innovative. Hence, he never claimed extra than
monthly pay.

He always believed in Departmental works, and the Departmental staff. He has

seen that, Departmental works are quality works. They are completed within
scheduled times. The only thing the Executive of the work has to do is, (1)
workers should not be harassed for achieving the target; instead, (2) available
workers should be arranged in shifts for allotted working time period; (3) Over
time should be avoided the most possibly; (4) their needs are small enough and
they can be satisfied from their rights allotted them by service rules. Hence, they

8
should be satisfied immediately. (5) Though they have not studied necessary
technology from any academic institution; they have intellect. Once ‘the
procedure and why this procedure only’; these facts are imparted to them along
with tolerances; then believe them, they will complete that job better than our
expectation. The supervisor should be confident enough that he had imparted the
know-how correctly.

He never compared two or more projects with respect to each other. Every project
has its own specifications and limitations. He always tried to hold the project near
to its specifications and complete within theoretical allowable tolerances.

In technical field expertise does not depend on number of years spent in similar
jobs; but, expertise depends on the perception of technical facts on which basis
the project is designed and capability to construct the project within tolerances
allowed by design of that project in the scheduled time. There is no place for
“chalata hai” and, “theoretical figures cannot be achieved practically”.

At each and every project he has introduced modifications in the project works of
R. & D. level very successfully.

Before completion of any aspect of the work; the author used to study the
technical theory of that aspect. And accordingly used to complete the job. They
say theory doesn’t work in practical work. Practical work performance is
different from theoretical. But, the author does never support this view and
insisted job completion perfectly as per theoretical aspects. Perfect
understanding of theory and then undoubted faith in theory; give confidence
and capability to face a challenging work also. In a project; hindrances
appear due to non care towards this aspect.

When, one has grasped the theoretical aspects of any work technically
perfectly; he can definitely do that work, even independently with
confidence; without any previous experience.

9
The natural interest of the author was since beginning, from his primary school in
getting understood the God. To develop sense of that level, study of microscopic
existing material which can be sensed; should be done. That would enable to
perceive the God. Therefore he started going to school. As he progressed to
higher and higher class, he felt, electric engineering would be the most suitable
branch in all respects. It would provide a sharp vision to view the universe and
would provide livelihood also. At engineering when he came across Einstein’s
theory of relativity, he felt, that, relativity required very nano-scopic thinking to
understand it. Hence, relativity became his worship subject. Therefore he
studied special relativity and applied exhaustive thinking to it. It enabled the
author to write originally innovative on special relativity in this work. He
believes that, most of the persons do not try to understand the huge
capacities they have with them. Author opines that, everyone should keep
afresh ready to accept any challenge and any responsibility at any time.
Particularly well learned persons should posses this quality invariably.

After his retirement from Govt. service at 1st March 2005, after a year he taught
control and protection subject to production technology 3rd year students in 2006
on period-basis in SGGS college Nanded. Then after he offered 7 years of service
at non-grant private re-known ‘Gramin Polytechnic College Vishnupuri, Nanded’
as a Lecturer in various Departments Electronics and Telecommunication,
Computer Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Automobile Engineering,
Electrical Engineering, instrumentation, Hotel Management to teach electrical
varied subjects, involving electricity, electronics, computer basics, heat,
refrigeration and cooling, He guided to M. Tech. Faculty-students at Gramin
Polytechnic. The lectures were aimed to improve the knowledge of the students as
well to enable them to score more marks. Little time period of lectures was
utilized by myself to impart technical skills, based on my field works in Govt.
service. Similarly, to promote morality always constantly, including sensible
spiritual philosophy during some of the regular and extra, periods, about ten
minutes were spent by us i.e. me and my students weekly without affecting the
scheduled coarse-studies.

10
He believe in works so much so that, he feels, “The work is life; no work is
death.” He never cared for over time remuneration. Similarly he never cared for
short tour T. A. bills. Because of ‘red ribbon’ systems in offices it consumes lot of
time for personnel follow up diverting works’ time; which the author feels very
disgusting and unnecessary west of time in follow up actions.
The money can well give varied facilities for enjoying; but, not the satisfaction.
The satisfaction rests in works’ performance as per their specifications and the
scientific theories involved in it.

During this this book writing, I got much encouragement from Mauli Dr. Shri.
Shivaji Shinde, Dr. Shri. Kalamse Sir, the retd. Principal of Science college
Nanded. My daughter, Mrs. Kalpana, Son-in-Law Kamalkishor and Grand-Son,
Mster Krushna and in addition the majour guidance of shri. Kalamse sir. I am
very much thankful to them by heart.

Some dozen of projects can be based from the information in this book. Please be
them conveyed to the author while performing the same and similar projects .

Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author.

Address: - Er. D. B. Dhone Patil, (Municipal house No.) 1-17- 660,

Indraprasthanagar, Nanded.
Pin: - 431 602

E-mail:- [email protected]

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 ABSTRACT

This Paper/book deals with the Perception of events truly with the help of
‘photon signals’ released by the source and that are traveling in the free space at
the ultimate speed. Also, it studies the information transfer by field-lines.

The basic facts at the root of Lorentzian relativistic transformations are

discussed in this book/paper.

It is the fact that, the position of an event and its happening instant of time at its
point; is same in the Universe with respect to all of the Observers attached to
their inertial Frames moving with different relative motions with respect to each
other and w.r.t. the source itself. The speed ‘c’ of the ‘photon signals’ coming
from an event and measured by all the Observers is with respect to the source.
Space ‘contraction and time dilation’ are phenomena like parallax in light. They
are perceived due to perception by electro-magnetic phenomena where in limit of
perception of speed is ‘c’ due to the space properties of electrical permittivity
and the magnetic permeability. It is discussed in very detail in this work.

Length measured with the help of photon signal is electro-magnetic length and
length measured by foot rule or by survey is mechanical length. Considering
these two types of length measurement it is found that Newton’s laws of motion
are true universally at all speeds, even at speeds greater than ‘c’ also. As we
consider different mechanical forces while applying them; likewise, when
applying these rules in electro-magnetism, the nature of these forces and their
behaves are to be accounted for.

Photons travel along their direction of motion mechanically, once they are
ejected out from their source. The light photon speed is ‘c’ the ultimate speed
w.r.t. its source as seen from any inertial frame. But, that w.r.t. any inertial frame
attached to respective observer, it is equal to ( c2- v2 )1/2. It is not (c + v) or (c –

12
v). It is due to particular type of photon ejection from its source affected by space
permittivity and permeability inside an atom.
Photons traveling in free space have not any electric or magnetic field either
applied to or generated by them. The space contraction and time dilation
phenomena are observed due to light signal speed w.r.t. the source, it being ‘c’
and that w.r.t. observer’s attached frame, it being equal to ( c2- v2 )1/2 as
mentioned above. The photon signal gives position of the source at its point,
when the observer receives the signal, though it is a bit nearer. But, the
signal gives the physical state of the source-body that was at the instant of
time, the source-object has released the signal. Since beginning our all
mathematics, so also, the scientific observations are dependent, upon
whatever we see actually at the present instant. All inertial frames are equal
in themselves. Therefore, the relativity is like a parallax phenomena in light.
But, we are assuming true, the seen facts and involving in them. Thereby
creating an illusive coating upon relativity principles. The science aims at
knowing the truth. The Lorentzian transformations enable us to find actual space
dimensions of the source-object and its actual distance from us. The relativity
explains as author points it out; how most of the world remains unknown to
us yet.

This paper/book work explains the futility of the experiments ‘airplane

experiment and the cosmic ray experiment’ to prove special relativity principles.

The author differentiates E.M. mode of transmission of energy in two different

ways. (1) Photon mode and (2) field mode. Till now for all communication by
the lowest frequency to the highest frequency the electro-magnetic way of
energy transmission is assumed only one. But, the author differentiated it into
two modes clearly explaining the difference between the two. The field mode
works up to micro-wave frequencies. From infra-red frequencies above
photon mode works. The transition zone frequencies lie in upper portion of
micro-waves. In field mode the signal travels instantaneously; where as in
photon mode it travels at speed ‘c’. For stellar bodies thousands of light years
away from us, the speed ‘c’ is very small. At that speed when we receive
information of that far distant body; it is very doubtful whether that body is in

13
presence or not. Therefore, means should be developed to communicate
information by field mode at far. Field lens need to be developed.
The author has tried mass-energy transformation relation with the help of special
relativity by taking help from general relativity in the form of accelerated frame at
the instants of energy conversion. Actually energy conversion takes place in
accelerated frame only. A change only can give another change, seems the fact
in universe. Author has developed concept of mechanical length and electro-
magnetic length. Lengths in their rest frame can be measured mechanically
directly by a measure tape or survey. But, lengths of moving bodies can only be
measured by signaling. Electro-magnetic signaling system is universal. Much
experimentation is involved, in this paper/book. Many projects need to be carried
out. Out of those below ones. Following are the prime ones. (1)To develop ‘field-
mode photography’. In this clear picture be enabled to give minute details of the
far object at present. Micro-wave Radio Photography is existed; but, on photon
mode bsic. (2) To perform E.M. communication wave speed measurement
experiment by using wide range of complex frequencies. The block diagram is
given in this book to prove infinite speed of communication e.m. waves up to
micro-frequencies including it. (3) To repeat airplane experiment, as is
mentioned herein to prove special relativity principles. (4) To check, the relation
between the speed of far stellar body and its gravity w.r.t. an observer.

Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author.

Note:-The word ‘quanta' used for a packet of an energy in the form of a group of frequencies
or a fundamental eternal mass particle or ots group; must be understood as per each of its
context. It is very perceiving to express to explain by the use of these words. Relativity is basic
physical study of perceiving the world . It doesn’t account for ‘persistence of vision’ in its
fundamental basic study. To perceive better the relativity principles, due basic studies of
electrical, electronics, kinetics, mechanical, particle physics, fluid mechanics, astro-scieces and
mathematics is must. Anyone may wonder if I say, ShriMadbhagwadGeeta if be studied, with
scientific mind, gives a peer vision to grasp the Relativity. It will avoid illusions and will help
toknow the facts. This book tells what was in the mind of Einstein about Relativity. Relativity
tells, what we observe; but, what is true and finds out the way to arrive to the trueth.

14
 Dr.Vijay Pawar
Gramin Shikshan Prasarak Mandal’s
Gramin Polytechnic, Nanded

15
 The Author, Dadarao Dhone, briefing his book,
“The Special Relativity With Einstein”2015
to,
Dr.Udhav V. Bhosle, Vice Chancellor
Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University
Nanded

15
 The Author, Dadarao Dhone, briefing his book,
"The Special Relativity With Einstein"2015.
to,
Dr. Vijay Bhatkar,
Architect of PARAM series of Supercomputers and Relativity Scientist.

15
 DEDICATED TO MY WIFE

LATE MRS. KANTA DADARAO DHONE

By
Er. Dadarao Babarao Dhone.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………..18
2. A Soldier Firing a Target From Moving Vehicle ……………………20
3. Nature of Light…………………………………………………….....22
4. Discussion on Perception…………………………………………..... 32
5. Accelerated Motion…………………………………………………..42
6. Definition of an Event………………………………………………..43
7. Generation of Light Photon…………………………………………..46
8. Speed of Light Photon in Its Source’s Frame and Other Frame……...54
9. The Relativity and Electro-Magnetic Fields ………………………....63
10. Philosophy of Lorentzian Transformations……………………….….74
11. Observer’s Perception………………………………………………..88
12. Perception of Length Contraction and Time Dilation………………..89
13. Simultaneity………………………………………………………….96
14. Scientific and Mathematical Derivations…………………………...103
15. Electro-Magnetic Length and Mechanical Length………………….112
16. Effect of Relative Velocity and Distance of Stellar Body
from Observer………………………………………………… …...114
17. Location of the Signal Source-Object………………………………118
18. Satellite Remote Control……………………………………………125
19. Creation and Persistence of Vision…………………………………129
20. The State of Signal Source………………………………………….131
21. Newton’s Laws of Motion and Relativity…………………………..133
22. Film Experiment……………………………………………………136
23. Ultimate Speed of Mass……………………………………….........137
24. Ultimate Speed of Electron…………………………………………138
25. The Speed of Signal in Different Frames…………………………...143
26. Relativity of Energy………………………………………………...148
27. Airplane Experiment………………………………………………..153
28. Atomic Watch in an Accelerated Frame……………………………156
29. Experiment to Prove Special Relativity Principles…………………164
30. Cosmic Ray Experiment……………………………………………169
31. Application of Relativity Principles………………………………...171

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32. Maxwell’s Electro-magnetic Field Equations……………………....175
33. Comparison between Photon Mode and Field Mode……………….187
34. Verification of Speed of E. M. Wave Propagation
below Micro-Waves………………………………………………. 193
35. E. M. Field Transmission Mode…………………………………....197
36. Photon Mode…………………………………………......................201
37. Special Relativity and Refraction Comparison………......................206
38. To Find Relative Density of Space………………………………...209
39. Speeds Greater Than ‘c’………………………………....................214
40. ‘ct’ as Universal Constant………………………………………….218
41. Material Basic Particles……………………………….....................221
42. Mass Energy Convertion…………………………………………...222
43. Conclusions………………………………………………………...227
44. Appendices:
1. Algebraic and Relativistic Vector Additions…………………….234
2. Derivation of Relativistic Space-Time Relations……..................237
3. Universe………………………………………………………….240
4. Energy Quanta-photon…………………………………………...245
5. Distance Between Consecutive Orbits in an Atom………………249
6. More about photon and field mode………………………………261
7. Dual Nature of E. M. Signal……………………………………...269
8. Photon as a mass particle………………………………………... 274
9. Research Papers Published by Er. Dadarao Dhone, Nanded……….277

References:……………………………………………………………...280

18
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY WITH EINSTEIN

1. INTRODUCTION:--
Since the dawn of Physics, transmission of light, that is, the transmission of
radiant energy has remained a topic of vibrant discussions.
First, before 17th century speed of light assumed was infinity. To measure the
speed of light in free space, experiments were performed by then scientist as
mentioned below.
Galileo, in 1600 tried to measure velocity of light denoted by ‘c’, by a distant
reciprocal gun firing. But, the speed of light being very high in comparison to the
time duration the firing signal remain burning and also, the time duration of
sensing the light signal by ‘eye’ is also much longer in comparison with the
velocity of light; hence, he could not succeed.
Romar Danish astronomer tried to measure speed of light by observing the time of
eclipse of satellite of Jupiter in 1728.
Bradly tried it by measuring apparent shift of position of a fixed star, due to
rotation of earth.
Above Romar and Bradly methods require dia. of earth and that was not known
that time. Therefore, those measurements could not be exact.
Fizeu’s rotating wheel method experiment performed in laboratory in Paris gave
very near result in 1849 as, c = 3.13 x 108
Michelson Morley’s measuring fringe shift, calculated velocity of light very
nearer to the theoretical one that is given by Maxwell’s E.M. equations. It was
very enthusiastic experiment. For theoretical value to be obtained in this
experiment, actually half fringe was expected; but, actually it was 0.01 fringe. The
result was negative thus. But, when viewed this contra result; in the light of
Newton’s corpuscular theory, Huygens’s wave theory, Plank’s quantum theory,
Maxwell’s e.m. theory; all of light; the result stood true on ‘length contra basis’.

19
Foucault’s rotating mirror method, also gave value of speed of light much near‘c’.

It was Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory that gave exact speed of light

theoretically as stated below.
Thus, light was found to transmit in the form of waves at speed c =3X108 m. /sec.
in free space.

As sound travels through medium air, water, metal, etc. it naturally leads to think
that, a suitable medium is required for transmission of waves. Therefore, ‘ether’ a
hypothetical medium having no mass, no appearance, no friction was considered
filled in the universe as a medium for that purpose. Observations of stellar bodies
required to assume ether-drag. An exhaustive experimental work like ‘stellar
aberration experiment, Air’s experiment, Freshener’s experiment, Fizzer’s
experiment’ were performed mostly in the latter half of the last century to prove
presence of ether and ether-drag in space; but, in vain. The rise of quantum theory
of light; according to which, light is transmitted through space in the form of
discrete quanta gave some relief from ether. Still ether could not be banned;
because, of dual nature of light; that, some phenomena of light could be explained
only on the basis of wave nature of light. But, existence of ether could not be
proved till yet; in-spite of all efforts for it. Hence Einstein declared the doctrine
that, “non observables have no place in Physics”. Then, Maxwell developed
electro-magnetic theory of light, which does not require any medium of
transmission for light. It also explained light phenomena solely dependent on
wave nature of oscillating electro-magnetic fields. Einstein constructed his
theory of relativity; that author is discussing from a quite new point of view,
based on perception limit imposed by the nature on organisms as well on non-
organisms (that the instruments).

It is found that light moves at the speed of 3X108 m. /sec. in free space. It cannot
move at greater than this speed. Also, not any material object cannot achieve
speed greater than this one. Therefore, this speed is called the ultimate speed ‘c’.

An observer knows the universe, with the help of light. It is found that nothing is
absolute. Anything that is to be studied; is to be studied w.r.t. suitable other thing.

20
The relativity studies; tell us how different observers, in different motions
relative to each other; perceive the same events.
The medium of perception of events in nature is light and its speed is difficult to
achieve at present. Most of the results of relativity principles are felt illusive. But,
when pure logic (that like Newton’s; he seeing an apple falling from a tree falls
below on ground and does not go to sky or elsewhere; therefore, he thought that,
there must be some type of pulling force with the earth and he formed
gravitational theory;) without any prejudice is applied in study of the relativity
principles; they are understood clearly and correctly. The author has made that
effort here under. Doing so, some quite new noticeable facts of importance are
revealed by the author.

As the medium of perception of the events in the universe, is the light; let us see and
revise the nature of light. To understand how and at what speed light travels from
its source towards its target-observer; when, both are in relative motion with each
other.

2. A SOLGER FIRING A TAGET FROM MOVING VEHICLE:-

Please see the figure below. There is a soldier, firing the target ‘T’ given to him,
when he is in a moving vehicle. The vehicle is moving at constant linear speed ‘v’
in –x direction. The speed of the fired bullet is ‘c’. The target-line, on which the
target is rested, is at a distance of ‘MN’ From the gun-tip. For simplicity of
understanding let the soldier fire the target from point O’1, which is at minimum
distance from the target, so that, the line TO’1 is perpendicular to the line AB on
which, the target is fixed. The line AB is parallel to the direction of motion of the
soldier, i.e. O1’O2’ along –x direction. When the soldier arrives at point O’1
during its motion; he fires; but not in direction of the allotted target T instead, he
fires at an imagined target T’, such that, his bullet will hit the actual target T.

Please see the series of events taking place in the firing. When the soldier triggers
the bullet, the bullet achieves two velocities in the gun barrel. These two
velocities are ‘v’ and ‘c’ as mentioned above. Please note that, here in this case;

21
the ‘c’ is taken to represent the velocity of bullet. The bullet with these two
velocities gets ejected out from the gun-barrel-tip at point O’1. Then, the bullet
travels at speed ‘c’ towards the imagined fictitious target T’ at velocity ‘c’ at the
same time it travels at velocity ‘v’ in the direction of motion of the soldier i.e.
along –x direction, so that, the bullet hits the allotted target ‘T’. The vehicle is
moving very smoothly and the area is plane open uniform all over. The bullet hits
the target T when the soldier, the observer O’ is at position O’2. The soldier see
that, the bullet has travelled the path O’2T at speed c.

Fig. [Null]:

22
But, the stationary observer O, see that bullet has travelled from O’1 to target T
along the path O’1T at speed of ( c2- v2 )1/2 Please see above Fig. [NULL]
In the same fashion when an excited orbital electron (corresponding to bullet), in
its host’s nucleus’ frame (corresponding to the soldier) moves from O’1 to T it
emits its light photon signal perpendicular to the direction O’1O’2., at speed
( c2- v2 )1/2.

The instant of triggering the bullet from gun-tip is the same in the universe
for both observers O and O’. Similarly, the instant of hitting the bullet at the
target is also same for the both observers. Therefore, when the observer O’
finds the speed of bullet equal to c, the observer O finds its speed ( c2- v2 )1/2.
And the path O’1T. If the bullet motion is photographed by movie camera it
will show the bullet path O’1T.

In actual figures of light-photon; the perception basic rules like, any observer
from its attached inertial frame cannot feel light speed greater than c; are
applied. Hence those figures become more elaborated. But, this example of
bullet firing is very helping tool to understand relativistic facts.

3. NATURE OF LIGHT:-

It is seen that, light behavior is dual. It shows its property ‘nature’, as wave nature
as well as particle nature. Particle nature of light was known to the physics
science since, long before in 6th century B.C. Pythagoras, has proposed particle
nature of light that time. But, the basic idea of particle in modern physics is
different than the old one. At present light particle is just indicative of a group of
e.m. waves. It is not considered as a mass particle.

About 1667, Robert Hook propounded vibration communication nature of light in

his famous book “Micrographia”. At the same time, Huyegens in his treats on
light has developed wave theory of light explicitly.

Wave nature requires a medium for its transmission; which is not existed. A
quantum nature does not require any medium. (Please refer Annexure- 4 ). Quanta

23
travel in free space maintaining their state of motion; once they are released at
confined speed. But, any one nature of propagation of light out of these two was
not able to explain behavior of light as a whole. Light also travels through other
mediums like air, water, glass and that like physical bodies. The behavior of light,
through these different materials, could not be defined by above both the theories.
Then, came, James Clerk Maxwell’s “Electro-magnetic Wave Theory of Light” in
1861. It made possible to predict the numerical values of speed of light for any
given medium in terms of measurable electrical, magnetic and physical properties
of the medium; thus, ether a conceptual medium which was found not existing
actually, was totally banned away then.

Now, speed of light ‘c’ was considered constant universally. Thus, it was a
direct constraint to a light-quanta emission mechanism. But, acceptance of
wave theory did not wait upon experimental proof that the measured value of
‘c’ is whether independent of the source velocity w.r.t. different inertial
frames in relative motion w.r.t. each other and it is not yet crystal clear to all.
Because, we performed laboratory experiments to measure speed of light; we
understood Einstein’s statement that, all inertial frames are equal in
themselves; and we have meant; that, the speed of light is constant in the
universe in each inertial frame w.r.t. respective inertial frame itself,
irrespective of the state of relative motion of the source of light. The Author
has proved here that, the velocity of source of the light as a vector gets added,
relativistically. By the word ‘relativistically’ the author means, the suitable
projection of the resultant of speed-vectors ‘c’ and ‘v’, so that, the observer
finds it representing vector ‘c’. Because, speeds greater than ‘c’ though if
appear; they cannot be sensed by (light) E.M. method of communication
directly.

The author also doctrines here that, the velocity of light that is the ultimate
speed ‘c’, is w.r.t. its source. Velocity of light, coming from a moving source,
if measured w.r.t. an observer is relativistically reduced to [( c2-v2 )1/2] from c.
It is calculated and explained here at suitable place.

24
It is the fact that, the orbiting electrons in an atom are revolving around their
nucleus at the tangential linear speeds very near to the ultimate speed ‘c’. Due to
some or other reasons if an orbital receives energy; it cannot hold it due to
limitations of its host’s atomic structure. There is no more positive charge to
balance the negative electric field of the extra charge in the nucleus of the atom.
Electron-charge-material is like a fluid. Hence, the extra electronic –charge- is
quenched radially out of the atom, under the influence of electric field repulsion
and centrifugal forces at the ultimate speed w.r.t. the source-atom. Due to internal
atomic structure and internal atomic forces; the extra charge quantum entered
into an orbital electron, does not show ‘negative charge characteristic. It is just
only an energy packet. Therefore, it is ejected out in the form of energy
quanta and not as an electric charge. As the electron loaded with extra charge
quantum is moving at speed near or equal to ‘c’; the released extra energy
quantum is electrically neutral when it is ejected out of the orbit, it travels at
speed near or equal to the ultimate speed ‘c’ linearly and radially out w.r.t.
the host atom of the orbital electron. It travels in free space as a light photon
electro-magnetically neutral. Please see [Fig. 1].

In the [Fig. 1], an excited atom attached to its rest frame S’, is moving at speed
‘v’ w.r.t. the observer O stationed in his rest frame S. An excited orbital electron
at instant of time t1, starts rejecting extra energy quantum during its travel from A
to B. As the electron is attached to the nucleus i.e. to the rest frame of the atom;
its resultant path of travel, in its rest frame is the line A’B. It releases an ‘energy
packet’ followed by ‘no energy packet’, in the direction radially out, parallel to x-
x’ axes. [The co-ordinates should be fixed such that, ‘x’ co-ordinates are parallel
to the line of vision of the observer’ and the line of vision of the observer be along
the direction of motion of the signal-source.]

When the signal is receipted by the observer, he finds events different than those
have happened in the rest frame of the atom. The observer thinks that, the excited
orbital electron has moved along the line AB Because, he feels that, when the
electron has started releasing extra energy, it is at A and when it has finished the
release of extra energy that it has; it is at point B during its host-atom’s relative
speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer. But, the observer perceives the reality something

25
different. He perceives the path of orbital electron motion along line AN. (the
lines in this figure represent resultant path of motion of the electron.)A and N
points are on orbital path of the electron. The photon energy signal is released by
the orbital electron in its rest frame in the direction perpendicular to its resultant
motion in its host’s rest frame. That direction is universal. For any inertial frame
that will remain unique. Its perception regarding its frequency, speed, energy etc.
about the signal is definitely different because of relative motion of each frame
w.r.t. another. The observer actually visualizes the motion of the orbital electron
vertically from A to N’. Because, line AB represent electron velocity greater than
‘c’. Line AN shows electron velocity ‘c’ (it is drawn representing velocity ‘c’. Its
component AN’ is perpendicular to the sight of vision of the observer. Therefore,
the observer realizes the orbital electron motion along AN’. All this happens
because of the relative speed ‘v’ of the signal-source, the excited atom here.

Any observer in its inertial frame finds the light velocity equal to ‘c’ w.r.t.
the source of that light. But, w.r.t. himself he finds it different, that is less
than ‘c’. This is because, the relative speed of the light source. See the
rectangular triangle A N’N. In this triangle, AN’, represents the light-source
line perpendicular to the vision of the observer and line AN, represents
ultimate speed ‘c’ that is the speed of an electron in its orbit. The line N’N, is
proportional to relative speed ‘v’ of the source-atom. Hence,

AN’, represents speed of light say co perceived by observer w.r.t. his attached
frame S. Therefore,

co = ( c2- v2 )1/2.------------------------------------(1)

Thus, when, an observer attaches number of suitable sensors and timers at

measured distance along the path of the light signal in his attached frame S ; he
will find that, the signal has speed as given by above formula.

Modern science says that speeds greater than that of the ultimate speed are
possible and they also give evidence for that but, the author feels those evidences
are very insufficient and lacking the perception. It happens so; because, whenever

26
one thinks on relativity, he feels it something illusive. Some of them are discussed
at the end showing their futility w.r.t. special relativity principles.

Logically, speeds greater than ‘c’ are existed in the universe. But, due to
perception limit imposed by the nature, we cannot see it naturally. For, consider a
terrestrial body as standard relativistic inertial frame S’. A signal source is
attached to this S’ frame. An observer O’ attached to this frame, can always
perceive the signal coming from the source attached to his frame at speed c;
because, the speed of the signal-photons is up to ‘c’ maximum w.r.t. him which is
within perception limits.

.Fig. [ 1 ]:

Now, consider another inertial standard frame S. Let the frame S’ be in relative
motion with the frame S; so that, frame S’ axis x’ is in coincidence with the x-axis
of the frame S and the frame S’ is moving with relative speed ‘v’ w.r.t. S in x-x’

27
direction. The observer O finds the signal-speed equal to ‘c’ w.r.t. the source and
equal to (c2-v2)1/2 w.r.t. his attached frame S in the direction of motion of the
source, either the source might be coming towards the observer or going away
from him. When, the source is coming towards the observer with some speed, say
‘v’, then as per conman logic based on kinetics; one thinks that, the light signal-
speed might be greater than ‘c’ like (c + v). But, it is not as stated above. Please
see [Fig. 2] below.
Fig. [2]:

In the [fig. 2] above, an excited orbital electron, of an atom, attached to its rest
frame S’; releases its extra energy radially out in space, during its travel from A to
B. The inertial frame S’ is moving at speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer, towards
observer. Therefore, the path AB corresponds to speed greater than ‘c’ in reality
for observer O. But, the signal conveying travel AB when acts with the observer’s
eye or a sensor on y-axis; it cannot move its sensing electrons to that higher than
‘c’ speed; because of , electric permittivity and , the magnetic permeability.

28
Instead, it moves the signal accepting electrons up to speed ‘c’. Therefore, the
observer O looks the path of signal-source electron as AB’. This movement AB’
produces an image commensurate to vertical path A’B’; that is vertical to
observer’s line of sight. Please see in rectangle-triangle AA’B’, AB’ represents
light velocity ‘c’ w.r.t. source of the signal, AA’ represents relative velocity ‘v’
and the vertical line A’B’ represents velocity of light, w.r.t. the observer O in his
attached frame S. Therefore, The observer finds the light signal velocity of signal
coming from its source, moving at velocity ‘v’ equal to; (c2- v2 )1/2 , w.r.t.
himself in his attached frame.

The orbital excited electron, in its rest frame, moves along the path, A’B. A’B
represents light velocity ‘c’. Thus, the signal speed, in the rest frame of the
signal-source, is ‘c’ and, in the observer’s attached frame S, the same signal
speed is (c2-v2 )1/2 irrespective of the direction of relative motion ‘v’ but, it is
‘c’ w.r.t the source as seen by the observer i.e. O

Thus, absolute linear constant singular motion of an observer or an object in a free

space cannot be detected. It can only be detected with respect to some other body
or some radiation in the space. If two (or more) bodies are present in the space,
still not anybody could know whether it is in motion in the free space or not. But,
everybody, considering itself quiet stationary can judge with respect to itself, each
of other body, whether it is in motion and by what amount of speed it is moving
w.r.t. to it. Considering two bodies, an observer attached to any one body,
considering himself stationary, can find the linear motion of the other body w.r.t.
itself. Similarly, an observer attached to the other body considering himself
stationary can find the linear motion of the first one body and the quantitative
results of both are going to be found equal in-spite of space contraction and time
dilation phenomena as, all inertial frames are equal in free space in all respect.
This motion between the two bodies is ‘relative motion’ denoted by ‘v’.

In [Fig.3] Below, Let there be an additional inertial frame S” such that, its axis x”
is also in coincidence with the axes x-x’. Further, let the frame S” be some
satellite in free space and that the frame S’ be the frame like a big space station,
attached to the source of the signal. Then usual frame S be the observatory on the

29
earth and the observer O attached to the frame S be the scientist taking
observations. Now let the signal source attached to frame S’ and hence the frame
S’ be in relative motion ‘v’ w.r.t. frame S” and the frame S” be in relative motion
‘u’ w.r.t. the frame S the observatory on the earth and hence w.r.t. observer O, the
scientist, attached to it. For simplicity of measurements and also the
understanding let, at a time talk us relativistically, in respect of any two frames.
Therefore, let us consider the frame S’ and S” as one system attached to inertial
frame and name it as frame S*. The relative velocity ‘v’ is the internal matter of
the frame S*. Now, see that, S’ or the signal-source is moving with linear constant
motion ‘v’ w.r.t. S” and that S” or S* is moving with linear constant motion ‘u’
w.r.t. S or w.r.t. the scientist i.e. the observer O. Now as discussed above and that
can be derived by Lorentzian transformations discussed latter that, the speed of
the light signal from the source w.r.t. O” or its attached frame S” is,
c’= [( c2- v2 )1/2] and that w.r.t. S or its attached frame S is, c” = ( c2- v2– u2 )1/2.
Thus the signal-source moves with the speed v’ = [u + v.( c2- v2 )1/2] w.r.t. the
observer O on earth stationed in the observatory by S. If relative motions ‘v’ and
‘u’ are nearing ‘c’; then definitely, the object-source of the signal, is moving with
a velocity greater than ‘c’. In such case, the signal photons are unable to reach the
observer O. Thus the world at frame S’ cannot be perceived by the observer
at his observatory naturally. To measure the speed of the signal w.r.t. his attached
frame S; the observer will have to put suitable sensors along the x-axis attached to
his frame S along the path of the signal-source such that, the source will pass
them very closely; and record the receipts of the signals along the x-axis with its
instants of time of arrival at respective sensors. In this case the signals released in
the direction perpendicular to the direction of the travel of the object are
receipted. Therefore, the signals are traveling with velocity ‘c’ towards the x-axis,
and in addition at velocity, [u + v.( c2-v2 )1/2] in the direction of x-axis. [Fig. 3].
In order to obtain the velocities c’ and c” one have take the help of figure 1. From
the fig.1 we get velocity c’. Then by substituting velocity c’ in place of c we
obtain velocity c”. To find the velocity ‘v’ of the source w.r.t. frame S or w.r.t. the
observer, the velocity v will suffer length contraction. By applying it, we obtain
the velocity v’ w.r.t. O as v’=. v.( c2-v2 )1/2. The velocity u of S* i.e. S” w.r.t. S
and the velocity v’ of S’w.r.t. S, which is internal to S” both are algebraic
velocities; they are Newtonian velocities; therefore, they are added arithmetically,

30
they being in the same direction giving [u + v.( c2-v2 )1/2] as the velocity of S’
w.r.t. S in these S, S”, S’ complex combination of inertial frames.

Thus, logically speeds greater than ‘c’ are existed in the universe; but, as far as
perception is concerned, they are of no use.
All depends on the natural perception of an observer. An observer can
perceive the signal speeds corresponding up to ultra violet frequencies w.r.t. his
rest frame. In case of higher frequencies like x-rays, its bad effects on physical
body of livings are perceived after sufficient period of time. There may be some
livings who can perceive frequencies greater than the ultra-violet light. Also, there
can be some livings who can perceive signals of speeds greater than ‘c’. Because,
the nature is very varied.

Fig. [ 3 ]:

During the study of ultimate speed and its perception and also an event; while
studying the relativity principles; one has always to keep in mind; the natural

31
process of perception of an observer along with the ‘perception limit’ imposed by
nature that an observer cannot perceive speeds greater than ‘c’.

An observer is any live or un-live entity that can record the observed facts by
means of electro-magnetic signaling or energy packets photons; both released by
an object as a signal, either in its stationary or in motion state, w.r.t observer.

An observer perceives the facts of an object whether the object is in relative

linear motion or not ,w.r.t. himself; by means of light signals or the photon
signals released from the object, such that, the signals from each point of the
object, reach the observer’s detecting instrument or an eye; simultaneously
i.e. at the same instant of time. Here lies the seed of relativity phenomena.

Thus, constancy of light-speed at ‘light speed-range’ w.r.t. the source and

necessity of simultaneous receipt of signals from all points of the object and
further discussed point that, perception by the observer as it takes place, at
its detecting instrument or at an eye of a living, at the light speed-range; are
the route causes of relativity.

4. DISCUSSION ON PERCEPTION:-

Basically perception of the universe by an observer is by electro-magnetic (E.M.)

effect, mainly by photons. The relativity mathematics is based on fact that, light
or an e. m. photon signal travels at the ultimate speed ‘c’ w.r.t. the source and it
cannot be more than that because of electromagnetic reasons; that are referred
above in respect of fig.[1]; and that, each observer reads it in its attached frame, as
will be perceived by Lorentzian transformations discussed later. Also, the
perception of the signal takes place by an observer in the range of speeds of light,
with the help of observer’s perceiving mechanism naturally, because, it also
works on electric charge and photon energy principle with speed ‘c’. Only
difference there in is that, the source emits out photon energy in free space; while,
the observer’s detecting tool assimilates the photon energy of the signal by means
of the electrons specially present their at the light signal detecting instrument

32
either an eye or an electro-mechanical instrument getting induced proportional
movements in the receiving electrons.

For quantitative measurements and mathematical expressions to fulfill the

condition of the subject, it to be a scientific one; that, every such object is
attached a frame of Cartesian co-ordinates suitably. To generalize the subject, we
talk about the attached frames as a frame of reference. Attached frame means, an
object or a source is fixed in that frame. It is not in relative motion w.r.t. that
frame. Now the above mentioned frames are moving at constant linear motions in
space w.r.t. each other and individually not any frame can detect whether, it is in
motion or not. Such frames are called ‘inertial frames’. Because, every such
inertial frame tries to maintain its kinetic state except it is acted upon by an
external force, as per Newton’s law of motion. The motion between any two
inertial frames is called ‘relative motion’ between the two; such that, any one
frame can be considered stationary and the other one then is moving with the
relative speed w.r.t. the first one.

An observer can take space measurements mechanically by means of a

measure tape in its attached inertial reference frame; but he cannot take it
that of a moving object mechanically. To take space measurements of the
moving object, he has to do it with the help of simultaneously received signals
from the end points of the object to be measured; for, say to measure the
distance between any two points on the object. In his attached reference frame,
the light signals should be received by the observer, from the two end points on
the moving object, one presiding and the another residing, at the same instant of
time. The light signal is having the ultimate speed ‘c’; and that, for simultaneous
receipt of the both end signals, residing end signal ought to be released at the
instant of time; when, the signal from presiding end reaches to it, in case object is
moving away from the observer. Because, an observer can see an object when
signals from its all points; all consecutive presiding and residing end points;
reach the observer at the same instant of time. Therefore, the space
measurements of a moving body are not equal to the space measurements of
the same body in its rest frame.

33
Thus, the relative motion between any two inertial frames and the space
measurements by the observer, of a moving body with help of light signal, having
ultimate speed ‘c’ w.r.t. its source (here the points of the body.) attached to the
frame other than that of the observer’s one, and that, the signal light speed is
constant always equal to ‘c’ w.r.t. its source; are the root causes of the relativity

To simplify mathematical, numeral derivations and calculations, one inertial

frame (S) is attached to the observer and another inertial frame (S’), is attached to
the moving object moving at linear constant speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer or his
attached frame S. The x and x’ co-ordinates of the frames S and S’ respectively
are chosen along or parallel to the path of motion of the moving object. The
observers O and O’ are stationed at the origin of their respective inertial frames S
and S’ respectively. Please see [Fig. 4].

In the [fig. 4], the observer measures the length ‘l’ of a moving object AB. The
object is moving with relative speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer’s rest frame S, along x-
axis. The object is assumed to be attached to its rest frame S’. Follow the light
signal released from end A of the object at instant of time (t=t’=0). The signal will
reach the other end of the object B at a particular one instant of time in the unique
universe. But, O’ finds that, the signal has reached the point B at instant of time t’
and O finds that, the same signal to have reached the point B at instant of time t.
O’ finds that the distance of travel of the signal is l’ and O finds the same distance
to be l. Thus, the same event is looked differently by different observers from
their attached inertial frames. It is because, the speed of light is constant equal to
‘c’ w.r.t. its source; and there is relative motion between the frames. Please see
Fig. 4 below

In this figure, The inertial frames are in relative linear motion w.r.t. each other
and an observer assumed stationary himself w.r.t. the moving object, can measure
the space dimensions of the object by light signaling method. He can’t take
mechanical direct measurements of the moving object.

To realize the space dimensions of the moving object and time running at the
moving object and the space dimensions of the object in its rest position; by the

34
observer O attached to the frame S, assumed stationary; the moving object is
considered to be attached to the frame S’ which is moving at relative velocity ‘v’
w.r.t. frame S, along or parallel to their conman axis x-x’ and there is not any
relative motion between the observer O’ stationed at the origin of the frame S’,
and the object attached to the frame S’( please see the fig. 4 ); so that, the
Observer O’, can measure the rest dimensions of the object mechanically. In such
case it is said that the object is attached to the observer [O’]’s frame S’.

Further, the observer O, finds space dimensions of the object, corresponding to

its rest position by means of light signals received from the object and then,
using Lorentzian relativistic transformations he judges the rest frame
dimensions of the object. These judged dimensions of the object, moving at
relative speed ‘v’ w.r.t. observer O, are equal to the mechanical dimensions
measured by the observer O’ in his rest frame to which the object is attached.

Fig. 4:

35
Our observations of the moving stellar bodies in the universe are similar to
observation of observer O attached to the inertial frame S. A stellar body
moving away at relative speed ‘v’ w.r.t. us is similar to an event source
attached to inertial frame S’. when the signal is received both observers O
and O’ are considered coincident. The distance measured by O is l and it is
apparent distance of the body. Transforming it by dividing it by (1- v2/ c2)1/2
gives l’ the rest frame distance or real distance l’ from the observer at that
instant of receipt of the signal. As explained below.

In the rest frame of l’ the velocity of signal, released from point A is ‘c’. In the
rest frame of observer, the velocity of the same signal is ( c2-v2 )1/2 as described
in the explanation of [fig.1]. Let l’ be the length of the object, measured by
observer O’ in his attached frame S’. The object is also attached to frame S’. Let l
be the length of the object measured by the observer O with the help of light
signals coming from the A and B ends of the object. Light signal released from A
would travel distance l’ up to point B at light speed ‘c’ w.r.t. O’ in the attached
frame of the object; similarly, the same signal would travel distance l up to B at
light speed c’ = ( c2-v2 )1/2 w.r.t. observer O. Because of relative motion v between
the observer and the object. Observer O and O’ perceive same light signal motion
different. Therefore they will perceive the same length different in direction of
motion of the object. As the light signal used by O and O’ is the same;
l’/c = l/c’ = l/( c2-v2 )1/2
i.e. l’ = l /(1- v2/ c2)1/2 …………………………………………………………..(2)

Thus, the prime observer, the scientist, finds out actual length l’ of the object in
the direction of motion of the object, by measuring the length l with the help of
light signals coming from the respective ends of the object.

Similarly, the same signal has traveled from point A to B, whose velocity and
length of travel are perceived different by O and O’. This fact gives the universal
same time period, perceived differently by O and O’. The relation between time
period t measured by observer O and the time period t’ judged or expected w.r.t.
O’ by the observer O; can be found out with the help of respective lengths and
speeds. Thus, the length l’ is traveled by the light signal with the light speed c and

36
the length l is traveled by the same signal with speed ( c2- v2 )1/2 . In the universe
as such the instant of light signal leaving point A and the light signal reaching
point B are unique; though, O and O’ find them different because of relative
speed v between them and light velocity is c w.r.t. the source; let it be seen or
measured from any inertial frame having any linear speed w.r.t. the source object
of the signal.

Let, t be the time period measured by O with the help of light signal, to travel the
length l as seen in frame S and t’ be the time period required to travel from point
A to B as observed by O’ in conman rest frame of him and the length AB;
communicated by O’ with the help of light signals instant to instant to O. In the
universe, the instant of release of light signal from A is the same and the same.
Similarly, instant when the signal passes point B is also unique one in the
universe, But, due to speed of signal, relative linear velocity ‘v’ and the natural
law of perception that, an event is assumed to have happened in universe when,
the event-signal reaches the observer; the observer finds l the length measured by
him by means of light signal and the rest length i.e. actual length l’ judged by the
observer; similarly, the time period t to travel the perceived length l and the time
period t’ actually required for the light signal to travel the length l’ the below
relation holds good.
t’/t = l’/l
i.e. t’ = t.(l’/l)
i.e. t’ = t /(1- v2/ c2) ½ …………………………………………………………...(3)

Thus, the relativistic relations in respect of space and time are derived on
basis of natural perception of the events in the universe by an observer.
Please note that above equations 2 and 3 are derived at observer, and not at a
distance from observer O. the time t’ and t are the instants of time if
measured from instant of coincidence of both the frames S ans S’ at t=t’=0
when the signal from remote end is released by the length of the moving
object. And it is the time period between signal release from remote end to
signal receipt at nearer end of the length of the object when the relative
motion ‘v’ is in +x direction.

37
In case, the relative motion is in reverse direction then, also above description is
true as it is. In case, the prime observer is O’ and the object is attached to frame S;
then also above description is true. Every time one fact is to be kept in
remembrance that, for perception of the object the first signal should be from
remote point of the object. Then, when that signal arrives to nearer point, the
signal from that nearer point should be released so that, both the signals can reach
an observer at the same instant of time. In this fashion signals from all or many or
two points are selected depending upon the purpose. e. g. For measurement of
length AB we have selected signals from only two points A and B.

Now being mentioned, one of the characteristics of relativistic mathematics

should be borne in mind that, though the signal is having direction and also
denoted by letter ‘v’ used to represent a velocity, a vector quantity in
Cartesian co-ordinate system; it is not talked as ‘velocity; but, the word
‘speed’ or ‘linear speed’ or ‘motion’ is used. Because, in relativity, the signal
direction as +x or –x is not much meaningful; but, signal traveling from
source to an observer matters.

Another characteristic of relativistic mathematics is, that, as seen by an observer,

the relative velocity does not get added to signal velocity algebraically; but, it gets
added geometrically and that too in relativistic sense w.r.t. the observer; because
of ‘perception limit’ imposed by nature on the observer (see fig. 1 and 2 above).
An observer cannot perceive speeds greater than ‘c’. Speeds greater than ‘c’ are
perceived by observer, as speeds less than ‘c’ (see fig. 1 and 2 above). As the
relative speed will become higher and higher, the signal- speed perceived by the
observer will be reduced to lower and lower magnitude. As signal speed w.r.t. the
observer seems apparently increasing, when the source is approaching the
observer, the signal speed perceived by the observer reduces to ( c2-v2 )1/2 w.r.t.
himself and remains ‘c’ w.r.t. to the signal-source. But, the signal frequency
increases. And, when the source is receding from the observer the signal speed
w.r.t. an observer decreases to ( c2-v2 )1/2as above and remains ‘c’ w.r.t. the
source. But, the signal frequency decreases. Please refer [fig. 1 &2].

38
In two frame case also [fig. 1 & fig. 2], when the source is coming towards
observer the speed of signal remains up to ‘c’ w.r.t. source only; but, signal
frequency increases. Similarly, when source is receding away from the observer,
the signal speed remains as above but, signal frequency decreases. Imagine, a
person, throwing stones periodically maintaining constant the period between his
any two consecutive throughs, in front direction of front of a moving truckat
constant linear speed. Observe the stones standing in front of the truck on ground
at a safe distance. And see the distance between any two consecutive stones, when
the truck is approaching you and when the truck is receding from you. That will
give how frequency of the same signal varies w.r.t. speed of the signal-source.

The source sees, the speed of the signal in all directions is equal to ‘c’ and also the
frequency of the signal in all directions is same.

There exists a range of light frequency during that range only; a human being can
perceive light signals. In electronics ‘thermal radiation photography’ is present
That visualizes objects by its thermal radiation..

In vector algebra, two velocities after getting added at a point; their resultant
velocity in space is directed in another third direction. The object on which these
velocities are applied, the object moves in that resultant velocity direction, such
that, the object has started its journey from the point of resultant velocity
application. Please see [Fig. 5]. Below. Here velocity components perpendicular
to resultant are cancelled. But, in relativistic velocity addition, not any component
of any velocity is cancelled. This difference originates in generation of velocity.
When two forces along different directions are applied simultaneously to give
velocity to an object; the forces react with each other. There equal opposing
components appear and cancel out each other. Remaining components act in the
same direction and give motion to the object. When one force is already applied
and vanished after the object has got a resultant motion due to it and then another
force in some other direction is applied to the moving object without obstruction
to that existing motion; then the object acquires independent another motion due
to that force. Thus, the object follows two motions due to the two forces

39
independently. This motion indicates the source moving along the speed it
imparted it to the object. Please see the Appendix.- 1

Fig. [ 5 ]:

Some energy which, needs medium for its transmission in space; e.g. sound; is
also seen being emitted from the point where at, in the air, sound is generated.
Please see, [Fig. 6]

In Fig. [ 6 ] below, A sound is not having a particle nature. Sound is effect of

vibrations generated in the particles of a medium. Therefore, when a supersonic
jet travels, it creates vibrations in the air at every point along its path. That each
and every point works as secondary source of sound. Consider one such
secondary source point of jet sound. Then, the vibrations in air due to the jet
sound at that point, travel in all directions in air. Calm and still air is assumed
here. The velocity of supersonic jet is much greater than the velocity of sound
through air. Therefore, when an observer searches the jet, in the direction of the
sound, that time the jet is far ahead of the point, where from the sound is coming.

Some small displacement of the sound secondary source point or points, in

direction of motion of the jet is there because of air drag with jet. It is neglected in
the fig. for simplicity and ease of understanding.
40
 Fig. [ 6 ]:

In relativity; we are interested mainly in the speed of light signal, released by the
object. Any linear constant velocity applied to the body is not added to its light
signal emitted or reflected by the body algebraically as above; but, the signal
photons travel in two directions simultaneously. One direction is of relative speed
‘v’ and the second direction is of photon speed ‘c’. It is like a soldier firing from
the truck moving at constant linear speed at an angle  to the say forward
direction of motion of the truck. Please see the [Fig. 7] below.

In the figure below, a space jet is flying in space of inertial frame S, at a constant
linear high speed ‘v’ well comparable with light velocity ‘c’, in +x direction and
parallel to the x-axis. When the space vehicle is at position A, it releases a light
signal directed towards the observer O at an angle .(-) to the forward direction of
motion of the space vehicle.

41
The light signal travels at ultimate speed ‘c’ in its direction fixed at the instant of
time at its release from its source . A light signal is not a wave in some medium
but, it has assumed particle nature. Therefore, it carries with itself, the velocity v
of the space vehicle. Thus, as the light photon particles travel at velocity ‘c’ in the
direction specified above; likewise those photons travel at velocity v in the
direction of the space vehicle. Therefore, the light signal reaches at point P on x-
axis; when the space vehicle is at position D. The signal is recorded on photo
sensor bed already laid along x-axis.

Fig. [ 7 ]:

If one replaces the space vehicle by a truck; light signal by a gun-bullet; light
velocity ‘c’ by bullet velocity; space vehicle velocity v by the truck velocity; and
the vertical S-plane by, horizontal one, and follows the procedure as in above
experiment in respect of the figure [ 7 ]; the observer gets quiet similar results.

Thus, material particles released from its moving source source, when reach
an observer, show the position of source not at; when the particles were

42
released but at the point where it is; when the observer gets the material
particles, say photons in respect of light signal.

The observer O finds visualizes the distance travelled by space vehicle, not equal
to OP i.e. the distance parallel to the path described by the space vehicle; but,
perpendicular to the light rays coming from the space vehicle. It is A’D’ distance
shown in the figure, [7] above. Here again natural perception law works. A signal
forms the image of its source object perpendicular to its direction of motion.

There is hidden the cause why the sky is seen spherical. Because, in that case,
every light ray coming from respective space point is perpendicular to our eye.
The space of travel of the space vehicle is also seen circular in above figure,[7].

5. ACCELERATED MOTION:-

An accelerated motion of an object or an observer is detected by themselves

without reference to or without comparison with any other reference.
Because, an acceleration is due to some external force acting upon a body
that does work of increasing the speed of the body. Definitely, the
acceleration deforms the atomic structure of the body microscopically for,
equally reacting the accelerating force, to maintain its prevailing state as per
Newton’s laws of motion that, to every action, there is equal and opposite
reaction. In relativity electro-magnetic forces play the prime role. These electro-
magnetic forces develop mechanical motions. These mechanical motions again
create some electro-magnetic effects. Newtonian motions of particles are affected
by the electro-magnetic forces at speeds nearing ‘c’ noticeably very much.
Microscopically Newton’s laws of motions remain true even under the E.M.
constraints as is discussed latter here-in. Hence, this internal temporary change of
the body structure, due to the accelerating force, makes it feel to the observer
himself about the force by, introducing stresses and strains in the body of a live
observer and also, in the working of the internal structure of an object; There by,
an accelerated motion is detected without reference to another frame by the
observer.

43
An accelerated motion also cannot be considered an absolute motion; because it
introduces relative structural changes in the body of the observer; though
microscopically and temporarily; but, it does so.
6. DEFINITION OF AN EVENT:-

"An event is assumed to have happened at the instant when the observer
receives its signal.
It is the natural basic law of perception. Since beginning, it has been being
observed by the mankind. In all scientific derivations are also, it is followed
inherently. This law is obeyed by the mankind unknowing as
PRATIKSHIPTA KRIYA." The word ‘event’, carries a vast meaning. Any
happening is an event. Even pointing a point in the space is an event. In the
relativity a burst of a signal is an event. In the study of special relativity
principles, a burst of light by its source in its rest frame S’ is an event.

Two events for an observer are considered simultaneous if the signals of both
the events are received by the observer at the same instant; simultaneously.
Fig. [8]:

44
It clearly indicates that, though some events are simultaneous to one
observer; they are not simultaneous to another observer.
Though two events are simultaneous in the universe, they may not be
simultaneous for its attached observer, w.r.t. his position in that frame even
in the attached same frame of the event-sources in that frame. [Fig. 8]. This is
because, of two reasons, that I repeat here again. (1). the signal carrying
information of event has a speed. (2) An observer perceives the event at the
instant of time, when the signal has approached him.

In the figure 8 above, an observer O attached to inertial frame S, is observing the

events at points A and B, both attached to his frame S.

Observer O is witness of the events at A and B. And, we the author, as well as the
reader are the sub-witness in the universal frame. Let us get attached to frame S;
but, let our perceiving instruments be sensitive to a field which just establishes in
space throughout, immediately soon an event happens. Thus, an event signal with
assumed infinite speed, for us is an ideal one. The author claims that, electric
and magnetic fields are really of that kind.

Now see that, event A occurs at instant of time t1. [fig. 8a]. The light signal
arrives at point B at instant t2. [Fig. 8b]. Soon the signal of event A, reaches point
B; event at point B, takes place.[Fig. 8c]. Then both event-signals travel together
towards Observer O. Remember that, observer’s vision is spread along an
axis perpendicular to the motion of the signal, in relativity studies; and in
actual also. Signals of both the events reach the observer O simultaneously at the
same instant of time t3. Thus, in the universe, events A and B have happened at
different instants of time; and the observer perceives that, both the events have
happened at the instant of time t3 simultaneously. This is as per the natural law of
perception.

Thus, actually in the universe events happened at different instants of time;

an observer perceives some of them to have happened simultaneously but at
the third instant; when, the signals of such events reach him simultaneously.

45
Now, let the observer, rest in his attached frame at point D and observe the same
above incidence as is being shown in the [fig. 9] below.

Fig. [ 9 ]:

In the above figure 9, let the observer be at point O1 in between the event points,
A and B. In figure 9(a). An event has taken place quiet similar to in figure 8(a), at
an instant of time t1. Now, in figure 9(b), the signal reaches the observer at O1, at
instant t2. The observer at O1, perceives the event at instant t2. Meanwhile, the
signal travels to event point B. As the event A signal reaches point B; event B
takes place and both the event signals travel towards y-axis, the domain of
observer O. Simultaneously, event B signal travels towards observer at O1. An
event signal-light spreads in all outward directions to the event point. But, we take
the signal rays which an observer receives. This all happens at instant t3 Fig.
[9](c). In figure 9d, the event B signal reaches the observer at O1, at instant t4 and
the observer at O1 perceives the event at that instant t4. After some time the event-
signal A and the event-signal B, both traveling hand in hand towards y-axis; will

46
reach at later than t4 instant, say at instant t5 to observer O on y-axis
simultaneously. Thus, at instant t5 observer at O perceives that the events A and B
have happened simultaneously at the instant of time t5. Whereas, in the same
inertial frame if the observer is stationed at O1; he perceives event A at instant t2
and event B at instant t4. Thus, in the same attached frame an observer stationed at
a point when, perceives two events simultaneous; he cannot perceive those events
simultaneous at any other point attached to the same frame.

Thus, simultaneous events are seen non-simultaneous and vise vis. because of
two basic natural facts mentioned below.

i) Light signal has certain speed named ultimate speed ‘c’, because, beyond
that speed in the attached frame of the source of the signal; speeds greater
than ‘c’ cannot exist, due to electro-magnetic field restraint works on the
signal-source which opposes the change in speed with its full effort
successfully with the help of permittivity and permeability of the free space.

ii) The perception of signal is by the way of certain physical temporary

changes in atomic structure of ‘signal detecting device, retina of an eye or the
chemical on a film. The signal energy causes electric charge or movement
proportionate to it; thereby, enabling pictorial reproduction of the signal
source.

7. GENERATION OF LIGHT PHOTON:-

Lastly, now light is considered having corpuscular nature, the corpuscles being
energy packets released periodically from its source containing numerous atoms.
The periodical release of the light corpuscles at the ultimate speed ‘c’ in a
direction, give the light wave. The light energy packet referred as light corpuscle,
is called ‘light photon’.

The knowing of the process of generation of light photon definitely broadens

the understanding of how a photon gets the ultimate speed i.e. the speed of

47
light, w.r.t. its source. And that, how its speed depends w.r.t. relative motion
of any other inertial frame, in that frame.

A photon is also having vast meaning as the word ‘event’ has. For example, a
light particle; an electron or their bunch, moving at speed nearing the light speed
or other; a burst of light; an explode of a cracker; an explode of an atom bomb; a
burst of a star; and the big-bang event; each of this all is a photon. The light
corpuscle, is the lowest energy photon whereas, the big-bang is the highest
energy photon.

An energy packet i.e. a light-photon is generated when; a charge changes its state
of energy level down during its orbital motion at its ultimate speed and, releases
the photon in the free space. The speed of light equal to the ultimate speed,
informs that, the respective electron is orbiting at linear speed ‘c’ around its
nucleus. (Refer figs. 1 and 2).

The generation of light-photon takes place as mentioned below.

An orbital electron possesses a specific amount of electrical negative charge. Its

equivalent positive charge is at nucleus of its mother-atom. The electrical field of
an orbital electron is fully engaged with its corresponding positive charge i.e.
positron at the nucleus. Below Fig. 10], shows atomic model of oxygen atom.
Electron distribution in the atom at some instant is shown in the figure. The
figure is indicative. In fact, in study, we use indicative figures for ease of
explanation and understanding. The main aim of the figure is to show how the
electric fields of electrons are engaged with their positrons spread over equal
number of protons that are equal in number to the orbiting electrons. There are
two numbers of electrons deficient in the last, here the second orbit.

Some more quite new observations in respect of atomic structures are being noted
down by the author as below.

48
The total number of electrons in the outermost orbit depends upon the number of
positrons, each positron being attached to one particle equal in mass to one
neutron. That particle with positron is named as ‘proton’.
Therefore, number of orbiting electrons is equal to number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom.

Fig. 10:

The total number of electrons in the outermost orbit depends upon the number of
positrons, each positron being attached to one particle equal in mass to one
neutron. That particle with positron is named as ‘proton’.
Therefore, number of orbiting electrons is equal to number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom. Generally equal to protons, numbers of neutrons, also
live in the nucleus. Why so? My indigenous perception about that is;

(i) During their revolution around nucleus electric fields of some electrons
may cross each other. Therefore, the possibility of disturbing atomic
structure due to similar field repulsive forces is avoided by allowing
induction of opposite electric charges in required numbers in the neutrons

49
accompanying the protons. NUTRONS KEEP REPULSIVE FORCES OF
PROTONS WITHIN THEMSELVES APART.

(ii) In case of valance-atoms i.e. the atoms of which outer most orbit is not
complete; such atoms do accept electrons from outside of their orbits. So, to
provide a bound path to these valance electrons; opposite charges positrons
are induced in equal number to foreign electrons.

Due to above same reasons, in some heavier element’s atoms, it becomes difficult
to some orbital electrons to find positrons in upper layers of the nucleus. And,
while extending their electric field to inner side protons, the field scatters due to
upper fulfilled layers. Hence, that electron engages its field more than one i.e. two
numbers of protons. Therefore in such cases the number of protons in respective
atoms is a bit higher as is necessitated.

In a hydrogen atom; there is only one orbital electron. Therefore, there is one
deficiency. As it is only one electron there is only one proton, and no neutron, in
the nucleus Though there is one deficiency of an electron; a hydrogen atom does
not act as accepter of electron; but, it works as donor atom. In chemical reactions
it donates its single electron to the compounding atom. Hence, though gaseous by
nature, a hydrogen atom exhibits metallic property.

All orbital electrons of an atom are thus engaged with their respective positrons
attached to their respective protons in the atom. All the orbital electrons are
orbiting around their nucleus at the ultimate speed ‘c’ changing attached +vely
charged protons; because, the protons are stationary in nucleus. Therefore, the
centrifugal force of an orbital electron in a nearer orbit will be higher than the
farther orbital electron as the centrifugal force on an orbital is equal to (mc2/r);
where, r is the radius of the orbit and ‘c’ is its linear velocity. The statement
that, the any orbital electron velocity is ‘c’ the ultimate speed; is derived
from the fact of release of light photon from outermost orbit. However, the
velocities of inner and inner orbits reduce in the range of light frequencies so
that, minimum crossings of orbiting electron’s field may occur. Also, the
inner orbital electron field will repel the outer orbital electron, when the

50
outer one will try to fall in its below one orbit and vice vis. Electrical internal
forces in an atom, maintain the balance of other internal atomic forces. An
electron needs a specific amount of its electrical charge to maintain homogeneous
electrical field intensity and the electrical field force inside the atom for its
stability in its orbit. An electrical negative charge-tendency is to occupy a
spherical surface area with a thin film in free space suitably, naturally. For
mathematical representation and the calculations, electrons in orbits of an
atom are assumed like small tiny balls with the help of Rutherford’s atomic
model. But, actually they are equal parts of an orbital sphere surface. This
consideration leads the orbital electrons to be in a specific quantity in each
orbit, which is equal to 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit number counted from the
nucleus radially outward direction and for that, have distance between
consecutive orbits equal to the radius of the first orbit; Thus, it is found that,
surface area of an electron on the orbital sphere is same for all unexcited atoms in
all its orbits of an atom and the distance between any two consecutive orbits is
equal to the radius of the first orbit.[Fig. 10]. This fact causes number of electrons
in an orbit equal to 2n2 as mentioned above. The radius of the first orbit in an
atom may change element to element and therefore, area of electron-charge
material will also change respectively, maintaining the orbital number of
electrons as per the rule 2n2 and consecutive orbit to orbit distance equal to
first orbit-radius.

We have seen above that, an hydrogen atom doesn’t have any neutron. It is
because, it is having only one proton. Hence, there is no need to keep isolated
similar fields repelling each other in hydrogen atom.

There is a question facing to science. That, why, there are forbidden bands in
the energy levels of orbital electrons? It is because, energy does not exist in any
measure. Fnergy can not be given or taken out linearly. It existed in quantas.
Therefore, it can be transferred in any way in steps of quantas.

For, radiation energy is given by, Ep = nhν J.s where, n is an integer 1,2,3…
h is Plank’s constant,
ν is number of cycles.

51
The value of Plank’s constant is h = 6.626X10-34 J.s for n = 1
= 6.26X10-27 ergs/s for n = 1
Plank’s constant ‘h’ represents the quanta of minimum energy of a photon.
In above relation Ep represents photon energy.
Thus, minimum photon energy that can be transferred from outside to an atom
or from an atom to outside is one smallest one photon equal to h constituting
one cycle with the help of its dual followed to it ‘no energy.’

A mathematically derived table is given below to explain the fix number of

electrons in nth orbit as per the rule for it; equal to 2n2.

Table of Surface Area of Each Orbital Electron .

__________________________________________________________________
Orbit Orbital Surface area No. of orbital Area occupied by
No. Radius of the orbital sphere electrons each orbital
electron. electron
__________________________________________________________________
n r 4rn2_and rn= 2n2 n [4rn2]/n
__________________________________________________________________
1 r1 4(r1)2 = 4(r1)2 = 4(r1)2 2 2(r1)2
2 r2 4(r2)2 = 4(2r1)2 = 16(r1)2 8 2(r1)2
3 r3 4(r3)2 = 4(3r1)2 = 36(r1)2 18 2(r1)2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

While moving in their orbits, electrons of different orbits cross their electric
fields mutually. Therefore, the electric fields of different electrons react with
each other causing electric energy transfer mutually, temporarily. This
phenomenon gives birth to sub energy levels of orbiting electrons in atomic
structure.

Above consideration of the author explains,

(1) The cause of particular number of electrons in an atomic orbit;

52
(2) The cause of fixed amount of electrical charge borne by an unexcited
orbital electron;
(3) The cause of a fixed and equal radial distance between consecutive orbits
of an atom;
(4) The cause of equal numbers of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an
atom and a few more neutrons in some comparatively heavier atoms;
(5) the cause of, number of neutrons being a bit greater than number of
protons or number of electrons in some comparatively heavier atoms;
(6) The cause of, why a hydrogen atom exhibits metallic properties; though
the hydrogen is of gaseous nature and cause of absentee of neutron there.
(7) The cause of sub energy levels in an atom.
(8) The reason of forbidden bands in atomic structure.
(9) The cause of forbidden bands in atomic structure.
(10) The minimum energy quanta.

Thus, due to above mentioned reasons, an orbital electron cannot bear extra than
its defined charge. Hence, when an orbital electron mostly from the outermost
orbit, receives some extra energy; the internal atomic forces’ imbalance occurs.
Outward force; i.e. centrifugal force, on the extra charge material acts and as the
orbital electron which has accepted extra energy in the form of energy material; is
moving at ultimate speed, as its linear motion, along its orbit-periphery; results in,
extra electron-charge material be ejecting in space at linear speed ‘c’ radially out
as energy packets in the space. Once ejected at speed ‘c’, the energy packets,
travel in space at speed ‘c’ w.r.t. its source atom. Because, electron-energy
material is like a mobile material. The fixed amount of charge-energy
material, is held in the atom with the help of basic charge particles of
electron; as if a mobile material is held in a rotating sack. It is stable due to
balanced atomic internal forces. Therefore, an extra energy material added
in that sack, just squeezes out like in a centrifuge; due to following two
reasons. One, the centrifugal force acting on this extra material attached to
the orbiting electron cannot be balanced by atomic internal forces; as their
structure is fixed. And the second reason is that, the electric field of the
charge repels outwards in space, to the extra charge-energy material. It

53
comes out from the orbital electron at speed about or equal to ‘c’ the
ultimate speed w.r.t. its source nucleus of its host-atom. [Fig. 11].

In the above figure, release of extra energy in an orbital is shown. The extra
energy in fact is released in number of photons as shown to travel in space at
linear constant speed ‘c’. Out of those photons one photon is shown in detail in
the figure-11..

Fig. [11]:

When the object emits a light ray, that object gets continuous energy supply. This
energy is converted into light energy by the atoms of that object and is emitted
continuously, in the form of an energy packets one after another by number of
orbital electrons of number of atoms of the object. Consider any one atom of this
object. Let it receive continuously external energy at a constant rate. Then, an
orbital electron will periodically release energy packets in space repeatedly. There
will be always an energy gap between any two consecutive packets. An energy
packet followed by energy gap form one wave-length of that radiation. The
energy gap is absentee of photon. The light waves have different energies and
therefore, different frequencies. Higher frequency light wave has higher energy
due to higher number of photons per unit time and vice vis. Energy by this
method is, released from infra-red radiation upward including infra-red range.

54
As seen in ‘micro-wave cooker’ micro-waves transfer E.M. energy in Field Mode
and in G.S.T. for controlling the satellite, infra red light signaling is used. Infra-
red signaling works in Photon Mode. As seen earlier above, in Field Mode
transmission, the electric field lines emitted by oscillating excited free electric
charges, oscillate along with them like perfectly rigid tiny steel bars and they
cause another charges at far distances to oscillate along themselves, by engulfing
them; thus, transmitting energy through space. In Photon Mode, energy packets
released from excited orbital electrons by E.M. action; transmits energy from
source to an object. Therefore, there is transition zone of E.M. frequencies at
exit threshold of micro-wave and entrance threshold of infra-red waves.

8. SPEED OF LIGHT PHOTON IN ITS SOURCE’S FRAME AND OTHER

FRAME:-

It is discussed at Introduction above. Below it is now being discussed in detail

revealing some more facts.

Assume that a photon is released from an oscillating charge, in some direction,

say -x, or -x′ in the standard inertial frames S and S΄of Lorentz such that, the
frames S and S΄ are coincident at the instant t = t΄ = 0, and the frame S΄ is in
relative motion ‘v’ in +x direction w.r.t. the frame S. In its attached frame S’ of
the source and the Observer O’; let the position ‘α’ be the higher energy level and
the position ΄β΄ be the lower energy level as shown in the Fig, [12](a). Let at the
t1th instant, the charge ‘q’ occupy the high energy level position‘α’ in its mother
atom, and be released towards lower energy level position ‘β’ at speed about ‘c’.
During this jump the charge ‘q’ releases the extra energy packet in the form of
light photon perpendicular to its jumping path motion of the charge ‘q’ as if some
extra fluid material is squeezed out from that electron sachet as shown in the
[fig.11] above. This photon has hence, the same speed that of the charge ‘q’. Let
this photon be released in the -x΄ direction. The observer O’ attached to the frame
S’ finds the speed of the photon equal to ‘c’ w.r.t. its source atom and it is
perpendicular to the path  to . Because, the path   is taken parallel to y’ axis
for simplicity of understanding. Therefore, the motion of photon is in the direction
of the –x’ or parallel to it.

55
Fig. [12] (a):

Now let the Observer O watch the above events from its attached frame S.
At the zeroth instant, both the frames S and S΄ are coincident. At t1th instant,
observer O sees that, the light energy packet photon is released during the motion
of the electron from ‘α’ to ‘Β’ in frame S Eig. [12](b). For the Observer O, the
charge ‘q’ is moving with speed ‘c’ in the resultant –y direction and in addition
with the relative speed ‘v’ in the +x direction. Therefore, the Observer O should
perceive the speed of charge different than ‘c’ in this case equal to the vector sum
of ‘c’ and ‘v’ which is greater than ‘c’. But, it is out of natural principles of
perception. Because, it is the natural basic fact that, the generation and
perception of the E.M. signal is performed in nature with the help of the
motion of the excited charge of the source.

56
Fig. [12].(b):

As is seen above and is also shown in the figure [12] (b) here above; that, the
light signal source electron cannot move at any velocity greater than ‘c’, in its
host’s attached frame. When that source is moving at relative velocity w.r.t.
an observer; it is seen by an universal observer that, for observer O attached
to frame S; the signal generating charge is moving at speed greater than ‘c’;
therefore, an event-signal may be traveling at speed greater than ‘c’ towards
the observer O. But, seeing microscopically, the process of release of signal is
such that, the signal speed instead of increasing; reduces by the relativistic
factor [(1- v2/ c2) ½] w.r.t. the observer O. Further if someone happens to send
a light signal at speed greater than ‘c’ towards the observer, w.r.t. the
observer O himself; then also observer cannot perceive that speed. Because,
the signal detecting charge of the observer’s eye or any other instrument
employed for that cause; cannot move at speed more than ‘c’ due to,
constraints of electric permittivity ε and magnetic permeability μ of the
medium, naturally existing there. Because, change in speed of electron results

57
in change in electric current. That change in current develops change in
magnetic field encircling the path of motion of the electron, in such a
direction, so as to oppose the change in motion of electron. At ultimate speed
of electron this opposing field is equally strong to the energy effecting change
in speed of the electron. Hence, I repeat, say if, by somehow or other means,
some photon signal traveling at speed greater than ‘c’ reaches an observer O;
still then the observer perceives the speed of the photon-signal ‘c’ only and
not greater than ‘c’. Because, though the photon imparts extra energy to the
observer’s eye or his detecting electron in an instrument; it cannot move at
speed greater than ‘c’ due to same reason as above just stated. Therefore, the
light signal released from that orbital charge, cannot move at the speed
greater than ‘c’ w.r.t. its source’s detecting/perceiving charge. Thus, if, by
some means or the other, we were able to impart a speed greater than ‘c’ to
the signal w.r.t. the observer O; then that signal would not create the effect of
the sensing that speed higher than ‘c’ instead, it would show the speed of the
signal less than ‘c’ or at the most not greater than ‘c’.

Signal speeds less than ‘c’ in the visible light range for human eye are
detected by the eye and also by an instrument for that purpose; are detected
as they are. Instruments are discovered to detect heat energy photons. Up to
infra red light photon-particle nature of signal is existed. Because, any charge
cannot move at speed greater than ‘c’ in its host’s attached frame due to above
mentioned reasons. Therefore, Observer O, cannot perceive photon release along
the path from ‘α’ to ‘Β’ in frame S as above because, for him the speed of charge
seems to be exceeding ‘c’ along that path. Hence, the observer realizes the
position of the charge at point M. Further, in the universe as such, the position of
the signal photon in space and its direction of travel are unique and the same;
though they are seen being different from different respective inertial frames.
Also, his sensing instruments fixed at a place, work with charge speed ‘c’
maximum in his attached frame S. therefore, he finds that the above photon is
released along path of travel of the electron from ‘α’ to ‘Б’ which is perpendicular
to the relative motion w.r.t. the observer O. thus the perceiving means does not
take account of speed components which cause the speed greater than ‘c’, in
their rest frames respectively. Therefore, the speeds of the photons released by

58
the charge ‘q’ are seen by the observer O equal to ( c2-v2 )1/2 w.r.t. his
attached frame S as derived geometrically in [Fig. 12](b). Now, see that the
same signal photon is moving at speed ‘c’ w.r.t. the attached frame S’ of the
signal-source, as it is seen by the observer O’ stationed in the frame S’ and that is
moving at speed ( c2-v2 )1/2 w.r.t. the frame S as it is observed by the observer O
stationed in frame S along the same line in sight.

In the universe; it is repeated with more details that, the signal being
observed by O and O’ from their respective attached frames is; the same
signal. In the universe, as per pure logic, the signal is released at a particular
instant at a particular point and it would reach the observer O at another
particular instant of time and at particular point in the universal frame.
Second fact is that, in the universe the distance of travel of a signal from one
point to another point is also a unique quantity. Now, we are having two
observations. Those are, observer O’ finds speed of the signal ‘c’ but, the observer
O finds the speed of the same signal equal to ( c2- v2 )1/2 w.r.t. their respective
attached frames. Obviously, the speed ( c2- v2 )1/2 observed by O is less than the
speed ‘c’ observed by O’. Hence, as per pure logical fact mentioned above; the
observer O perceives, the distance of the event-source less by factor ( c2- v2 )1/2
than it is in the rest frame of the event- source. This leads to perceive the
Observer, the position of the source as In the universe it is repeated with
more details that, the signal being observed by O and O’ from their
respective attached frames is; the same signal. In the universe, as per pure
logic, the signal is released at a particular instant at a particular point and it
would reach the observer O at another particular instant of time and at
particular point in the universal frame. Second fact is that, in the universe
the distance of travel of a signal from one point to another point is also a
unique quantity. In the universe it is repeated with more details that, the
signal being observed by O and O’ from their respective attached frames is;
the same signal. In the universe, as per pure logic, the signal is released at a
particular instant at a particular point and it would reach the observer O at
another particular instant of time and at particular point in the universal
frame. Second fact is that, in the universe the distance of travel of a signal
from one point to another point is also a unique quantity.

59
In the universe it is repeated with more details that, the signal being observed
by O and O’ from their respective attached frames is; the same signal. In the
universe, as per pure logic, the signal is released at a particular instant at a
particular point and it would reach the observer O at another particular
instant of time and at particular point in the universal frame. Second fact is
that, in the universe the distance of travel of a signal from one point to
another point is also a unique quantity. Now, we are having two observations.
Those are, observer O’ finds speed of the signal ‘c’ but, the observer O finds the
speed of the same signal equal to ( c2- v2 )1/2 w.r.t. their respective attached
frames. Obviously, the speed ( c2- v2 )1/2 observed by O is less than the speed
‘c’ observed by O’. Hence, to satisfy the pure logical fact mentioned above; the
observer O perceives, the distance of the event-source less by factor ( c2- v2 )1/2
than it, in the rest frame of the event- source. This leads to perceive the
Observer, the position of the source in its rest frame distance moving from
‘α’ to ‘Б’ at the instant of the receipt of the signal by the Observer electro-
magnetically. Actually it is a bit less by a factor ( c2- v2 )1/2 than that in the
event-source’s frame and as is seen it is due to the relative motion between
the attached frames of the source and the observer. The fig. [13](a) & (b),
explains the perception of photon signal and manipulation of corresponding E.M.
wave functions with the help of relativistic geometry. There it is also explained
that, the Observer Perceives the longer wave length of the signal from the source
when, the source is traveling away from the Observer. Similarly it can be
perceived by the Observer that, the shorter wave lengths are received from the
source when, it is coming towards the Observer.

When an object is in constant linear motion, the internal structure of it and also its
atoms is working freely. Therefore, the light photons releases from this object are
not having any stresses/strains on them. Therefore, there won’t be contraction or
expansion though an observer may be coming towards or going away from the
object. therefore, observer coming towards the object finds signal frequency
higher because he receives the consecutive light photons within shorter time.
Therefore he receives higher energy per second from the object-source. When
observer and object are receding from each other, the observer receives the light

60
signal photons within longer time period. Therefore, in that case observer receives
less energy per second from the source.

FIG. [13](a):

Source, going away from the observer.

See in above figure; during its relative motion ‘v’ w.r.t. observer O; 1st signal
pulse is released by the source; at position ‘A’ of the pulse. The pulse travels at
speed ‘c’ w.r.t. the source. As the source travels ahead it releases second pulse of
the signal. That time, the 1st pulse reaches the position ‘B’ in the universal frame.
The second pulse travels at speed ‘c’ w.r.t. source and follows the first pulse.
Similarly the source releases third pulse after the duration of time fixed equal to
pulses 1 and 2. Then the 4th pulse and so on.

61
The release of pulses by the source are plotted on time axis as 1’, 2’ etc. as
followed by above mention.
The observer O, visualizes that, source is releasing the regular signal pulses, while
it is moving at speed ‘v’ w.r.t. him. Therefore, observer O realizes that, the time
period of receipt of signal-pulse for him, is delayed than the time period of release
of pulses by the source due to the relative motion of the source w.r.t. him. The
receipt of pulses by observer O is plotted on time scale in the above figure as 1, 2
etc.

Comparing, both of the above pulses vs. time, it is seen that, time period between
any two consecutive pulses received by the observer O; is greater than that sent by
the source. Hence, an observer receives light frequency lower than the
frequency of light emitted by the source.

When the source is moving towards the observer, then the observer finds the
frequency of the received signals higher than that observed at the source. It is
realized in the figure [13] (b) below.

As is seen in figure [13] (b), the light-signal source is coming towards observer O,
assumed stationary. At point A in space the source releases a light signal while
moving at speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer O, towards the observer. When the 1st
pulse arrives at point B in space, the source releases another light pulse. It is the
second pulse. When the first pulse reaches point C, the source releases third pulse
and so on. The observer O’ attached to the source finds a certain constant time
distance between any consecutive pulses; but, observer O finds that distance
between any consecutive pulses less than that is found by the observer O’.
Because, while releasing a signal pulse, the source travels towards the observer O
at speed ‘v’ w.r.t. him.

Thus, when a source is coming towards an observer, the signal-frequency

increases for the observer receiving the signal.

Both the wave lengths of the same signal perceived by two Observers O and O’
attached to their respective inertial frames in relative motion are also shown in

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[Fig. 13]. It is seen that, an Observer perceives ‘Infra-red effect’ in respect of
photon source moving away from him; and that, the observer perceives ‘ultra-
violet effect’ in respect of the photon source moving towards him. Thus for the
same event the experience, the perception of different observers in relative
motion in between them; is different. Though different; but it is true as they
experience.

Fig. [13](b):

Source is coming towards the observer:

63
9. THE RELATIVITY AND ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELDS:-

Whenever an electric current flows through a conductor or in space; it is

associated with its dual the magnetic field. This magnetic field is perpendicular
the electric field and encircles the current-path. Its direction is, so as to oppose the
change in the current. An electric current is flow of electrons. In practice the
direction of flow of the current is accepted in direction reverse to the direction of
flow of electronic current. It may be because of following reasons.

During evolution of electric-science, when a battery was discovered they found on

one pole of the battery; there is a positive electric charge and on the other pole
there is a negative electric charge. When both the poles are connected by a
conductor, they found current flowing through it. To define the current direction
they applied positive thinking and declared that, electric current flows from
positive pole to negative pole. Then after searching for current-particles, they
found electrons and not positrons. They also found that electrons flow from
negative to positive pole. They also found in other experiments that, electrons can
exist in space till they are not destroyed; but, positrons disappear when produced.
Their independent existence is not perceived. In other cases, if an electron is
removed from its place, the place i.e. the domain of electron in its absence
behaves as positron or as a positive electric charge. Hence, positron is defined as
absentee of electron is a positron i.e. an electric positive charge.

Now refer the figure below. [Fig. 14](i): when an electron is in free space its field
is homogeneously distributed in space all around it, in radial directions w.r.t.
itself.

A free space contains nothing. Neither any particle nor any field so that nothing is
there which can react with a field which will appear.

When an electric field is applied across an electron; then its field bends in the
direction of the applied electric field as shown in the Fig.[14](ii) below.

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Fig. [14](i):

Fig. [14](ii):

Applied –ve to +ve electric field, repels the conduction electron-field in its
direction maximum. Therefore, the field ahead of the conduction electron
becomes dense and behind the electron, the applied field meets the electron as if a
positive charge has been appeared there. As the electron is in motion, there is
‘absentee of electron’, an induced +ve charge behind it. The –ve electric field

65
behind conduction electron may be either externally applied electric field or the
electric field of another conduction electron.
Thus, when an electron flows through a conductor consequent field changes take
place as below;

(i) normal applied field is disturbed; as follows. (ii) Negative electric field in front
of the electron becomes denser in the direction of motion of the conduction
electron. (iii) The negative electric field behind the moving conduction electron
becomes rarer creating a positive electric charge, i.e. a vacancy of electron.

When another electron follows; the second and third changes mentioned above
repeat w.r.t. each electron in conduction mode. These two changes repeat
continuously when a sequence of electron flow is maintained continuously in the
conductor by maintaining the current flow. These +ve and consequent negative
charges generate magnetic field in perpendicular direction to the electric field or
in perpendicular to the path of motion of the electrons or in perpendicular
direction of flow of the current. The direction of magnetic field lines is such as to
oppose the change; that is the change in electric field density. In case of uni-
directional current i.e. d.c. Both the magnetic changes are w.r.t. one conman
point. That is the applied electric field density in one direction only. Therefore,
the magnetic field with its field directional changes is fully represented by a
single vertical line on x-axis; such that, the rise of line vertically represents
generation of magnetic field lines in the corresponding direction and falling down
represents the return of magnetic field to its normal ‘nil’ position as if there is not
any conduction electron in the conductor. When a current flows through a
conductor thousands and thousands a lot of electrons are flowing through the
conductor. If we happen to represent the magnetic field at a section of a conductor
w.r.t. time; then it will be seen as shown in the [Fig.14](iii)below.

In the figure, there is a conductor of electricity. At the first instant only (-ve)
potential is applied to one end of the conductor. A rare (-ve) electric field appears
in the conductor throughout its length. At the second instant, corresponding (+ve)
electric field is applied at the other end of the conductor. Immediately an electric
current flow is established in the conductor. The flow of electrons from (-ve) to

66
(+ve) electric pole is ‘electronic current’. But, in practice we consider current
flow from +ve to –ve electrode. That is called as ‘conventional current. It is called
hole current, in electronics. We should assume either electronic current or
conventional current or hole current.

Figure: 14 (iii).
Generation of Uni-directional Magnetic field due to d.c.

When even a single electron will travel an incremental distance through a

conductor, all electrons in the line through the conductor, will travel that distance
because of repellent forces between similar charges. It is very interesting, how a
current flow is build up and how the electricity is converted into other form by
doing work. All these facts being totally ingenious and are necessary for
understanding the relativistic microscopic study of electro-magnetic fields.

Electrons flow through conductor because of electrical force applied to them by

its source say, a battery or a generator and in an atom there is so much free space
that if a foot-ball size represent the nucleus; a small pebble at some kilometer will
represent an orbiting electron; therefore, electrons move easily through a

67
conductor. They say, when such electron gets obstructed by some atom, friction
takes place and electron flow experiences opposition to its flow. This is the
‘resistance’ an electric resistance of the conductor. Primarily it is all right. But,
microscopically the actual picture is very different as mentioned bellow.

The source of electricity, pushes an electron, called conduction electron, in the

conductor. That electron energy being in the conduction band; at higher level
because, the source provides additional energy to the electron while pushing it in
the conductor. In the conductor there are all atoms of its element, bounded with
each other by sharing their outermost orbital electrons in between them. Thus an
electron coming from its outside source, while crossing first section vertical to the
axis of the conductor; is bound to face electric field of someone outer most orbital
electron of an atom in the conductor. Definitely, the energy of electron coming
from its source is higher than the orbital electron; this conduction electron
disturbs the electric field bonding of orbiting electron with its nucleus. In this
action, conduction electron imparts its energy to the orbital electron. Resultantly,
the orbital becomes a conduction electron and the electron from source becomes
orbital there. In this process the electric fields of both the electrons pass through
oscillations that generate respective magnetic field oscillations. These electro-
magnetic field oscillations eject out some energy material in the electrons which
is extra that has came from the outside electric source in connection with the
conductor; Then second electron comes from the source and the similar process is
repeated. Simultaneously, the electric field of the source establishes throughout
the conductor and supplies energy to orbital electrons obstructing its field lines.
Thus, one electron movement along a field line means all electrons’ motion lying
on the same field line. This motion is transmitted at the speed nearing ‘c’. To
study this phenomena divide the conductor into continuous sections of thickness
equal to dia. of the atom of the conductor. Then, in a section there will be atoms
of the conductor in abundance. The source provides conduction electrons equal
and even more to the number of atoms in each of the conductor section.
There are electrons on conductor surface supplied by the source; whose most of
the field is directed outside in space. The earth works as +ve electric pole for
electricity. Therefore, +ve earth grounding system is more safer in power
engineering. But, in case of electronic systems, negative grounding is more

68
fruitful. Because, in conduction there are two modes of electric current;
electronic current and hole current. Flow of electrons is electronic current. It
is explained above. There we have also seen that absentee of an electron
behind the electron during its motion along the conductor works as +ve
charge. Absentee of electron is an empty volume and hence it is called as
hole. A hole has no mass. Hence, its flow is faster than electrons. Also, the cut
off voltage of hole current is lower than the electronic current. Holes being
empty places, they need less power. Hence, in electronics negative electronic
earth is preferred.

As is described above, in a section of the conductor there is abundant number of

electrons bonded with each other. And, also there are number of sections, each of
thickness equal to diameter of an atom. The atoms in adjacent sections are also
bonded with each other. Therefore, when each atom in a section, is compelled to
throw out its outermost i.e. valance band electron out of its orbit and accept
conduction electron introduced by the electric source in its place in the process of
transfer of electric energy of the source into other form heat or light or radiation;
then, the magnetic fields of all the electrons in each section will add up to
generate a constant magnitude of magnetic field throughout the conductor. As the
electron flow is in one direction only; therefore, for a constant magnitude of
electronic current, the magnetic field will be seen of a constant magnitude
proportional to the current magnitude. Thus, for a direct current, constant
magnitude unidirectional magnetic flux will be there. As shown in the Fig.
[14](iv) below.

In fig.[14](iii) above, only two adjacent electrons along their direction of flow are
taken to understand as to how magnetic field oscillations take place in one
direction only; ‘high/low, high/low and so on; at a section of a conductor; when
constant magnitude current flows through it.

Actually, electrons in abundance, thousands and thousands; even often lacks and
lacks of electrons, proportional to current value, do cross a section of the
conductor. Hence, magnetic field diagram at that section will overlap, in respect

69
of each of the electron crossing the section. That will give a constant magnetic
field; as shown in the fig. below.

Fig. [14] (iv):

We have seen that, when one electron moves from one atom to another by an
external electric field force; all electrons in that line along the conductor move
each a distance of one atom. Thus, a constant magnetic field appears throughout
the conductor.

In case of a.c. current when current flows in +x direction the magnetic pulses will
be in +y direction; and proportional to instant to instant value of the current. In the
same way, when the current flows in -x direction, the magnetic pulses will be in –

70
y directions, proportional to instant to instant value of the current as shown in the
Fig. [14](v), below.

Fig. [14](v):

In case of sinusoidal a.c the magnetic pulses are modulated by a.c. wave form as
shown in figure above.
With these basic facts about the electric current and the magnetic field due to
current flow; concentrating on the fig. [14](iv), (v) we proceed further to
understand, the relativistic behavior of electric and its associated magnetic fields.

71
All above sub-figures are viewed w.r.t. the conductor. The conductor is attached
to the observer’s, inertial frame S. An electric charge is the moving object, that is
being observed by the observer O when, it is attached to the frame S. The
observer finds magnetic field throughout the length of the conductor in d.c. as
well as in a.c. the magnetic field represented by the diagrams in the figure above
corresponds to a section of the conductor as well as it corresponds to the whole
conductor length; because, as mentioned earlier, even motion of an electron,
under the influence of externally applied electric field, causes movement of all
electrons in each chain of electrons in the conductor.

With these basic facts about the electric current and the magnetic field due to
current flow; concentrating on the fig. [14](iv), we proceed further to understand,
the relativistic behavior of electric and its associated magnetic fields.

Now, see in the figure, [14] (vi); that, the observer attaching himself to a moving
electron, which is attached to inertial frame S’. They say that, in such a position
the observer finds the electron field being spread throughout the space evenly
distributed in all directions as shown in fig.[14](i) before. But, the actual fact is
quiet different than that as shown in Fig. [14](vi) below.

In free space electric field of an electron is spread in space all around electron
evenly in all directions radially out from electron. But, in a live conductor, the
electric field of electron all lays down along the electric field applied across the
conductor. The electron field ends in the induced positive charge ahead of the
electron. Therefore, there is higher field density between the electron and the
positive charge. This combination of electron, its uni-directional field and the
induced positive charge due to front electron, travels through the conductor under
applied electric field across the conductor. We see that, there is magnetic field
around a conductor when current flows through it. In this case the conductor is
attached to our inertial frame. And the moving electrons constituting current are
attached to inertial frame in relative motion w.r.t. us. The relative speed is the
speed of electrons through the conductor. They say that if we happen to attach us
with a moving electron above, we will not see magnetic field. It is wrong

72
thinking. Because, when we see magnetic field around conductor in conductor’s
rest grame; actually it is attached to the electrons

Fig. [14](vi):

73
Fig.[14](vii):

In Fig.[14](vi) above, an effort is made to perceive, how an observer experience

in respect of magnetic field associated with electric current. See that, an electron-
positron couplet as derived above is just like a charged capacitor. When a charged
capacitor is moved; no magnetic field is produced. Similarly when an observer is
attached to a moving electron, he does not experience magnetic field in the
attached frame of the electron. But, he finds that, the conductor is moving w.r.t.
him in the direction shown in the fig, [14] (vii) . Therefore, magnetic field
appears along conductor section in the attached frame of the conductor. And the
observer himself finds, as if he is moving attached to the electron, along the
conductor with a capacitor as shown in the fig.[14](vi) .This is the actual fact
about, what happens when an observer attaches himself to the conducting
electron. Above perception maintains the special relativity concepts intact; that,
all inertial frames are equal in themselves and that, in universal frame, every
event is unique in respect of its place and instant of time; though both these facts
may appear different from frame to frame. But, when the point and instant of time
of event-happening is found by relativistic relations or Lorentzian transformations
from different inertial frames in relative motion with each other; the point and the
instant of the event-happening is the same as read in the attached frame of the
event-source photographed by an observer from universal frame with the help of
infinite velocity signal. Such signal does exist in nature. That is studied ahead
here.

74
When observer is attached with the conductor; he sees that magnetic field is
attached to conducting electron at its tail end; and, when the observer is
attached to the conducting electron; he sees that, the magnetic field is
associated with the conductor at the leading end of the positron which is
vacancy of electron to which the observer himself is attached with.

10. PHILOSOPHY OF LORENTZIAN TRANSFORMATIONS:-

The philosophy in Lorentzian transformations is first discussed bellow. See [fig.

15]. An event p say a burst of light, has occurred in space when both the inertial
frames S and S which are in relative motion ‘v’ with each other in x-x direction
are, coincided with each other at time instant t=t= . Fig. [15](i). The light is
perceived to travel at ultimate speed by any observer in its attached inertial frame
in the space w.r.t. the source, irrespective of the relative speed with respect to
each other mutually between all inertial frames in the space as is discussed before
over here.

Suppose, frame S΄ is moving in +x direction w.r.t. the frame S with relative speed

75
‘v’. The signal of the event will reach first the Observer O´ stationed at x= 0, in
frame S΄ at instant of time t = t. This time the Observer O´ is at a distance of vt´
from the event source. As the source is attached to the frame S’ the distance
between the observer and the source of the signal is going to remain constant. The
signal reaches the observer O’ at the instant of time t’ Fig. [15](ii).

Hence, the event ‘p’ has happened at the instant of time t’ as seen by the observer
O’; because, it is the natural perception. The basic natural conception in
Einstein’s relativity is that, any event is said to have happened at the instant
of time for an Observer at which he receives its signal and not that the event
has happened at the instant of time, when the source has released the signal as is
considered by the physicist at present.

Let the Observer O´ fire another signal ‘s ’ at instant t, informing that the event
‘p’ has occurred at instant t Fig.[15](iii).

76
Both the signals p and s are traveling in space at speed ‘c’ w.r.t. the source and
hence w.r.t. the frame S΄ and observer O’; because, the signal source and the
observer O’ both are attached i.e. fixed mechanically to the frame S΄.

The Observer O receives both the signals at instant of time ‘t’ and he says that,
the event p has happened at the instant of time ‘t’. Simultaneously he receives the
information from the Observer O´ that, the event p has happened now. Thus,
when he receives the event signal at time t, naturally he perceives that the event
has happened now at time t for him as well for the observer O’. And takes it for
granted that, the occurrence of the event p is simultaneous to both of them.

An event would occur in universe, at a particular point and at a particular

universal instant of time. But, the human perception is that, when an event
signal is received by an observer; the observer takes it for granted that the
event has happened at that instant when he has received its signal. This
presumption is since the beginning when human being started understanding
different happenings in the surroundings. And, that sense of perception still
we are following. Our most of the all mathematics, observations are based on

77
this sense of perception; that, an event is happened at the instant of time when
we receive its signal.

Hence, any two observers in space; though, they see the event at different instants
of time in their synchronized similar watches; their perception is; that event has a
unique instant of time. And that event time every observer assumes that time
when he receives the event signal. Therefore, O’ considers event happening
instant as t’ and the observer O considers that as t.

In reality, both the watches that of observer O and the observer O’; are quiet
similar. If there were infinite-speed-signaling method; observe O would have seen
that, the watch of observer O’ is reading the same instant of time as his watch;
and observer O’ would have seen that, the watch of observer O is reading the
same instant of time as his watch. But, such signaling method is not discovered
yet. Light-signaling is in use and light signals travel at speed ‘c’. Further till
Einstein put this relativity theory; we were under the impression that, whatever
we are seeing it is happening just now. Einstein’s relativity theory brought us
very nearer to the truth.

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Now, at instant t, the frame S΄ will be at a distance of ‘vt’ from the Observer O.
See Fig. [15](iv). Now see that, relative velocity ‘v’ measured by O, that of the
Frame S’ w.r.t. himself and that measured by O’ w.r.t. himself that of the frame S;
both are numerically equal. In the universal frame the time duration of one second
in all inertial frames is the same. Similarly, the unit length is also the same in all
inertial frames. The observer of the universal frame can notice any event
anywhere in any frame at the same instant of time by means of his (imaginary)
infinite speed signaling system. Therefore, according to the universal observer
for any event have a particular instant of time and a particular point in space.
When, any two observers attached to different inertial frames in the universe;
basically, inherently accept this fact in their inner conscious; then, though they
notice the instants of time of happening of the event different in their attached
frames due to signal speed; they feel of some unique instant of time and the
unique one point of happening of the event in the universe; in-spite of their
observations and find the cause of the difference in observations between
themselves in respect of differences in time and place of an unique same event in
the universe. Thus, as observed by O and O’ mathematically,

vt ≠ vt´.--------------------------------------------------------------(4)

Thus, we unknowingly assume universal unique frame which we feel stationary

and accommodates all frames; further, we assume that, the observer attached to
that universal frame contain communication signal such that, its speed is infinite.
That means, where ever in space in the universe, any event, when, it occurs, it is
known to the universal observer at the same instant of its occurrence. While
studying relativity principles, when we assume a frame, a stationary one, it means
we assume it attached to us studying all universal inertial frames. Now, consider
the student studying is attached to the universal frame as a universal observer. The
observer O as the scientist stationed in the observatory on this earth and the earth
is as the assumed stationary frame S.

With the help of the signals of the event p above, the Observer O and O´ find out
the position of the event-source in their attached Frames as mentioned below.

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The signal is released at instant t=t’=0. It clearly indicates that, both the watches,
that is the watch with observer O and the watch with observer O’; are
synchronized at the instant when frames S and S’ are coincided with each other,
At the coincidence, their timing signals reach them immediate. Please note.

Please note that, all the facts assumed while deriving relativistic relations are all
in respect of the observer O. The observer O corresponds to the scientist stationed
in his laboratory, assuming himself and his laboratory are stationary, w.r.t. the
universe outside his laboratory. The observer O’ is an imaginary observer
stationed on the object which is in constant linear motion w.r.t. observer O. An
inertial frame S’ is attached frame of that moving object and the observer O’.

The watches with both the observers are quite similar to each other in all
respects and they are well synchronized as mentioned above. Therefore, both of
them read the same instant of time always; as seen by the observer in the
universal frame or the student studying these findings. That could have been
actually seen if the system of information transfer at infinite speed were available.

Observer O can read time in his watch directly; but, to read or to know the time
shown by the watch of O’; the observer O has to remain dependent on the signals
coming from O’ informing the time shown by his watch. The signals travel at
speed ‘c’. If at that instant of time some event is taking place; then, when the
signal reaches to observer O at instant ‘t’; the event have taken place before the
time period ‘ct’ when the observers O and O’ were coincided with each other
along with their attached frames S and S’ respectively; where, t is time period
read by the O observer’s watch. But, the observer O assumes that; that event has
taken place at the instant of time ‘t’ and not at the instant of time as we have
assumed at t=t’=0. The same thing happens with the observer O’. Because, he
also does not consider that the event has happened at t=t’=0. He receives the event
signal at instant of time t’. Hence, observer O’ takes it granted for, that the event
has happened at the instant of time t’. These are the actual perceptions of
observers attached to different inertial frames. The instant of occurrence of event
i.e. t = t’ = 0, is w.r.t. us or the scientist in his lab attached to universal frame.

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Now, just analyze without any prejudiced mind; the assumption that the event has
happened at t = t’= 0. Then surely any one could know that, this assumption is
neither made by the observer O nor it is made by the observer O’. That this
assumption is made by us; who are studying the phenomena of relativity. And
that, we are neither attached to frame S nor attached to frame S’. Therefore, we all
are attached to the unique universal inertial frame; in which there are all
inertial frames having linear constant motions with each other. The universal
frame may also be definitely moving in space. Because, (i) the universe is known
by the mass, energy and life contents in it; (ii) Einstein have stated truly that,
something moving is energy; (iii) mass is converted energy. Hence, without
motion, there can’t be existence. If orbiting electrons stop there revolving
around their respective nuclei; the universe will die down.

Thus while studying relativity principles, we inherently assume ourselves

attached to a unique universal frame with assumed infinite speed signaling
system. We can’t deny it; because, it works in perception of us. Fig. 15(iii) &
15(iv) are repeated below.

Thus, with the receipt of the event signal by both the observers O and O’; they
find the distance of the signal-source from each of themselves as below, w.r.t.
above figures [15](iii) and [15](iv) repeated;

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 x=ct, and x=ct respectively………………………(5)
The Lorentzian transformation derivations are repeated here from its perception
view in a bit different way.
Considering the event have been occurred in (+x, +y); (+ x, +y) quadrant at
instant t=t= as shown in the Fig. [15](i) above. Then from set of equations (5)
above, the below mentioned relation is obtained.

x - ct = α(x – ct)…………………………………..(6)

Where, α is a constant of proportionality here.

Though, both the variable terms in above equation; those are (x - ct) and (x -
ct); have zero magnitude and are of the same nature or are in the same units;
still they cannot be equal. Because, the variables involved in those terms,
though they are of the same type, they are connected to different situations.
And that, in mathematics the zero means infinitesimally small value.
Therefore, for different zero values of respective mathematical parts of the
equations and others also; the corresponding infinitesimally small values of
zeros are different. Therefore, mathematical zero value equations cannot be
equated unless their infinitesimally small magnitudes are made equal by
multiplying one out of the two equated phrases; by a suitable constant. The
meaning of zero means ‘nothing’, and that have no place in mathematics. But,
if it was so, then mathematics could not have become a science subject;
according to specific condition, that, anything to be scientific; it could be
expressed in numbers. Further, the fact that zero means some infinitesimally
small value enabled the progress of science and itself that of the mathematics.
See here itself; if it were not like that, we could have not been able to proceed
further and discover revolutionary, ‘the relativity theory’. Thus, ‘Some zero
result is not a zero result; but, it tends to be zero;’ gives progress to any
derivations; revels many secrets in the universe and what not. Such is the
importance and the beauty of the ‘zero’ in mathematics.

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Similarly, the conjugate of zero is  i.e. the infinity; is also very interesting.
Infinity does not mean that thing, which is in such an abundance quantity that, it
cannot be measured. If it were so then, again it would have been proved a great
hindrance for development of the science and the mathematics. So, infinity means
anything of once interest, beyond his capacity of measurement; that’s all. Thus
infinity also is denotable in number that satisfying the root condition of the
science for, anything to be scientific. Infinity in mathematics means the quantity
of something being measured is tending to infinity w.r.t. that something .e.g.
W.r.t. an electron mass, one tone mass of iron; is infinite mass. W.r.t. light of a
candle the light of the sun is infinite light.

[These basic meanings of zero and infinity are known at the first instant, to the
“ADHYATMIC PHILOSOPHY”. It describes the eternal truth, the SUPREME
GOD, such an infinitesimally small shape of its smallest part that, beyond that,
infinitesimally smallest-ness existence vanishes and that, its infinitesimally
smallest say particles are so much so large and dense that, their count tends to
infinity. This basic property of the zero and the infinity enable every human
being, the perception of the GOD in his capacity.]

Similarly, considering the event to have happened in (-x, -y); (-x, -y) quadrant to
account for negative sign of the signal, the below mentioned relation is obtained.

x + ct = β(x + ct)……………………………………………(7)

Where, β is a constant of proportionality here. These two relations 6 & 7 include

all possible conditions ot frames S and S’ w.r.t. each other.
By solving the above equations (6) and (7), for x and t we get,

x = Аx – Bct……………………………………………….... (8)
t = At  Bx /c………………………………………………...(9)
Where, A and B are the constants, so that, A = (  +  )/2 and
B = (  -  )/2

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Now, to accommodate all the different possible conditions of relative motions
between the frames S and S, and to reduce the above general relations into
workable ones, following necessary mathematically and relativistically viable
assumptions are made to find out the values of constants A and B..
Assumption 1: Let x = 0 in the above equation 8. Putting x = 0 in the
above equation 8 means, the event p has occurred at x = 0 and the observer
attached to the frame S at x = 0; has received the signal of the event
immediately at t = 0 when the frame S is in coincidence with the frame S.

The signal source is attached to the frame S’ and the frame S’ is moving at
relative velocity ‘v’ w.r.t. frame S; and, the light signal has a definite speed ‘c’
w.r.t. the signal-source. Therefore, measurement of distance of event source from
observer O and observer O’ is to differ always at every instant.

Hence, by putting x = 0 in the above equation (8), we get,

x = Ax  Bct = 0,
Solving the above relation, B = Ax  ct.
In this relation x gives the distance of the frame S from the frame S i.e. the
distance of O’ from O at the instant of time ‘t’; i.e. infinitesimally small time
period passed after the coincidence of both the inertial frames at the zeroth instant
as above equal to ct. The term x  t in the above relation gives, the relative speed
‘v’ of the frame S w.r.t. the frame S . Hence,

B = Av  c……………………………………………. (10 )

Assumption 2:  Put t = 0 in the equation (9) above. This assumption is

commensurate with x’ = 0 as above. Thus when the event is assumed to be
perceived at zeroth instant by the observer S, it means that the event has occurred
at zeroth instant at x = 0 when both the frames were coincident as is mentioned in
assumption-1 above. Therefore, the signal of the incidence is received by the
observer O immediately as the event has occurred. Hence, for a while it is felt
that, the observer O also shall have received the signal of the event at zeroth
instant only. But, it may not be and, it is not such case. Because, there is relative

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motion between the two frames and hence, the relativity plays its role there.
However, this assumption gives, At = Bx  c
Thus, t = Bx  Ac, is the instant of receipt of this signal by the Observer O and not
at the zeroth instant like the observer O’. Obviously the Observer O perceives that
this respective event has taken place at a distance of x (though it is infinitesimally
small) from him at instant t = Bx  Ac.

Substituting the value of B in the , t = Bx  Ac from above equation (10), i.e. B =

Av  c we get,

t = vx  c2 ……………………………………...(11)

Substituting the values of B and t from the relations (10) and (11) in the equation
(8) above,

We get, x = Ax ( 1  v2  c2 )………………………… (12)

Considering incremental distances and it is justified in above conditions, the

relation-8 reduces to the form,

Δ x = AΔx ( 1  v2  c2 )………………………………..(13)

Above incremental value- equation is the most justified one. Because, putting
t’=0, means t’ has an incremental value like either 0+ or 0- at the instant of
passing of frame S’ through its coincidence with the frame S. therefore, x’
will also have an incremental value and so also x; at the instant t’=0.

Assumption 3: Till now the event is observed in its attached frame S and is
judged from frame S. Now by observing the event in its attached frame S and
judging it from the frame S, to accommodate the fact that, every inertial frame is
true in itself. Consider the event source to be attached to the frame S in its –x +y
quadrant and the observer O and that the frame S is moving at linear speed v in –x

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–x’ axis direction w.r.t. the frame S’ and hence w.r.t. the observer O’. Then, by
working out mathematically, we obtain the form of above relation (8) as below,

x = Аx + Bct

There is no change in constants A and B; because, the system containing frames S

and S’ is the same. Now, here the so called stationary observer is O and the
Observer moving w.r.t. it is the Observer O as mentioned above.. Consider that
the event has occurred at instant t= 0 in now stationary Frame. It gives here,

x = Аx.

Considering incremental values in the above equation, x = Аx – Bct it gives,

 x = Ax i.e.

x = (1/A).( x)…………………………………….(14)

To obtain values of the constant A put  x = 1, in relations (13) and (14).

Because, both the equations jointly satisfy all the different conditions of
inertial frames. It includes equality of all inertial frames in themselves. This
substitution is the heart of Lorentzian relativistic transformations in
relativity and is one of the topmost perceptions of the mathematics.

In the Relativity, the prime observer is O. He as a scientist takes observations in

the universe. Hence, we study the universe, from view point of the scientist.
Because, we are attached with the inertial frame of the scientist. Though the
earth is rotating with curvilinear motion but, very small than the speed of light;
therefore, we can assume the motion of the earth a constant linear motion at
the instant of receipt of the signal from space. Hence the substitution of
 x = 1, in different equations is done over here.

After substituting as above, we get; equation (13) as,

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 x = A  x ( 1  v2  c2 ) = A ( 1  v2  c2 ) and equation (14) as,
x = (1/A).( x) = 1/A

Then, solve them for A. There from it is obtained,

A = 1  ( 1  v2  c2 )1/2…………………………………(15)

To find the value of constant B rewrite the equation (10) above,

B = Av  c.

Substituting the value of A in the above rewritten equation no. (10), from the
above equation (15), we get,

B = v c (1  v2  c2 )1/2
By substituting the values of the constants A and B as derived above in the
equations (8) and, (9),
x= {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ x – vt }……………………….. (16)

t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 }……………………. (17)

These are the prime relativistic transformations derived by the scientist

Lorentz and are known after his name as Lorentzian transformations.

It seems they ignore a prime fact, on which basis these revolutionary relativistic
relations are derived. Because, they say that, speed of light is constant in all
inertial frames irrespective of the relative motion between the inertial frames and
the signal source. But, when generating the basic equations x – ct = 0 and
x’- ct’= 0; ‘c’ is measured w.r.t. the source of the light signal. Please see Fig.
[15](i).

Space is detected by motion; and, the motion involves time. The above equations
(16) and (17) are solved by the observer O, by observing the space parameter x’

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and the time period t’ required by the signal to travel from its source to its
attached observer O’. By substituting ( t = 0 ) in the above equations (16) and
(17); below relations are obtained.
x= {1(1  v2c2)1/2} x and……………………………... (18)
t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}. (-vx/c2)…………………………... (19)

In doing so, the observer O has played the role of observer O’ at the instant of
the receipt of the signal at its position O in his attached frame. Actually,
observer O receives the event signal from a stellar body and finds its distance
‘x’ from himself. Then, he transformed that distance to the distance of the body
from him in the rest frame of the body, by above relation (18). It is x’.
Obviously, the second relation (19), gives the time period of the signal from the
body to the observer or to us at the ultimate speed ‘c’. In other words, t’ given
by the relation (19) is the distance of the stellar body in terms of ‘light-seconds’
or ‘light-years’ as the case may be.

Review above equations 18 and 19 on the back ground of synchronization of

clocks of observers O and O’ at t = t’ = 0. The situations involved in equations 18,
19 and equation t = t’ = 0 are different. The equation t = t’ = 0 contains the fact
that, event has taken place in space at t = t’ = 0. Whereas, the equations 18 and
19, contain the fact that the event signal is arrived to observers O and O’ at instant
of time when the inertial frames S and S’ are coincided. The coincidence of
frames S and S’ at t = t’ = 0, is theoretical phenomena. But, the coincidence of
frames S and S’ is practical fact. It indicates measurement of stellar body
distances by means of light-photon signals.

Above observations are perfectly true in both the conditions that, either the object
or the event-source, may be moving away from or towards the observer.

Now, consider the equation (18),

x= {1(1  v2c2)1/2} x

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It gives, x = x’.(1  v2c2)1/2……………………………………(20)
x is the distance of the moving stellar body measured by observer O representing
us. And, x’ is the actual distance of the body from observer O i. e. from us.
Above observations are perfectly true in both the conditions that, either the object
or the event-source, may be moving away from or towards the observer.

By reviewing the relativistic mathematics above, the perceptions of the main

observer O or the scientist, stationed at observatory on the earth denoted by
inertial frame S; are as below.

11. Observer’s Perceptions:-

(1) An observer in his attached frame considers an event to have happened in the
universe at that instant, at which he receives the signal of the event and at that
place where he visualizes that event in space with the help of that signal. In fact
an event happens quite before the time of the signal reception by the observer.
Thus, when we observe some moving stellar body at many light years say, five
thousand light-years away from us, the image that we observe, is the image of that
body, five thousand light-years old. But, the position in space, of the body
indicated by the image is the present position of the body; the position, when we
received the signal, though it seems at a shorter distance by the factor
(1  v2c2)1/2 where ‘v’ is the relative velocity between the stellar body and us in
the direction-line of the signal; yet we can know it exactly by dividing the
measured distance by the relativistic factor (1  v2c2)1/2. But, about its present
physical condition, we will know after five thousands light-years later.

It feels rather ambiguous that, the image we receive of that body is, five
thousand light-years old. Though there are scientific evidences for that;
there may be some other fact also. It may be that, though the photons are
released five thousand years back; but, they may be continuously being
modified; by the photon field of the stellar body according to the physical
state of the stellar body so that, the observer may observe the condition of

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that body as it is at the time of receipt of those signals. Exhaustive
experimentation is required to verify this imagination.

(2) For an observer number of the events, say any two events, at different places
in the universe are simultaneous, if the signals of those events are received by the
observer at the same common instant. Thus, actually the event at farther distance
is happened earlier by corresponding time period than that nearer one. But, if the
observer is receiving both the events’ signals at the same conman instant; then
they are simultaneous to him.

( 3 ) In the above derivations  x attached to Frame S is the real length

measured by the observer O in its attached frame S, and it is judged by Observer
O; whereas the length  x is the length measured by the observer O in its
attached frame S corresponding to the length  x,  x.  x is not measurable
mechanically because of relative motion between S and S’. Hence, it is measured
by light signaling method.  x can be measured in frame S’ by observer O’
mechanically; because, both the length  x and the observer O’ are attached to
frame S’.

(4) An observer can visualize, can perceive the signal source completely when,
signals from all its points reach the observer at the same instant of time either the
source is stationary or moving at constant linear speed w.r.t. the observer. .

12. PERCEPTION OF LENGTH CONTRACTION AND TIME

DILATION:-

The inherent natural condition for measurement of a length mechanically i.e.

by means of a length-gauze or by survey is that the ‘length to be measured’
should be stationary w.r.t. the Observer.
Please refer [Fig. 16].

In the fig. length ab equal to l is attached to the Frame S and the Frame S is in
relative motion ‘v’ w.r.t. the Frame S in +x direction. To measure the length ab

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the Observers at points a and b attached to the Frame S are asked by the
Observer O to fire the photon signals simultaneously. Therefore, b fires the
signal. The length ab is parallel to the x axis and very near to it. Actual in the
diagram, it is shown farther for marking the details of the figure. The axes x and
x are assumed always coincident. Therefore, the sensors on the axes x and x
record the signal receipt at b and b immediately.

Fig. [16]:

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The Observer O need not care for the signal velocity in this case because, the
length is attached to its Frame; for the signaling will cast the images of the points
a’ and b’ on the axis-x’; exactly equal to distance between a’ and b’ points of the
object. But, the Observer O is totally concerned with the signal velocity and the
relative velocity of the Frame S w.r.t. its attached Frame S. The signal is
traveling towards a and the Observer O. But, the length ab’ is traveling away
from the Observer. The sensor at point a’ and the point a’ of the length a’b’, both
being attached to S’ both are moving with the frame S’. But, the sensor at point b
is attached to frame S assumed stationary. Therefore, sensor at point b’ of length
a’b’ is moving with S’ as mentioned just above; thus, leaving behind the sensor b.
Signal from b’ in S’ is travelling at speed ‘c’ from b’ to a’. and a’ is approaching
nearer and nearer to sensor b. When the signal reaches at a, the Observer a fires
a photon signal simultaneously w.r.t the receipted signal. It is recorded by both
the sensors a and a attached to axes x and x. See fig. [17](ii). In respect of length
a’b’ attached to S’, as the sensors on x’ axis are also stationary w.r.t the length
a’b’; the length recorded by sensors a’b’ is the real length. But, in respect of the
observer O; the length a’b’ is moving away from him at velocity ‘v’, the point a’
of length a’b’ is coming nearer and nearer to sensor b. therefore, when after
receipt of the signal from b’ by a’; a’ fires signal. That signal is received by
sensor a, which is nearer to b as compared to the length a’b’. thus, observer O
measures the length a’b’ as length ab which is shorter than a’b’ the real length or
the rest length or the mechanical length. Thus, the observer finds the actual length
a’b’ is contracted to ab in the direction of motion of the length a’b’. This is the
space contraction phenomena in relativity. The charge that is generating signal-
photons has two velocities. One, the ultimate speed c in its direction of
propagation and the other one, the relative velocity v of its source’s attached
frame; and, these velocities are imparted to the light-photons. But, due the limit of
perception c, an Observer doesn’t perceive velocities greater than c, but perceives
equal to c; and velocities less than ‘c’ as they are, Thus, as shown in the fig.1and
2, relativistic geometrical diagram, the Observer O judges that, the signal is
traveling at speed equal to

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( c2- v2 )1/2 from b to a w.r.t. his attached frame or himself.

The fact that how an observer like O, who is assumed stationary finds, the
velocity of the light signal coming from the source moving at relative constant
linear speed ‘v’, either going away from him or coming towards him, is equal to
( c2- v2 )1/2 is discussed in detail in respect of figures 1 and 2 above.

By other way following Newton’s laws of motions; when, the source of the light
signal is moving with relative linear speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer O, in the
direction x-x’ and light signal is released by an orbital electron revolving at speed
‘c’ w.r.t. its attached frame S’. Here the nucleus of the source orbiting electron’s
nucleus, is the source’s attached frame S’. The revolving electron when moving
along the x-x’ +ve direction i.e. along the direction of relative velocity ‘v’; then
during its first half revolution; the electron’s linear speed w.r.t. the observer O, as
per Newton’s law of motion will be ( ĉ + v̂ ) and when the same electron is
moving in opposite direction to the velocity ‘v’ during its other half revolution;
the electron linear speed w.r.t. the observer O, will be ( ĉ - v̂ ). Thus the average
speed of the electron during its revolution around its nucleus; will be as calculated
by vector dot product as follows. [( ĉ + v̂ ).( ĉ – v̂ )]1/2 = ( c2 – v2 )1/2 w.r.t. the
observer O. where ‘c’ changes its direction w.r.t. x axis from zero to 2 π radians
and direction of ‘v’ which is either in +x or –x direction; during orbital full round
distance, as shown in the fig. [16, aux.]below.
[Fig. 16 aux.]

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As the electron releases its extra energy at its linear speed in space as mentioned
before; the speed of the light signal photons will be

( c2 – v2 )1/2 . w.r.t. the observer O.

Now, in Fig. [16] before, if the length ab is assumed equal to l and that, ab
equal to l ; then, l’ is as
l is as measured by O who perceive the photon-speed equal to c. l is judged by O
who judged the moving length ab equal to ab = l from his attached frame S. The
observer O finds photon speed or the light-signal speed equal to [( c2 – v2 )1/2 =
c.(1 v2c2)1/2 ]. Refer Fig. [17] below.

Fig. [17]:

The instances of firing and recording the signals from a and b are different but,
are the same in the universe in respect of both the frames S and S’. Similarly, the
length denoted a’b’ by observer O’ and that denoted by ab by observer O is of the
same object and is therefore it is also unique in the universe. But, due to relative
motion between the observers O and O’ and the natural perception limit ‘c’; the
observers does not receive the signals from the end points of the length ab or a’b’.
simultaneously. The points a and a’ are not different two points in the universe;

94
both nominations are of the same point in the universe given by different
observers O and O’ respectively. Similarly the points b and b’ are also
nominations of a conman one point in the universe. But, due to relative speed
between observers O and O’; the observers receive the signals from those points
at different instances of time read in identical clocks with them. As a result both
observers perceive indivissuallly, the same length in the universe to be different,
in their respective frames. Assume the length measured mechanically in its rest
frame S’, is l’ and that in frame S measured with the help of light signal is l. The
signal speed observed in the rest frame S’ of the length is ‘c’ and that observed in
frame S w.r.t. the frame S is, ( c2 - v2 )1/2. As firing of signals at a and a’ each of
the both being the same point; are at one and the one instant of time respectively
for each point individually . Similarly firing of signals at points b and b’ each of
the both points being the same point individually; is one and the only one instant
of time for each; the below relation holds good. Because, signal fired at point ‘a’
will reach the point ‘b’ at a definite unique time in the universe. Therefore, the
time measured by each observer with respect their respective frame of each one;
by the relation, (length travelled/speed) is the same and is shown by their similar
watches respectively read directly in their respective frames.

Hence,
(l/c) = l/( c2 - v2 )1/2.

Hence, l = l/(1 v2c2)1/2

or l = l.(1 v2c2)1/2 ………………………………( 21 )

In another way, this relation is derived as below.

Let the co-ordinates of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the frame S be x1 = 0, and x2 = l.
Similarly, the co-ordinates of [a’] and [b’] in the frame S’ be x1 ’=0 and x2 ’ = l’
then, using above equation [16],

Derivation-2:-
x= {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ x – vt }

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And substituting different values of x in this equation and solving for the lengths
[l] and [ l’], we get,
l’ = x2’- x1’
i.e. = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ x2 – x1 }.{t2 –t1}.v..........(22)
Now, let us see the beauty of relativistic mathematics. We have seen that, a length
is perceived by an observer; when, signals from its both ends are arrived the
observer simultaneously. Therefore, t2 and t1 are not different but, it is the same
conman instant of time when observer O has received signals from the both points
a and b at that same instant of time. Therefore, the instants t2 and t1 are though
different instants for points a and b; their corresponding instant of arrival of both
the signals at the same instant of time to the observer O; is a conman one instant
only. Further, in the experiment of measurement of lengths to see the phenomena
of length contraction; the length l’ is real mechanical length. Therefore, the term
in above equation {t2 –t1} cannot be zero. It has unique value.

Or in other way, Change the units of length and time. Let the unit length be
{ x2 – x1 }and corresponding unit time be {t2 –t1}. Reaching of signals from both
the ends of length at the same instant to the observer is a conman event for both
the units the previous one and the new assumed here. Therefore, we put {t2 –t1}.
equal to 1 (one) and rewrite the above equation,

l’ = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.( x2 – x1)…………………(23)

In the above equation the term ( x2 – x1), represents length l as measured by
observer O with the help of light signals and an unit length assumed for solving
above relation. Hence, substituting l for ( x2 – x1), in above equation, it reduces
to,

i.e. l’ = l/(1  v2c2)1/2

or i.e l. = l.(1 v2c2)1/2 is the equation [23] above….(24)

Above equation ( 2 4 ) clearly indicates that, the moving length [ l ] perceived by

observer O w.r.t. his frame S assumed stationary; is less than the actual
mechanical length or the rest length [ l’], by the factor (1 v2c2)1/2. Thus, an

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observer perceives the length contraction in the direction of motion. in
respect of a moving object.

Also notice that, observer O finds the actual rest length l’ of the object. It is
said that, observer O, judges the length of the moving object in the rest frame
of the object; the object moving along the line of sight of the observer O
himself.

We have to remember or get always understood that the observer O is the

prime observer. His vision is ours vision. The observer O’ is subordinate
observer. He may exist in actual or may be an imaginary observer.

13. SIMULTANEITY:-

Refer, relativistic time relation, [17]. t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 }.

See the [Fig. 18]. Visualize that, the observer O will find the event at A and B
simultaneous if both the event-signals reach him at the same instant of time, say t.
To happen this fact, event at point B should take place when the signal of the
event A, arrives at the point A. Then both the signals travel simultaneously
towards observer O. Therefore, an observer’s rest frame always originates
from him only; the observer being stationed at origin and his vision spread
along y-axis, directed along the direction of x-axis and his rest frame x-axis is
parallel to the direction of motion of the signal-source; the observer O will
receive both the signals at the instant of time t. Hence, the observer O perceives
the events in space at points A and B to have happened simultaneous.

To satisfy above condition of simultaneity both the points be either attached

to the observer’s rest frame or both the points be moving at the same velocity
v in the same direction w.r.t. the observer. If one of the point say B is moving
with relative velocity v in x axis direction w.r.t. O and point A (or vise vis.) is
attached to the observer’s frame S, assumed stationary; then, above
simultaneity does not exist. Because, the signal speed of the signal released

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from moving point B as above, differs from ‘c’ and is equal to ( c2 - v2 )1/2.
These facts are clarified in figure [18] below.

Fig. [18]:

Suppose, in above figure 18(iii) point A is attached to the frame S and the point B
is attached to the frame S’; so that point B is moving at speed v relative to point
A. Then the speed of signal from B is ( c2 - v2 )1/2 w.r.t. observer O. When the
signal of B reaches A, A releases its signal. The speed of signal of A is c w.r.t.
observer O. Now, at point A signal of B have speed ( c2 - v2 )1/2 and signal of A
have speed c. Therefore, signal of A will reach first and signal of B later, violating

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the simultaneity. To have simultaneity under this condition also the signal from A
should be released when signal of B is at a distance of ( c2 - v2 )1/2 .d from O or y-
axis where ‘d’ is the distance of point A from O or Y-axis.
In the above figure [18](i), points/observers A and B are attached to the frame.
Observer B fires a light signal at some instant of time t1. The signal travels
towards observer’s rest line y-axis, at linear constant speed ‘c’. The signal arrives
at point A at instant t2. Simultaneous to this event of signal b arrival; A fires his
light signal a. Both the signals travel towards observer at speed ‘c’. The observer
receives both the signals at the instant of time t3. The observer realizes that both
the events have happened simultaneously at the instant of time t3.

Now, see the facts. Actually, the event ‘b’ has happened at the instant t1; event ‘a’
has happened at instant t2; and both the events are known to the observer at the
conman instant of time t3. Similarly, the event ‘b’ though it has happened at
instant t1; the observer at point A; considers, it to have happened at the instant of
time t3. Therefore, to have similarity in similar observations of any type; either
scientific or social or any other; all the points in the path of some event signal are
synchronized by a light signal named synchronizing signal. When points A, B,
O(y-axis) are synchronized for an instant of time; in this case for instant t1;
then, the events ‘a’ and ‘b’ are simultaneous to all A, B and observer O.

In case if both the points are attached to some another inertial frame say S’ which
is moving at a linear constant some speed ‘v’ within ‘c’; and the method of
signaling is followed as above; then also, the perception of simultaneity remains
similar except, the instant of simultaneity observed differs. Because, in this case,
the signals’ speed is ( c2 - v2 )1/2 .

If out of points A and B in frame S’one of the point say B is moving at relative
speed ‘u’ w.r.t. observer O’ attached to frame S’; then, though the observer at A
fires his signal at the instant of receipt of the signal ‘b’; then also observer O, does
not receive both the signals simultaneously. Because, the signal ‘b’ speed is ( c2 -
v2- u2 )1/2 and the signal ‘a’ speed is . ( c2 - v2 )1/2 . Due to this difference in
speeds; the signal ‘a’ arrives first and ‘b’ later; though both the signals are
simultaneous at point ‘a’. Refer fig, [18](iii).

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Another case study in respect of simultaneity is as below.

Refer [fig. 19]. There are S and S’ inertial frames’ conman system used in study
of special relativity. With the help of this system, it is explained that, events
simultaneous to observer O’, are also simultaneous to observer O when both the
event sources are attached to the moving frame S’. It again explains; how a signal
is the same unique signal in the universe in respective of relative motion between
different inertial frames attached to respective observers. The different observers
observe different speeds of the same signal; dependent upon their relative velocity
w.r.t. the frame, with which one observer compares his rest frame observations.

Fig. [19]:

Perusal through above figure 19, revives that, slow signal-speed ( c2 - v2 )1/2
experienced by observer O is compensated by perceiving shortened distance ‘ab’
so that, the signal with speed ( c2 - v2 )1/2 can describe it simultaneous to the signal

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with speed ‘c’ describing the longer distance (a’b’) as shown in the figure. It gives
the experience of space contraction. Because, observer O perceives the moving
length a’b’ in x-axis direction, has shortened to length ab. It also gives the
experience of time dilation. For, the same signal at lower speed ( c2 - v2 ) 1/2,
travels the smaller distance ab in the same time period as the same signal travels
the longer distance a’b’ at higher speed ‘c’. Therefore to satisfy both the
conditions by the same signal, lower speed corresponds to smaller time and larger
speed corresponds to larger time intervals. And, in the universe or as seen from
unique universal frame, the event of signal traveling a certain distance to which
observer O’ is measuring a’b’ in his rest frame and observer O measuring it as ab
from his rest frame; demands time period relation between themselves for all
these three facts to be true. Therefore, observer O’s duration of one second is
correspondingly shorter than the one second duration of observer O’. Hence, it is
said that, Observer O or simply an observer experiences time dilation on a
moving object or a moving stellar body w.r.t. him with linear speed.

Thus, in special relativity study, though we are emphasizing on minimum

two inertial frames; S assumed stationary and S’ assumed in relative motion
w.r.t. frame S; inherently, we are considering third universal frame
accommodating both these frames S and S’. The reader or the student or the
scientist, who is working on this relativity theory; attaches himself to this
third frame naturally. This universal frame may be moving or may be
stationary. It is considered to include whole universe. Whatever it may be,
accepting it in expressing relativity principles; understanding of the special
relativity or its perception becomes easier and clear. Whenever some one
thinks of relativity; he feels relativity to be some illusion; as if he goes into
trans state of mind by thinking of space is converted into time and vice vis.;
similarly mass is converted into space or mass is converted into energy. This
author’s perceptional study of the theory draws out the respective person
from all such illusions. Because, it has clearly put forth the basic laws of
nature due to which we see such illusive things and further it explains very
clearly how these illusive things are simple.

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Now, by using time relationship between the observers O and O’ we shall study a
third case of time dilation. See the figure [20] below.

The fig. [20] consists of conventional relativistic frames S and S’. Let an event,
say a burst of light be happen at point a’ and b’ at the instant of time t=t’=0. For
this statement to be true; firstly, the observer O’ have to be situated at mid-way
between points a’ and b’ and, the event sources a’ and b’ be attached to the frame
S’ of the observer O’.

Fig. [20]:

The statement that, ‘Let an event, say a burst of light be happen at point a’ and b’
at the instant of time t=t’=0.’ Inherently includes the following facts. The
statement is done by the reader i.e. by us attached to the universal frame using
assumed ‘infinite speed-signal-source. Therefore, if the observer O’ is on y-axis
as usual; he will not get the signals at a conman same instant of time. Signal of
event a’ will approach the observer O’ attached to the frame S’ first. Therefore,

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the events a’ and b’ will not be simultaneous to him. Secondly, the signal sources
of both the signals are to be attached to the frame S’. If not then, simultaneity of
events for observer O’ will be like the observer O finding the source attached to
another moving frame.

If the observer is on Y-axis, and the events a’, b’ are simultaneous to him; then, it
is the case explained above in respect of fig. [19] above.

Hence, let us start with the above assumptions that, the sources of events a’ and b’
are attached to the frame S’ and the observer is mid-way between points a’ and b’.

Observer O’ will receive the event a’ and b’ signals simultaneously at the instant
of time t’1. Thus, the observer O’ will perceive the events a’ and b’ simultaneous
at the instant of time t’1.

Observer O receives the event signal a’ at the instant of time t’2 and the event
signal b’ at the instant of time t’3. Thus, the event is not simultaneous to observer .

The co-ordinates x’1 and x’2 of the event-sources does not change .because, the
sources are attached i.e. mechanically fixed to the frame S’. The frame S’ is their
rest frame. But, the co-ordinates x1 and x2 change continuously instant to instant.
Therefore the relativistic time equation,

t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 },

gives the distances of event sources a’ and b’ from observer O at the instants
of receipt of the respective event signals by him; by substituting other
quantities in the above equation at those corresponding instants of time. Let
x1 be the distance of the nearest point a’ and, x2 the distance of the point b’
when the signals from those points are reached the observer O respectively.
Then, The equation,
[ t2 = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.[{ t2– vx1/ c2 }], gives x1, the distance of a’ from O at the
instant of time, when observer O receives the event signal a’ at instant t2.

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Similarly, the equation, [ t3 = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t3 – vx2/ c2 }, gives x2, the
distance of event-source b’ from observer O at the instant of receipt of the event-
signal b’. t’2, t’3 are judged by O at O’ in frame S’.

Thus, though the events at a’ and b’ points are simultaneous to observer O’

stationed mid-way between points a’ and b’ i.e. at the mid-point of sources a’ and
b’; they are not simultaneous to the observer O. He finds the event at nearer to
him point a’ have happened first and then that at point b’ in this case.

In the same manner one can find that, events simultaneous to observer O cannot
be simultaneous to observer O’. Similarly, Two events taking place at the same
point in frame S’ one after another will be observed by observer O those events
have taken place at two different points in his attached frame. Similar observation
will be sought by observer O’ for two events taking place at the same point one by
one in frame S. All above derived equations are based on perception of observers
O and O’ in their attached inertial frames S and S’. Thus it is clear that, the speed
of light; relative speed between two inertial frames and receipt of signals from
all points of an object by observer to visualize an event or an object are; the
nature’s basic rules causing the ‘simultaneity phenomena.

14. SCIENTIFIC AND MATHEMATICAL DERIVATIONS:-

Please refer and go through above two numbers of derivations of equation 16 &
17 again, in respect of length contraction. Second derivation is mathematical
derivation. Knowing basic formulae, facts are derived purely mathematically.
Facts are derived using mathematical rules only. The truth of resulting facts is not
realized. It is not perceived perfectly. Mathematical results are stated in words. It
is simple. Because, mathematics runs truly and correctly in itself. The author
calls it as a mathematical derivation. Only mathematics doesn’t work. Its true
perception is carry much more importance.

The first derivation, as the author calls is, the scientific derivation. It is arrived at,
by considering behavior of different factors involved in the process leading to the

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result. In this process mathematics works as a tool. Mathematics digs out nature’s
some truths; but, without scientific perception, one can’t reveal it.
Hence, scientific derivations give perception of facts; while, the mathematical
derivations may not give clearly the perception of facts. Thus for
innovational study purpose, they should be scientific derivations.

However, in one case mathematical derivations have super-hand over scientific

derivations. In search of someone fact mathematically; the mathematics
sometimes indicates some another truth which is not in our imagination; e.g.
while studying known elements mathematically; the then scientists got hints about
existence of some other elements not then found. The mathematics represented
them but, they were not known. After search for them they were also found
existing. In astronomy we see that, mathematics regarding the study of known
stars indicates presence of its satellites which are not yet found.

Hence, things should be verified both ways; mathematically as well scientifically

in above sense.

Time dilation is the conjugate result of length contraction as seen below.

Refer the equation [17] above,

t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 }

Put [x=0] in this equation. It means an event is taking place at O.

Then, the above equation becomes,

t’ = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t }
i.e. = t/(1  v2c2)1/2
or t = [(1  v2c2)1/2].t’ ………………………[25].
Meaning by t  t’. i.e.
t  t’……………………………………….(26)

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the above obtained statement [t  t’] clearly indicates that, the time period
between two events in space, measured in assumed stationary inertial frame S; is
smaller, than that is perceived in the other inertial frame S’ in relative motion ‘v’,
w.r.t. the first one i.e. S’. That means for the same process completed in frame S’,
the observer O’ attached to it; measures t’ seconds in his watch. But, observer O
attached to frame O, counts the completion period of the process as t seconds in
his watch. Both the watches are similar. Their one second time duration is also
perfectly equal in their rest frames as seen by the universal observer with its
infinite speed signaling system.

In any process the work involved is fixed. It needs definitely its own time. Hence,
the process completion period of t’ seconds as conveyed by observer O’ to
observer O, definitely must be correct.

But, the observer O’s watch is also running correctly; still the process completion
period conveyed by O’ is seen larger by O .

In the universe, one unique time is running with respect to us i.e. at sea-level of
our earth.(Please refer Appendix-5). Therefore, there is a specific one time period
for each and every happening and every process. Therefore, observer O’s time
period and the time period of observer O read by their clocks at their respective
places are the same.

Therefore, time period measured by t seconds by O and time period t’ measured

by O’ in seconds must be the same in their respective frames. But, one observer
reads from light signals, time period of other, to be larger than him by the factor
[1/(1  v2c2)1/2]. Hence, It thus happens that, when time period of one second of
observer O is less than the time period of one second of observer O’ who is
moving with speed ‘v’ w.r.t. observer O. or the time period of one second of O’ is
greater than the time period of one second of O.

This is the ‘time dilation’ phenomena. Time dilation is therefore, defined as; an
observer finds that, when a body is moving at some linear constant speed w.r.t.
him; the duration of the period of time-unit, in attached inertial frame of the
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object; becomes longer, and it increases as the relative motion of the object
w.r.t. the observer in a curvilinear proportion and vice vis.
This is also one point in relativity theory where the reader feels illusion and
forgets thinking upon. In fact it happens because of required communication time
period of information light signal and, the natural rule of perception that,
something is considered to have happened when, its information signal is received
by the observer.

Let us see and perceive that, how the time dilation phenomena work. For its clear
understanding let us take a numerical as below. Fig. [21].

Fig. [21].

An inertial frame S’ is moving away from another similar frame S in the direction
of x-x’ axes, at the linear motion ‘v’. An observer O is attached to the frame S and
is stationed at the origin of its attached frame. Similarly, an observer O’ is
attached to the frame S’ and is stationed at its origin. Each of these observer has
perfectly the similar watch such that, they will show same time microscopically
very correctly if, they were attached to the same frame and that, their mechanism
will not be affected during any accelerated motion so as to make them run either
faster or slower during the acceleration. This condition is imposed; because, both

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the watches are to be synchronized at some conman point in their linear
constant motion in space. Please refer ‘Airplane experiment’ in this book.
Let the relative speed between S and S’ frame be v = 0.6c and t = 4 sec. a time
period of some process completed in frame S’ then, substituting these values in
the equation [25] mentioned above, we get,

t = [(1  v2c2)1/2].t’
t’ = t/(1  v2c2)1/2
i.e. = 5 secs.

It means the observer O when counts 4 secs. in his watch; during the same period
of 4 secs; he finds that, during these 4 secs. the similar clock with the observer O’
attached to the frame S’ has counted 5 secs. He knows this information from the
time signals per second coming from O’. In reality, the clock with O’ in his frame
S’ has also clicked 4 secs only. The observer O’ has measured it in his attached
frame. But, due to the signal speed ‘c’ and the relative motion ‘v’ and that the
effect of ‘v’ on ‘c’ in signal-photon generation process; observer O in his attached
frame perceives those 4 secs. passed by O’; equal to 5 secs. It means for every one
second read by O’ in his clock; observer O reads a quarter and one sec. in his
clock and perceives that, O’ is sending signals after each quarter and one sec. as
shown in the fig. below.

For this purpose, O demands O’ to release light signal towards him, at every
second passed in his clock (O’-clock). At the instant of receipt of first 0th time
signal by the observer O in his attached frame S; he starts counting time of both of
these watches. The observer O counts his time by direct reading of his watch; and,
counts time of O’ from the light signals from O’. The observer O counts the time
of O’ at the instants of receipt of the signals from O’. And to his astonishment he,
the observer O, finds that, there were only 4 secs. passed by the clock attached to
the frame S’ where as his clock attached to his frame S has passed 5 secs. The
observer O’ releases light signal after every second read from his watch. But, due
to the relative motion between O and O’ there is certain delay in receipt of the
cumulative each signal. In above numerical one second periodic distance between

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cumulative signals at O’ count a quarter and one second periodic distance when
they reach observer O.

Thus, if that frame is a satellite and the observer O’ is an astronaut stationed in the
satellite; and that the observer O is a scientist stationed at observatory on earth;
then, the scientist finds that, for his every 5 secs passed, the astronaut is passing 4
secs. only. The astronaut is in relative motion w.r.t. to him and hence the
astronaut’s time period of 1 sec. has become longer than that of the scientist.
Lengthening of period of a sec. is ‘time dilution’ i.e. ‘time dilation’. Hence,
the scientist i.e. the observer O attached to frame S perceives that, time
running at objects in relative motion w.r.t. an observer is diluted.

In this discussion, we are considering the distance between O and O’ small by

substituting x=0 in the relativistic time equation; t={1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 }.
Substitution of x = 0 means that, observers O and O’ are coincided when
both of them receive the time signal. Further it represents the fact that
observer O is measuring the time period of a process which takes 4 secs in his
assumed stationary frame; how much time that process might take on a
moving object having relative speed of ‘v’ w.r.t. him.

Similarly, in case the source is attached to the frame S and, the observer O’ is
observing the facts from his space station; then, the observer O’ as the scientist
attached to frame S’, perceives the same fact as above that, the time running at
object in relative motion w.r.t. an observer assumed stationary is diluted and, the
length of the source-object along the relative motion is shortened by the factor (1
 v2c2)1/2. as mentioned above. Because, in reality as observer O’ is moving at
speed ‘v’ w.r.t. observer O; vise vis. The observer O is moving at speed ‘v’ w.r.t.
observer O’. Out of observers O and O’; who is absolutely stationary in the
universe; it cannot be decided. We have to assume some one stationary w.r.t.
another one for perceiving the world. Therefore, the word ‘velocity’ is not
conman in Special Relativity but, the word ‘speed’ for ‘linear constant
‘velocity’ is the conman word in the Special Relativity. The motion of object
accounted in relativistic transformations is either towards or away from the

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observer. For both of these motions there is not any difference in relativistic
derived results. Hence, in relativity for a motion, the word ‘speed’ is used.

Thus, the observations from both the frames by the observers attached to
their respective frames are quite similar to each other. Hence, actually the
dimensions of a moving object, with a linear speed w.r.t. an observer does not
change mechanically. If it were so, the results of both the frames would have
been different, leading to conclusion that, the length of a moving object w.r.t.
an observer; actually decreases by the factor (1  v2c2)1/2. But, when, if the
observations were taken from a third inertial frame S”, whose x” axis were
coincident to x-x’ axes and that, this third frame were moving with any linear
motion along x-x’-x” direction, different than the above motion ‘v’ then, the
mechanical length along the motion would have been still different; if it were
actually contraction of length; then it would have been really a magic. Because,
w.r.t. one observer the length of an object is mechanical something and w.r.t.
other observer it is different dimension mechanically. The relative speed of the
object with each different observer is different. Dimensions of images can differ
but actual dimensions i.e. the rest frame dimensions of same object does not
differ. A mechanical dimension is the dimension of an object in its rest frame that
can be measured by means of a measure scale; by applying it directly to the
object. That particular dimension is unique and is the same in reality in the
universe. Hence, in a motion, any dimension of a moving object at a linear speed
w.r.t. an observer, does not change mechanically in its rest frame. Similarly, all
watches in different inertial frames in relative motion with each other, count same
length of time period of a second as observed in their respective rest frames or
from the universal frame with the help of infinite speed signal source. Hence, it is
stated in the relativity principles that, all inertial frames are equal to each
other in all respect.

Therefore, the phenomena of space contraction and the time dilation does not exist
mechanically but, they are perceived through photonic signal means of observations.
It is due to, natural law of perception that, an observer can perceive or see an object
only if, the signals from every point of the object reach the observer’s eye or his
detecting instrument at the same instant of time. To satisfy this condition, signal from

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point b’ should be earlier so that it could accompany the signal from a’ as shown in any
relativistic figures above.

It is to be particularly noted that the length contraction phenomena is observed

only in the direction of the motion of the signal-source-object; w.r.t. the
observer. It is not seen at all in the direction perpendicular to the direction of
the motion of the source-object. Refer Fig. [22]. There is a vertical bar ‘vb’. It is
vertical to the x-axis of the frame S and, it is moving at speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the
observer O attached to the frame S, in the direction +x. During its this allotted
motion, the bar maintains its verticality w.r.t. the x-axis. The bar being vertical to
the x-axis and parallel to the y-axis which is the staying station of the observer S
and his detectors/sensors are laid along the y-axis; all the points of the bar are at
equal distances from the y-axis during the motion of the bar.

Fig. [22]:

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therefore, from the observer O also. The signal paths of the points of the bar
towards the observer O or the y-axis are equidistant from each other every where
during the travel of the bar. Therefore, the signals received at the same instant of
time by the observer O from the end-points u and b of the bar and the signals from
all in between points of the bar, will have traveled same distance from the bar to
the observer or his detectors along y-axis.

The signals may be or may not be, released simultaneously as seen by universal
observer from his attached universal frame; the image of the length ‘ub’ is of
equal length to ‘ub’. That distance between end points u and b of the bar when
measured by observer O, getting attached to the rest frame of length ‘ub’ is equal
to the mechanical length of the bar i.e. it will be the distance in the rest frame of
the bar. The signals for sensors need not be simultaneous. Because, every signal
will be parallel to x-axis and the distance between end points of the bar ‘ub’
parallel to y-axis, remain constant during the motion of the bar. Thus, there will
not relative motion between points u and b of the length ub while releasing their
signals. Therefore, the sensors at particular points only will sense the signals from
‘u’ and ‘b’ points irrespective of time and distance of the length from y-axis..
Obviously, the length ‘ub’ measured by light signaling is equal to its rest length.
Thus, the length contraction phenomena does not occur in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion.

The perusal through above figure, shows that, in any fashion of signaling,
irrespective of time and relative velocity, projection ûb̂ of the vertical length ‘ub’
on y-axis i.e. on observer O; gives, the rest length of ‘ub’; i.e. ûb̂ = ub. Because,
positions of u and b i.e. vertical distance between points u and b, in space, with
respect each other remain always constant during relative motion of ‘ub’ parallel
to y-axis and along the direction of vision of the observer. Also, on x-axis, the rest
length is measured by signals from u and b released as above by using space time
relations. It is also equal in both the frames; Observer’s frame S and S’ the
attached frame to length ‘ub’. In both the frames light signals travel at speed c in
the direction of y-axix or parallel to y-axis along the length ub.

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Thus, length contraction or space contraction is not seen at all in the
direction perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the source-object.

The signal ub released simultaneous w.r.t. ‘b’ also contains information of length
‘ub’.

15. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC LENGTH AND MECHANICAL LENGTH:-

After above discussion it seems that, the electro-magnetic and mechanical

measurements need to be defined. Therefore, they are defined as below.
Refer Fig. [23] below.

In the figure [23] below, a’b’ is moving length at speed ‘v’ along the direction +x
w.r.t. observer O. At instant of time t1, point b’ has released light signals. At
instant t2, and point a’ has released light signal; soon it received signal from b’.
The light signals travel with speed (c2 – v2)1/2, along the direction of motion of the
source and with speed ‘c’ along the direction perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the source i.e. the length a’b’.

To satisfy condition of simultaneity; point a’ releases the signal after receipt of

signal from b’. Meanwhile, a’ has traveled distance at speed v, during the time
period of travel of distance by the light signal, from b’ to a’. This thing shows to
the observer assumed stationary w.r.t. the moving length or the moving object;
that the length contraction or space contraction is seen in the direction of motion.
Contracted length is electro-magnetic length, as it is derived by light signals
generated electro-magnetically by its sources. In above figure length ‘ab’ is the
electro-magnetic length,

The length derived by electro-magnetic signals that of stationary bar w.r.t. the
observer; attached to the rest frame S’ of the object is a’b’ as shown in the above
figure. It is equal to mechanical length in its rest frame.

A length that can be measured by means of mechanical measuring gauze e.g.

a foot rule or that can be measured by survey is ‘mechanical length’.

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Fig. [23]:

A moving length that is measured by means of photon signaling method by

receiving signals from its two end points, such that, the observer could
receive both the signals at the same instant of time read in his watch; is the
‘electro-magnetic length’as defined by the author.

Still more broadly; measurements in its attached frame are mechanical

measurements and measurements carried out at other frame from observer’s
frame where, the other frame is in relative linear constant motion w.r.t. the
observer’s frame; are electro-magnetic measurements. Both type of
measurements of an object, mechanical as well as electromagnetic; are, equal
to each other, when taken in the rest frame or attached frame of the object.

The mechanical as well as electro-magnetic length measurement or space

measurement of an object along the vertical side of it, which is vertical to its
direction of motion, is same as explained in fig.22 above. Thus, a mechanical

114
length is the length in its rest frame measured directly and an electro-
magnetic length is its image of moving object obtained by light signaling.

16. EFFECT OF RELATIVE VELOCITY AND DISTANCE OF BODY

FROM OBSERVER
ON RED-SHIFT:-

Please note that following discussion involves measurement of a stellar body at

far distance from us, by us. The observer here is considered stationary. The stellar
body is assumed moving away from observer at constant linear speed 0.6c along
the line of vision of the observer. The observer analyses the light signals received
from the body after each second and finds out the distance of that body at that
every second. He is observer O assumed stationary attached to frame S.

Let us work on this concept and see the results if they can enlighten the observed
fact that the universe is expanding at accelerated speed.

At zeroth instant of time the observer have found the distance of the body equal to
say 10c. at the first second he caught the light signal from the body and found the
distance of the body from him at that instant of time as below. See fig. just below.

Observer received signal at instant t1 i.e. the first second rfead by observer from
his clock.

From above figure, the signal speed w.r.t. observer is ( c2 – v2 )1/2 i.e. = 0.8c
after substituting v = 0.6 in this expression. Therefore,

115
 t1 = ( 10c + 0.6ct1) / 0.8c. Because, we have seen that the signal received by
observer gives the source position in space at the instant of receipt of the signal.
Solving this equation for t1, we obtain t1 = 50 sec. the signal at speed ( c2 – v2 )1/2
i.e. = 0.8c w.r.t. the observer has travelled for 50 secs. resultantly from the
position A. Observer have received the signal at first second. The signal is
released before 50 secs of the instant of its receipt by the observer at his 1st second
of his clock. The signal velocity is 0.8c. therefore the distance of the body from
observer at his 1st instant is 50 secsX0.8c = 40c.

At the instant of 2nd second the observer analyses the signal recived from the
body. Within 1 second that has passed; the body has moved 0.6c farther. Please
see the fig. just below.

In above fig, t = t2 represents period of time required by the signal to travel from
source to the observer. Just after the 1st sec. the body was at the distance of 40c
from the observer. During time period t2 measured from release of signal from the
body to receipt of the signal by the observer, the body has travelled a further
distance of 0.6ct2. Hence, the distance of body from observer at 2nd instant is
(40c + 0.6ct2 ). The signal velocity w.r.t. observer O is ( c2 – v2 )1/2 = 0.8c as
above. Therefore, the time period of signal travel works out
t2 = (40c + 0.6ct2 ) / 0.8c equal to 200 secs. therefore the distance of the body at
the receipt of 2nd instant signal is 200 secsX 0.8c = 160c = OB

in the same fasion at 3rd instant the body is found at a distance of 640c and at 4th
intant it is at 2560c.

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Please note that instant to instant period of one second is maintained and the body
is moving with relative speed of 0.6c away from observer. Let us tabulate the
results and observe.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Instant distance at distance travelled acceleration increase in
Of signal the instant of during the second acceleration
receipt receipt of signal per sec. by
multiple of
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0th 10c _ _ --
st
1 40c 30c _ --
nd
2 160c 120c 90c --
rd
3 640c 480c 360c 4
th
4 2560c 1920c 1440c 4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thus from above table it is found that, though the body is moving at constant
linear speed w.r.t. the observer, away from observer, it is seen by the observer it is
moving at constantly increasing acceleration w.r.t. him due to relative speed v
between the observer O and the body; light speed c w.r.t. the body and that equal
to ( c2 – v2 )1/2 w.r.t. observer.

Hence, a new finding is noted here; that, the increasing acceleration of far
going stellar bodies found is not real. The stellar bodies are moving away
from us at a constant speed. Due to relativity phenomena the stellar bodies
are apparently seen to have increasing accelerated motion. The speed
acquired by stellar bodies is from the Big-Bang.

As per above tabulated calculations, the speed of the stellar body is increasing
with manifold acceleration. Therefore, observer experiences decrease in light
speed. It in turn exhibits decrease in light frequency and increase in wave length
of the light signal. This phenomenon is called ‘Red-Shift’.

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Please do peruse through above tabulation. It is seen that, continuously
increasing distance at a multiple increasing rate indicates relativistically
increasing relative velocity at multiple accelerated rate, results in
proportionate continuous increase in red shift. It gives falls indication of the
body being in accelerated motion at a constant value of acceleration.
To verify whether the stellar body has accelerated motion; below mentioned
experiment be performed.

Measure the speed of light coming from the object by creating its reflecting
source attached to the observer’s frame. Then the speed of the reflected light
will be ( c2 - v2 ) 1/2 . Measure it periodically suitably caring for our
experimental aim should not be affected adversely as has happened in
respect of ‘airplane experiment’ explained here later; to prove special
relativity principles. Peruse through the results. Calculate v by equating each
result value, to the expression ( c2 - v2 ) 1/2. If the velocity of the object is
accelerated velocity; then, the different calculated velocity values, when
arranged serially w.r.t the time of experiment performance; will be
increasing.

In Astro-Sciences, it is accepted that, the terrestrial objects are moving away in

space at accelerated speeds. In fact after the Big-Bang the material thrown out
from the Big-Bang and the objects formed their-from should have acquired
constant speeds as per the laws of motion. Therefore, the behavior of the
terrestrial bodies mentioned here is ambiguous in light of laws of motion. Hence,
this ambiguous behavior seen is due to relativity phenomena.

Effort is made to explain this trivial behavior of the bodies by the Black Matter
theory; that the black matter has anti-gravitational effect and therefore, it forces
the bodies constantly away and away giving accelerated velocities to the
terrestrial bodies. But, the anti-gravitational field ought to be of same strength all
around a body. Because, the universe is a sphere though an open sphere. But,
there is something around the expanding universe; because of which, no signal
can go out from the universe and no signal can enter from outside into this
universe. Therefore, it can be considered a closed sphere. And inside a sphere a

118
field strength must be same all over its inside as it happens in static electric field.
Gravitational field emerges out radially from its respective terrestrial body like
static electric field from its electric charge. Inside the sphere the gravitational
field is constant defined by G the universal gravitational constant. Therefore, the
Black-Matter does not accelerate the bodies. May there be some other property of
the Black Matter that could be a cause of accelerated speeds of the bodies. But, to
the best of knowledge of the author, his logic feels that; the terrestrial bodies
have their each one’s constant velocities. And observed acceleration is
apparent. That is due to the increasing distances of the terrestrial bodies
from us. As discussed above.

17. LOCATION OF THE SIGNAL SOURCE-OBJECT:-

An event-source fires a signal. Relativistic standard study frames S and S’ are the
attached frames of the observer O and the event-source respectively. [Fig. 18].

Let us repeat the equations (16) and (17) derived above.

x= {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ x – vt } --------------------------------------------------------(16)

t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 } ----------------------------------------------------(17)

For derivation of above equations (16) and (17) it was assumed that, the event has
taken place at the instant of coincidence of both the frames and that instant is
assumed as t=t’=0. See that the event has taken place when both the frames were
coincided in all respect. The event source is attached to the frame S’ as mentioned
above. To the best of author’s knowledge; the fact that, all experiments
performed till now to measure the speed of light prove actually that, the light
travels at ultimate speed ‘c’ w.r.t. its source and hence, w.r.t. its attached
frame S’ only. The source is moving with velocity ‘v’ w.r.t. observer O in x-x'
direction. Yet, observer O finds the velocity of light signal equal to ‘c’ w.r.t.
the source. But, when he perceives it, he finds that, the relative velocity v of
the source w.r.t. him is mounted on, light-velocity ‘c’ w.r.t. its source
relativistically. Therefore, he finds the velocity of light w.r.t. his frame equal

119
to ( c2 - v2 )1/2 as is seen above here in while studying ‘length contraction’,
‘time dilation’ and at other places.

The fact in above paragraph enables the observer O, to see the location of the
signal source as is where it is; at the instant of time of receipt of the signal by him;
The distance of the location of source as seen by observer O is obtained by
dividing the rest frame distance of source measured from observer O by
relativistic factor (1  v2c2)1/2 as is discussed above in length contraction
phenomena.
If we substitute, t=0, in equation (16) given above, the equation reduces to

x’={1(1v2c2)1/2}.x.---------------------------------(27)

The meaning of substituting t = 0 in the equation (16) is that, the observer O

is in the receipt of the event signal at the instant of the time t = t’ = 0. At this
instant both the frames are coincident with each other. Therefore, the event must
have taken place at the instant of time ( - t ) and that at ( - t’ ) for the
observer O’. Therefore, the above distances x’ and x are the distances
observed by the observers O and O’ when both of them are coincided. It
further means that, the distance x is the distance of the source measured by the
observer O with the help of the light signals coming from the source; and, the
distance x’ is the mechanical distance of the source measured in its attached frame
S’ from observer O; where in, the source is stationary w.r.t. the observer O’. But,
in this case, the observer O and O’ are coincided i.e. both are one and the same,
say it is only one observer O at this instant of time t = 0. The measurement of
x’ is to be done by O’ in his attached frame S’ where the source is stationary w.r.t.
him. But, here the distance x’ is obtained by the observer O perfectly correct as it
would have been measured by the observer O’. Hence, it is said that, the
distance of the source in its attached frame from its origin i.e. x’; is judged by
the observer O. but, in this case, both the observers being coincident with
each other, x’ represents the actual distance or the rest frame distance of the
signal source from the observer O when, the source is moving with linear
speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer O himself. Therefore, electro-magnetic distance

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x’ measured by observer O; when divided by the factor (1v2c2)1/2 gives the
rest frame distance.

From above equation (16), it is clear that, the location of the source-object as
noticed by the observer O by calculating its rest frame distance is, the place
of the object, where it is at the instant of receipt of the signal, by the observer
O himself. [Fig. 24] below. However, the location marked by the observer
suffer due to space contraction phenomena by the relativistic factor (1 
v2c2)1/2 as derived by Lorentzian transformations above. Re-arranging above
equation [16] for value of x w.r.t. x’ both measured from O-O’ coincided at the
instant of receipt of the signal as,

x = {(1v2c2)1/2}.x’ Thus it is seen that, the distance observed by observer O is

less than actual rest frame distance i.e. the mechanical distance.

While generating, relativistic equations, first mathematical expressions we write

are,

x – ct = 0, or x = ct and x’ – ct’ = 0, or x’ = ct’.

Please notice the fact that, these equations are written, when the event signal is
receipted by observer O’ at t’ and observer O at t. In their similar clocks. While
deriving these equations the signal position is at their respective observers and the
event source position is at that place in space where it should be with its relative
motion w.r.t. O. The position of the source is fixed at the point x’ = ct’ in its
attached frame to which observer O’ is attached. Therefore, the relation x’ = ct’
remains true always for any instant of time though the frame S’ may be or may
not be in relative motion w.r.t. other frames in the universe. In the equation x = ct,
which is dependent on relative speed v between O and O’ because x and t
parameters in these equations change continuously due to relative motion between
observer O and the signal source attached to the moving frame S’.

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Thus, the construction of the basic equation on which the building of relativity is
standing includes inherently the fact that, an observer finds the source position in
space as it is there at the instant of receipt of its signal by the source. In the
equation x = ct for observer O; t is the instant of time when the observer received
the event-signal and x is the distance of the event-source when the observer
received the signal of the event which has happened at the instant of time
t = t’ = 0.
If some one says that, no! the position of event-source shown by the signal is the
position when the source released the signal. It means the source is assumed
attached to frame S instead of S’. But, in derivations of Lorentzian relativistic
transformations, this condition is also accommodated. Thus at last the received
signal by an observer gives the position of the event-source at the instant of
receipt of the signal by the observer.

Further the birth of relativity is to know the real position and real condition
of stellar bodies which are in relative motion with us. Therefore, it is
necessary to consider the rest frame of a stellar body in relative motion with
us from which we as an observer O take the observations of the moving
stellar body; and relate those observations with the rest frame of the body. So
that we can know real facts of the body.

The relativity has succeeded in finding the real position of stellar body i.e. its
rest position at the present instant of observation but, it can not still give
present state of the stellar body. For the light photons released by the body
contain information of the state of the body when the signal is released by the
body in space.

Therefore, electromagnetic field-lines vibrating from source emanating in

space may prove very helpful. These lines can transfer information almost
immediately even from bodies thousands of light years away from us. Please
go through the experiment performed by author mentioned under the
heading, “32. Verification of speed of E. M. wave propagation below micro-
waves.”

122
It needs mainly two experiments to be carried out. One is “18. The state of
signal source” to detect photon field. And the second is, “Measurement of
speed of electro-magnetic field below microwaves including micro-waves,” to
confirm the results of above experiment at article 32. These experiments
require very sophisticated instruments.

The position of signal source at the instant of receipt of the signal by observer is
actual position of the source in space as calculated by observer O assumed
stationary, is better understood mathematically with the help of the fig, [24]
below.

Fig. [24]:

123
Thus, in the above figure,[24], x’ = b and x = d. After solving these
equations for x and x’ values, x works out to, x = k, where k = d. (1  v2c2)1/2 .

Therefore, the position of the signal-source object is not at the point where it
has released the signal; but, it is the respective point at which the image of
the object is actually present. The actual position of the object is a bit ahead
at d = k/ (1  v2c2)1/2 It is not at A where the source released the signal.
Comparison between the Sound Source Position and the E.M. Signal Source
Position; at the Instant of Receipt of Each Signal by the Observer:-

At the instant of the receipt of the sound signal by the observer; sound source
position in case of moving source of it; is found, at the place in space where,
the source of sound, generated the sound signal, in the medium of sound air
; but, in e.m. photon signaling i.e. light signaling method of observations, the
position of the e.m. photon signal source, is found at the place where, it is
present, at the instant of time of the receipt of the signal by, the observer i.e.
observer O. See the Fig. [25] below.

But, on the basis of sound-source position; there is every possibility that, the
position of light source is assumed at the place where the signal was generated by
the source, at the instant of time, when the observer O receives the signal. But, it
is not the fact. The fact is as mentioned in above paragraph and is explained
below.

Please refer the [Fig. 25] (i) . In the Fig. a supersonic jet has generated sound in
air say, at the instant of time t1 and at the position A in the air-space. The observer
O, at far on the ground, hears that sound at the instant say t2 . But, at the instant t2
the supersonic jet is far away at position B as shown in [Fig. 25](ii). The air
medium of sound is attached to the inertial frame S of the observer O and is
stationary w.r.t. the observer O. therefore, the sound generated by the jet at the
point A creates a secondary source of sound at point A and, the sound travels
from the point A to the point of observer O where, he is stationed. Hence, the
observer hears the jet sound coming from point A; where as he observes the jet at
the point position B as mentioned above when he hears the jet sound from place
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A. Sound is transmitted through a medium at speed dependent on the physical
properties of the medium, by means of propagation of sound-waves through the
medium at speed dependent on the physical properties of the medium. The sound
vibrates the air-mass particles and travels through by conduction method.
Therefore, the observer does not find the jet at position, where from the sound is
coming; but, the jet is found much ahead.

Fig. [25]:

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But, an E.M. signal either in wave mode or photon mode does not require a
medium. In wave mode the E.M. signal is transmitted by E.M. field lines like
absolutely rigid steel bars; emanating from the source and encountering the
receiver to deliver the information immediately. Very truly, the receiver i.e. the
observer finds the position of the source as it is at the instant of the receipt of the
signal by the observer, as is discussed later over here. In case of the photon mode,
the situation is conventional. In E.M. photon signaling, or the light signaling, the
observer finds the position of the source of the signal, not at the point where, the
source has released the signal; but, at that point where, the source is present at the
instant of the receipt of the signal by the observer. However, the position of the
E.M. signal-source w.r.t. the observer, is lagging to actual, by the factor, (1 
v2c2)1/2. Therefore, the source is seen a bit nearer than its actual position.
The reason for this phenomena lies in (1) The signal photons are imparted
the speed of the jet in relativistic manner. (2) There is no medium that can
generate waves in space due to impact of the signal-photons. The photons
themselves have to travel at speed ‘c’ and jet speed simultaneously, not as
their resultant but, the signal photon have to follow each of these two speeds
independently or separately. That is the reason the light-photon signal
indicates the signal-source position at which it is actually present at the
instant of receipt of the signal by the observer. (subjected to length
contraction relativistic effect).

In above figure (iii), the jet at position ‘A’, releases a light signal say at the instant
of time t1. The light has ultimate speed ‘c’ in all directions in space, and the jet is
moving at constant linear speed ‘v’ in +x direction. Therefore, the jet velocity i.e.
the source of light signal is moving with velocity ‘v’ with respect to the observer
in +x direction. Therefore, ‘v’ gets added to ‘c’ in relativistic manner as studied
w.r.t. the figures 1 and 2. Therefore, as a light photon travels at speed ‘c’ in space;
it continuously shifts in the direction of motion of the jet the source; as is shown
in the above fig.(iii). The result is that, when the observer receives the signal the
jet reaches at point B in its path. And, the observer sees it at point B’ near to point
B; because of relativistic phenomena described with the help of fig.[1] and [2] at
start.
126
18. SATELLITE REMOTE CONTROL:-

The assumption that, the position of an object, here a satellite, at the receipt of
signal from it is; at the point from where it released the signal; must be revised for
shortening the satellite travel to its destination and for correct landing at pre-
planned place. The right concept is, the position of the satellite at the instant of
receipt of signal by the observer from it, is at the point where, it is at that instant.
Please refer Fig. [25](v):

In the figure [25] (v), the observer sends a signal at instant of time t=0. The
satellite is moving at constant linear speed ‘v’ in free space. The moving satellite,
receives that signal at the instant of time t1. The signal has travelled at speed ‘c’
w.r.t. the observer as the source and arrived the satellite at instant t1. Therefore at
instant t1, the satellite is at straight distance of c.Δt1 from the observer. Soon the
signal reaches the satellite; it is reflected back, towards the observer at the same
instant t1. The reflected signal is received back by the observer at the instant of
time t2. At signal speed ‘c’ w.r.t. the satellite. The satellite velocity ‘v’ is ridded
upon the signal speed ‘c’ in the reflected signal. The reflected signal reaches the
observer at instant of time t2. During the period (t2-t1), the satellite travels a
distance (t2 - t1).v = v.Δt2 further to distance c.Δt1. The reflected signal has
travelled at speed c w.r.t. the satellite and has arrived at observer at instant t2.
Thus, when the observer received the reflected signal from the satellite, the
satellite is at a distance of c.Δt2. With the help this information, we construct two
below mentioned equations.

ĉ.Δt2 = ĉ.Δt1 + v̂.Δt2 ……………(vector addition)

(ĉ – v̂).Δt2 – ĉ.Δt1 = 0 and,
Δt1 + Δt2 = K i.e. Δt2 + Δt1 = K

Solving these two equations to find out time span Δt2. We get

Δt2 = ĉ.K/( 2ĉ – v̂ ).

127
Therefore, the distance of the satellite from the observer, at the instant of time t2,
is,
ĉ.Δt2 = c2.K/( 2ĉ – v̂ ).
Soon path correction suitable signal is sent to the satellite, manipulating its
distance at the instant of receipt of this correction signal by the satellite as below.

Assume that, the correction signal will be received by the satellite at instant of
time t3. The time period required to the correction signal to travel from observer
to the satellite is
(t3-t2) = Δt3
During the period Δt3, the satellite travels a distance v.Δt3.

Thus, the distance of the satellite from the observer when its correction signal will be
received by the satellite will be, c.Δt3 = [c2.K/ ( 2ĉ – v̂ )] + v̂.Δt3.

Collecting Δt3 terms, we get the value of

Δt3 = [c2.K/ ( 2ĉ – v̂ ).(ĉ – v̂ )].

Hence, the distance at which the satellite receives the control signal is equal to,

ĉ.Δt3 = [ĉ3. ( Δt1 + Δt2)]/[(2ĉ – v̂).(ĉ – v̂)].

The distance thus found by the observer assumed stationary is apparent distance.
Because it is the distance of moving body and is electromagnetic, not mechanical.
It is the distance of a moving body measured by an assumed stationary observer
w.r.t. the moving body. Therefore the actual i.e. the rest frame distance of the
body is obtained by dividing above apparent distance by relativistic factor
(1v2c2)1/2 . Then the above equation becomes;

c.Δt3 = [c4. ( Δt1 + Δt2)]/[(2c – v).(c – v)(c2 – v2)1/2]……(28)

It is now a numerical relation. Thus, with the help of this distance and known
distance of the satellite; the observer gives correct turning signal to turn the
128
satellite by angle Φ to the direction of motion of the satellite. Use of this relation
will shorten the path of travel of our satellite launching vehicle thereby saving
valuable fuel as well as time. Will increase reliability of the vehicle monitoring
and as well the satellite monitoring systems. With increase in satellite speed and
the launching vehicle speed; the benefit of this equation will increase.

Fig. [25].(v):

129
Fig. [25](vi):

Assuming the satellite at position R when it released or reflected its position

signal; and if the observer gives correction signal to turn the satellite by an angle
say, θ then as per relativistic rule the signal will be received by the satellite at the
same distance as calculated above as c.Δt3. Please refer equation 28 above. It
would lead the satellite away from the target. And therefore, on this criteria basis
the correction signals would have to be given very often till the landing of satellite
on the targeted stellar body like mars, Neptune etc. Instead, if it is granted that,
the satellite is at position S at the instant of receipt of reflected signal; then it will
be at position U when it will receive the signal as previous; then the signal will
correctly lead the satellite to its destination as shown in the fig, [25](vi) above.

The miss-landing of satellites till date, mostly may be not following above
mentioned criteria; that, ‘the receipt of signal from a moving object gives its
position in space at the instant of receipt of the signal from the object and not
at the instant when the signal is released from the object.

17. CREATION AND PERSISTENCE OF VISION:- Please see the [Fig. 26],
below.

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Fig. [26]:

Suppose, a signal from an object moving in line of vision of an observer, arrived

to the observer at the instant of time t1, and that time the object is at point A in
space; but, the observer see it a bit nearer at B due to relativity principles. There it
is taken for granted that, the observer develops the image of the object
instantaneously immediately. While deriving the relativistic formulae for t, t’, x,
x’. This consideration is inherently involved in the relativistic mathematics. After
receipt of the signal from the object, the observer creates its image. It requires a
minimal time period say, t. Then after only, the observer realizes the image and
there from he realizes the respective object. The time period t naturally differs
from observer to observer. The author names this phenomena as creation of
vision (in short c.v.). This c.v. affects the resolution power of an observer. For
better and better resolution power of an observer its c.v. time period should
be minimum possible. Thus due to the effect of c.v. the observer creates the
image in its instrument at the instant of time t2 = (t1 + t). Still the observer sees
the object at point B only because, the information with the signal shows that
position. However, this c.v. introduces an error in calculating the rest position of
the object in space at the instant of receipt of the signal from it by relativistic
formulae. Because, the relativistic formulae will give the rest position of the
object at A; but, actually it will be farther than that at A. The reason for that is,

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during the c.v. time period, the object would have traveled further distance equal
to v.t and the object will be at point say D. Further it can be easily understood
that for clear vision of the object; the time period of change of state of object, be
greater than its c.v. for clear image.

Similarly, the persistence of vision phenomena also affects the perception of a

moving object. In respect of human eye the time of perception of vision is 0.1
second. During this period thousands of images of an object, moving nearer to
light-speed; pass across human eye. Therefore, an observer as a human being will
not be able to see the clear image of the object due to the persistence of vision.
The persistence of vision-time of a photo-sensitive instrument machine is very
small up to a fraction of nanosecond in very sophisticated instruments. And its
above c.v. is also very very small approaching to zero. Therefore, such a photo
recording machine is an eye of the scientists. The persistence of vision (say p.v.)
affects adversely on resolution. Smaller persistence gives better resolution. For
the best resolution above mentioned c.v. and p.v. both should be the smallest.

Due to c.v. and persistence of vision described above; a person sees faster and
faster moving objects getting lengthened due to persistence of vision and fainted
due to c. v.

20. THE STATE OF SIGNAL SOURCE:-

It is very illusive subject-matter. Therefore, it is discussed once more as below.

The signal quality and its strength released by the source, depends upon the
physical state of the source. Once the light photonic signal is released, it travels
undisturbed in free space, at the ultimate speed ‘c’ preserving its characteristics.
Because, it has momentum property of material and hence obeys Newton’s laws
of motion. An observer though finds, actual location of the source or the object; as
it is; but, he cannot know the present state of the object; because, as said here
above, the signal indicates the state of that object as it is at the instant of time, the
signal is released. Therefore, the observer can know the state of the source-object;
at the instant of time of the release of that signal. Thus, when an observer derives
about some terrestrial body, by studying the light signals coming from it that, the

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body is say five thousand light years away from him; he cannot predict its present
condition; instead he can predict its state five thousand light years back. Perhaps
that terrestrial body might have been not in existence at present. This fact comes
out from relativistic logic.

To verify above fact one below described experiment may be performed.

A LED light source with a suitable convex lens is required having two intensities
of light low and high well differentiable. A suitable photo-sensor and a timer are
also required with facilities as indicated in the figure [27] below.

Fig. [27]:

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The timer is set so that, its timer should start counting time when, the high source
of light is activated and will stop when the high light is receipted by the photo-
sensor. Record the time period as ‘t’.

The time delays of ‘high light circuit, and the photo-sensor circuit should be
known, they should be checked and accounted for, in the calculations.

The aim of this experiment is to confirm whether photon field modifies all
photons in travel along their paths; to the changed state of its source; here in
this experiment it is from high light to low light when the high light has not
reached the photo sensor but it is at mid-way.

In case soon the high light is on; the sensor at a distance also sense it’ and gives
signal to timer. The timer starts recording time period. The high light beam travels
towards photo-sensor. When the high light beam is in between say half way in
between the source of light and the photo-sensor toggle light from high to low.
Then the low light beam follows the high light beam.

The high beam will reach the sensor first and then the low beam. Soon the high
beam reaches the sensor the timer will stop. Then, time period recorded by timer,
will be equal to [ c/l ], where c is the velocity of light and l is the distance between
light source and the photo sensor.

But, if there is a photon field like electric field; soon the light beam is toggled
from high to low when the high beam is in midway between the light source and
the sensor; the high beam ahead of the low beam will also change into low beam.
The timer will not become off in this situation. The timer range obviously should
be sufficiently greater than [ l/c ] which is the time period required to travel the
light from source to sensor.

Then, it will be proved that, whether there is photon field associated with
light which continuously modifies the light signals travelling in space
maintaining them with afresh information of its respective source. Thus, one
can confirm; whether the observer; knowing ‘the position of a moving body’

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at linear constant speed w.r.t. him; at the instant of receipt of its signal; could
also know the respective state of the body or not.

21. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND RELATIVITY:-

Newton believed in absolute space. But, a motion cannot be charted through this
absolute space without any reference, which we assume stationary a stationary
frame w.r.t. the moving object of whose motion, we want to detect. The absolute
space frame cannot be detected. Hence, Newton wrote that, instead of absolute
spaces and motions we use relative ones.

Inspite of Newton’s above opinion, while studying relativity, with the help of
any two inertial frames; we inherently assume ourselves in a third frame.
From this assumed third frame we judge the findings of observers attached
to those respective frames. The author has called it as universal frame and
has also stated that, it may also be in a state of motion. In the universal frame
all the frames inertial as well as accelerated frames are included.

There is the statement w.r.t. Newton written above that, the absolute space cannot
be detected. Really, it is quite true. The author adds to that statement and rewrites,
the absolute space cannot be detected because, it cannot be mathematically
expressed. But, when one studies relativity principles or analyses some data in
respect of the relativity principles; he assumes himself in a third frame the
universe itself which is absolutely stationary in his imagination; puts the observer
as O in assumed stationary frame S. As the universal frame is assumed stationary
by that oneself automatically the attached frame S of the observer O is assumed to
have attached to that universal frame. The body is moving with relative speed ‘v’
w.r.t. observer. The x and x’ axes of the frames S and S’ are coincident with each
other. All these three frames are inertial frames. Thus, though, the absolute space
frame cannot be detected; it cannot be avoided. After all, w.r.t. absolute space
frame only we are assuming one inertial frame S a stationary frame and the other
S’ to be in relative motion w.r.t. to the stationary one. Inherently we attach
ourselves to the universal inertial frame, while studying relativity.

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Absolute motion cannot be detected. Any object present in space cannot be said
by itself; whether, it is in motion or not in free space; but, w.r.t. some another
object one can definitely decide whether that first object is stationary or moving
w.r.t. the second object and vice vis. But, absolutely who is stationary can not at
all be decided.

Though the absolute motion cannot be detected, the change in motion is detected
in the absolute space frame of its own. The cause of this phenomena is well
explained here by the author, in the article ‘airplane experiment’ performed to
prove the special relativity principles.

When a body of mass say ‘m’ is moving with a velocity ‘v’ in the rest frame of
the observer; then it is having kinetic energy equal to (½).mv2 and corresponding
to it; the body has capacity to create a force to maintain its state of motion at
velocity ‘v’; when, it will be obstructed by something to change its motion. That
quantity is called, momentum of that body. And it is given by the dot product of
the scalar quantity, here ‘mass’ and the vector; the velocity of that mass; here in
this case ‘v’ the velocity of the mass ‘m’ w.r.t. the observer. Here the momentum
is equal to ‘m.v’. let this mass ‘m’ hit another stationary mass ‘m1 ’ in the
observer’s attached frame; then, the mass ‘m1 ’ receives momentum from the mass
‘m’ and picks up speed from nil to v1, till the mass ‘m’ remain in pressed contact
with it i.e. with mass ‘m1 ’ during a time period say t. Resultantly, the speed of
mass ‘m’ decreases from v to say v’ thereby decreasing its momentum to mv’
and increasing the momentum of mass ‘m1 ’ from nil to ‘m1.v1’ such that,

m.v̂ – m.v̂’ = m1.v̂1 i.e. m.v̂ = m1.v̂1. -------------------(29)

This process of transfer of momentum from ‘m’ to ‘m1 ’ continues till the velocity
of both becomes equal provided no other disturbance appear. This is applicable
where ‘mv’ is moderate in comparison to m1.

As above change has taken place during the time period t; then the rate of
change of momentum i.e. the force works out to,

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 F = m.v/t = m1.v1/t = m.a = m1.a1 ----------------------(30)

Because, .v/t is acceleration denoted by ‘a’. Here in this relation ‘a’ is the
retardation i.e. negative acceleration of mass m and ‘a1’ is the acceleration of
mass m1.

In case the quantity ‘mv’ is larger or smaller; then the process of momentum
transfer takes place in the form of impulse. The mass possessing momentum ‘mv’
hits the mass m1 and transfer its momentum in part or in full or even nil. It is
another subject matter.

This is as per the law of nature that, energy doesn’t get destroyed to nil; not
even to an incremental part of it; instead it is either transmitted to another
agency or converted into suitable another form of energy.
Thus, Newtonian mechanics spoke of conservation of momentum. Momentum
in the universe remains constant. A very true and very interesting statement.
For;

Consider, someone object to be stationary in the universe. Better choose

someone to himself stationary. Calculate momentum of all bodies small ones,
big ones, even free particles present in the universe. Remember momentum is
a vector quantity. Therefore, the additions be done as per vector
mathematics. Then, the total momentum of the universe will work out to
ZERO.
.
22. FILM EXPERIMENT:-

In respect of Newtonian mechanics, there is not any upper limit to the velocity
principally. An object can be given any speed ‘v’ by imparting it kinetic energy
‘K’ required, by doing equivalent equal corresponding work on the body; so that,
v = ( 2K/m)1/2 . But, it does not happen. It is proved by the filmed experiment for
making direct measurements of the time of flight of the electrons traveling
through a linear accelerator. In the experiment; with the help of Van de Graff
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pressure tank motor, the electrons are given energy from 100 eV to 15 MeV. The
results of the ultimate speed experiment thus performed are plotted in the Fig.
[28].

It is seen that, the electrons do not gain speed, though they are supplied a
calculated energy after 0.5 MeV. At 9 MeV they achieve speed very near to 3x
108 m/sec and at 15 MeV the speed achieved is 3x108 m/sec maximum. Then
after, there is no rise in speed. Therefore, a question arises, whether electrons are
infact given energy calculated from the value of q.V. where q is electrons’ charge
flowing per second and V is the applied voltage across its path of flow. In this
experiment, this question is answered by direct calorimetric measurement of
energy of electrons; and there is no doubt about it; the energy is there, though it
has not appeared as kinetic energy as a whole. Mechanical calculations show that,
for 0.5 MeV energy imparted to electrons should give a speed of 5.2x108 m/sec.
but this does not happen as the ultimate speed experiment shows.
[Fig. 28]:

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Here in this process special attention is invited towards the fact that, for transfer
of energy mechanically from one mass to another; it can be transferred only
if, both masses are in mechanical contact with each other.

The energy receiver object and the energy donor source-object should be
attached to the same inertial frame.

23. ULTIMATE SPEED OF MASS:-

The speed of donor should be tending to be greater than the receiver; and the
donor should deliver energy continuously incrementally; then, only it can remain
in physical contact with the receiver. But, as per Relativity Principles; nothing can
move at speed greater than the ultimate speed. Therefore, though the donor has
abundant energy with it; it cannot give it to the receiver object. Both the objects,
the donor and the receiver then travel at speed ‘c’ coupled to each other. If it is
obstructed by sufficient inertial mass to stop its motion; then the energy receiver
object in motion, being ahead will experience deceleration. As per natural law of
inertia, the receiver will expend its kinetic energy in a bulk. At each instant small
loss of energy of the receiver; the coupled source provides the receiver energy.
Thus, all the energy of the receiver and the coupled source is exhausted. It is
converted to other forms most probably into heat. This is purely a mechanical
energy case where in, energy is imparted to the receiver object to increase its
speed beyond ‘c’ but, it does not happen and the energy is transferred into other
form like work and via work into heat. Work appears when its source face
opposition.

In case of above photo-film experiment; the moving electron have imparted

electric energy by the electric source by means of electric field. The time to
time strengthened field, to increase the moving electron velocity; is not
limited by ‘c’ the forcing field to icrease electron speed can be increased still
after electron achieve velocity c. Therefore, the electric field imparts higher
and higher electric energy to the electron in motion. But, at ultimate speed; a
slight change in velocity generates opposing equal magnetic field force.
Therefore, a charge cannot be speeded up more than ‘c’ in its source’s attached

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frame. Then, the increased balance energy directly meets the photo-screen
through electric field and gets converted to heat via electric power; giving us the
sensation of increase of mass of electron.

24. ULTIMATE SPEED OF ELECTRON:-

In the above described Film Experiment, the stream of electrons is being

given energy to speed up the electrons by increasing electric field. The
electron speed responded though decreasingly, to the increase of electric field
till it achieves ultimate speed. Then after it forces the electrons against the
obstruction by imparting them energy, as the energy with electrons goes on
expending.

Here the energy imparting agency is not some mass, but it is electric field. The
mode of energy transfer is also different from that in Film Experiment above. The
electric field provides gradient to electrons along which they flow. It is not
that, field particles or field strings push the electrons. The field is an electric
voltage gradient for the electrons. The electrons itself is the source of electric
field. An electric field to flowing electrons is provided, by stored electrons at the
electric pole of the source. When there are equal number of positive electric
charges (positrons) and negative electric charges (electrons) in respective bunches
apart from each other; then, in between them concentrated electric field appears.
Electrons flow from negative charge-pole to positive charge-pole; because,
similar fields repel and opposite fields attract each other. Similar attract and
opposite repel is one of the basic law of universe

It is mentioned in this writings that, energy fluid material is not having any
electric property. They are the electric basic particles, that give electric
characteristic to the energy fluid material bunches making them electrons.
There must be basic particle giving electrical property to energy quanta as
an electron. Then, as per nature’s basic law that, each one entity of any form in
nature has its conjugate dual of properties opposite to it; absentee of electron is
positron. Dual of electric field is magnetic field this is also one of the basic
property of the universe. Therefore, there must be dual of energy packet-a

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non energy packet. The material universe posses concentrated energy collected
from the universe. Therefore, there must be non energy volumes existing in the
universe. Whether the Black-Holes are they!

An electron has its electric field. In electric field region between electric opposite
poles +ve and –ve ones; when an electron enters; its field, experiences repulsion
from –ve pole. The electron receives therefore, repulsive force from the electric
field, from negative pole towards positive pole along the electric field. As the
speed of electron approaches near and near the ultimate speed; the energy-
accepting capacity of the electrons goes on reducing. Because as electron
speed increases; more incremental change in the electric field is required.
Because, as speed increases the inertia of the moving body increases or to be
more correct; it exhibits more inertia. The higher incremental electric field
change causes high rate of change in magnetic field trying to maintain the
existing state of motion of the electron; opposing strongly to the electric field
trying to increase the motion of the electrons. This reflects in the form of
increase in inertia of the electron. Therefore, the energy transfer goes on
becoming more and more difficult then. But, when the energy with the electron
starts exhausting in overcoming the end obstruction in electron accelerator; then,
the obstruction being strong enough the electron cannot face it; then the enriched
field provides energy to it. The magnetic field changes due to reducing velocity of
electron; opposes the speed reduction, and helps the electron to maintain its speed
or to conserve its energy, by collecting it from the electric field. Thus, the energy
given to electron at its speed ‘c’ though cannot increase its speed; yet, it
continuously fulfills the deficiency of energy developed in electron; due to,
consumption of energy of electron in overcoming the end obstruction. In this
experiment each electron moving in electric field is a photon. But, these photons
are not traveling free in free space mechanically; instead, they are traveling along
electric field continuously being tried by the field to increase their velocity.
During this process they are not pushed by any other matter but, they are speeding
up of their own by repulsing similar field through which they are traveling. A
field does not transfer or transmit energy. It is transferred by the energy
quantas which are influenced by their corresponding fields. By the second
way, they themselves intensify the electric field so that in front electrons

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experience a repulsive force and get speeded up. Such particles have similar
field individually. Thus, electric energy is transferred by electrons. Not only
this; but, similar particles accumulated in constrained domain; form a pole
from which respective field emanates. For energy transfer by electric field;
the source has to move itself perpendicular to its developed field path. A field
provides a link for energy transfer. Electric field does not flow. If it were so;
an electrical capacitor would not have come to existence. However, for
establishing a field some energy is expended in accumulating the opposite
charges at their respective poles +ve and –ve ones.

Newton’s laws of motion are observed in nature in relativistic physics also.

Because, they are formulated purely logically by observing the behavior of the
nature. The relativistic forces follow Neutron’s laws of motions simultaneously
maintaining and obeying their relativistic principles.

As per the Newton’s laws; the orbital electrons maintain their circular
motion around their nucleus continuously for millions of years. The orbitals
maintain their state of motion till they are acted upon by external suitable
and sufficiently strong forces.

As per Newton’s law, for every action there is reaction. Accordingly to a

mechanical motion friction provides equal and opposite reaction. In relativity,
light signal generating orbitals’ motion is opposed by electro-magnetic induction.
The orbiting electrons at about velocity ‘c’, constitute current flow along their
path. An electric current is always accompanied by electro-magnetic field,
encircling the current path. This magnetic field opposes the motion of the orbital
electrons. It develops work. This work is transferred to another comparatively low
energy orbital. This phenomenon is continuously taking place inside an atom like
passive energy in a pure capacitor or pure inductor. There is internal transfer of
energy inside an atom. Therefore, orbitals interchange their energy levels
continuously, not allowing atomic energy to let out. At the same time, they do not
accept external energy easily, if tried to inject it into them. They just expel out it
in the form of heat or light energy depending upon the strength of that external
energy. Atomic internal strong forces just reflect out moderate quantities of

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external energies in the form of heat or light photons. If an orbital accepts outside
energy; the total charge of an orbital increases the electric quantity on the charge.
Therefore, the orbital gets excited. Its centrifugal action increases. Its tendency to
get free from the orbit increases. But, the naturally assimilated external energy
being moderate and atomic internal forces being sufficiently strong; the extra
energy is ejected out from the orbital and it becomes stable.

Work is defined as when a force is moved through a distance work is done by

the force. This definition lacks one fact. Force does not do work without
opposition to it. Hence, work is defined as when a force moves against
opposition; then it does work. Energy is expended in work. It is recouped by
the source of the force.

But, in respect of an orbital electron moving with linear constant speed c is

forced to revolve around nucleus of the atom. During its revolution it tries to
fall into nucleus due to electric force between the nucleus and the electron
intending to do work. But internal outward force like centrifugal force does
not allow it to do that work. Hence it remains rotating around nucleus
balanced by inward and outward forces.

In radiation when an energy store moves it can radiate energy. But though
the orbital electron move at speed c it does not radiate energy in a stable
atom. It senses that when orbital electron is moving with such a high speed
nearing c it must be radiating energy in space. But it doesn’t do so. How it
happens. It is explained by Scrodinger’s wave equation

Thus Newton’s laws remain true at every velocity in relativity. We have seen
just now that at ultimate speed also they hold good. For at that speed the
electro-magnetic-field-response to incremental speed-change also, becomes so
strong that, any action to change the speed beyond ‘c’ is responded by equal
and opposite reaction by the induced magnetic field.

In mechanics as speed increases friction increases. A stage do come when though

it is tried to increase the speed for incremental speed increase also; the friction

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increases so much so that the speed does not increase. Because, at higher and
higher speeds the friction increase exponentially upwards so that speed increase
becomes impossible. Further input energy to increase the speed starts deforming
the friction surfaces and thereby reducing the speed. Every where the nature has
imposed respective limits. Those limits put the universe running. Similarly,
when an electron is tried to accelerate, to increase its speed beyond ‘c’ the
opposing electro-magnetic field increases tremendously so that, the electron
cannot get even incremental speed greater than ‘c’ in the attached frame of its
source. If the source’s attached frame is also given velocity already moving with
velocity comparable to ‘c’ w.r.t. observer; then, the observer would obviously
feel that, the electron is moving at speed greater than ‘c’ and from the universal
frame we also feel the same; but, no one can perceive that speed. Because, as per
nature’s basic rule, nothing can perceive speeds greater than ‘c’ though, they may
be existing. However, indirectly the projections of such object may be taken by an
observer in his rest frame by means of light signals fired vertical to the direction
of motion of the electron. Because, perception of speed by an observer is by
means of electrons in the observer’s eye-sight or that in his instrument. Therefore,
an electron in a perceiving instrument cannot be speeded up beyond ‘c’.
Therefore, though the signal may have well sufficient energy to impart the
perceiving electron speed much greater than ‘c’; it can’t do so. Instead of
increasing the electron speed beyond ‘c’ it does harm to the host atom of that
electron.

When the speed of mechanical mass is tried to increase beyond ‘c’at acceleration
nearing ‘c’; its orbital electrons, revolutions around their nuclei are affected.
Because, the orbital electrons’ linear speed in their respective orbits is equal or
nearer to ‘c’. Therefore, external force to increase its speed beyond ‘c’ in a stroke;
will destroy the orbital revolutions of the orbital electrons. There by the atoms of
the mechanical mass will be disintegrated into basic particles; which are, unable
to get speeded up in their host’s frame. On the other hand if the body is speeded
up at small incremental speeds in steps; then it may be speeded up up to c but, no
beyond c.
25. THE SPEED OF THE SIGNAL IN DIFFERENT FRAMES:-

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In the inertial frame attached to the signal-source; the speed of the light signal
cannot be greater than ‘c’ as seen in above discussions. If the attached frame is
having velocity relative to the observer, then the observer obviously feels the
object velocity greater than ‘c’ but he cannot perceive it. Because of electro-
magnetic properties the light sensing electron can respond up to velocity ‘c’.
Hence, though the signal-source is moving at velocity greater than ‘c’; the
observer notices, its velocity ‘c’ only w.r.t. the source and (c2  v2)1/2 w.r.t. his
own attached frame S. [Fig. 29] when, the velocity of the source reaches to such a
magnitude that the signal frequency drops down below infra red frequency; then,
the observer will become unable to detect the signal and the source of the signal.
When the source will be traveling at speed ‘c’ or greater than that, whatever
length of the source in the direction of motion be; it will be infinitesimally
small for the observer O. then at that stage the source-object will be an
energy photon for the observer O. In such case the length of the object will
tend to zero and the object will appear if it can be seen, as a thin plate
perpendicular to its direction of motion.
Fig. [29].( i ):

As shown in above figure, [29](i); an event takes place. During the event, an
orbital electron jumps from point ‘A’ in higher energy orbit to, point B in lower

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energy orbit, in an atom, the event is attached to inertial frame S’. The frame S’ is
moving at constant linear speed ‘v’ w.r.t. another inertial frame S. The event has
taken place at instant of time (t = t’ = 0). Both the frames were coincident with
each other at that zeroth instant. The signal being considered a light signal travels
at speed ‘c’ w.r.t. its source. But, due to relative speed between the frames S and
S’; the observers attached to respective frames O and O’ will be receiving the
same signal in different forms as shown above.

As the source of signal is attached to frame S’; observer O’ will see the motion of
orbital electron from point A to point B. It creates a signal of peak value p’ and
wave length ʎ’. The charge has moved from A to B; i.e. from higher energy level
to lower energy level with speed ‘c’. Therefore, it has released extra energy
photon. The signal photon in wave form has therefore, linear speed equal to ‘c’.

The observer O attached to frame S; finds the charge motion, from point A to B’
at perceivable limit speed ‘c’. But, the signal is same for O and O’. therefore, O
perceives charge movement from A to B’ at speed (c2  v2)1/2. Therefore, O
finds signal speed w.r.t. him (c2  v2)1/2. See the next figure. [29](ii); below.

In fig. [29](ii), the event-signal reaches observer O’ at instant of time t’. Observer
O’ has got information from space, by the signal that, an event, a burst of light has
taken place in space at instant t’ and at distance ( x’ = ct’) from him. ʎ’ is the
wave length of the signal and p’ is its peak value.

In the figure, the signal w.r.t. observers O and O’ are shown.

The signal travels towards observer O and the frame S’ travels away from frame S
with relative speed v.
After some time at instant t as seen by observer O; the signal reaches observer O
at the instant of time t. Observer O gathers information from the signal as given in
the figure, [29] (iii),

146
Fig. [29](ii):

Fig. [29](iii):

Observer O receives the signal at instant of time t as read in his watch. He finds
the below information from the signal.

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The event has taken place now at the instant t. Observer O’ watch is reading now
event happening time t’ different from t. t’ in seconds is smaller than t in seconds.
O thinks event has taken place at t = t’ =0 when both O and O’ were at the same
spot in space as informed by observer attached to universal frame with infinite
speed information signal. It is repeated again that, to start deriving relativistic
relations; every one starts assuming that an event has taken place inspace at
instant of time t = t’= 0 when both the frames are coincided with each other.
How one knows that! It is seen that at zeroth instant both things; that,
coincidence of frames S and S’ and the knowing of the happening of the event
at zeroth instant can not be seen either by observer O or O’ because of relatitive
motion between them . Then how one can assume at the coincidence the event
has happened at zeroth instant. It is only possible when one assumes the
universe as a whole; third inertial frame attached himself assuming it
stationary inherently. Then he assumes out of S and S’ frames; One stationary
frame i.e. the frame attached to himself or to the universal frame. Therefore, O
further concludes that, the watch of O’ is running slower than him that is, the unit
time period of watch of O’ is longer than that of his watch. The signal velocity is
( c2 - v2 ) 1/2 w.r.t. himself. The wave length of signal is longer than that reported
by O’ and the peak value of the signal is smaller than that reported by O’.

Due to above differences, O observes ‘length contraction’ and ‘time dilation’ in

his frame in respect of the event whose source is in relative motion w.r.t. himself.
Due to dilation of time because of the motion of the source, the time flows rapidly
in his frame S and slowly in attached frame of source; as he see. Again the
criteria of perception is repeated by author here that, both the watches of O and
O’ are similar; they are clicking same period of time between each consecutive
second. But, due to relative motion between observer O and signal-source,
observer O receives the consecutive clicks of seconds at longer time duration
between them as read by his watch. Since beginning to till present, in the
universe, any event is taken to have occurred at the instant of time when me the
observer receive its light signal. In scientific observations also it is followed.
Then after where ever necessary; the relativistic results are derived.

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When the observer tries to confirm his findings with the universal observer; he
replies back that, the signal wave length and its peak values are always same,
irrespective of the observers in relative motion between themselves. O has,
his above observations different from that of observer O’ due to following
reasons; says the universal observer.

( i ) The relative velocity v between O and O’ rides in relativistic way on the

signal velocity ‘c’ w.r.t. its source. Therefore, observer in relative motion
with the source receives the signal at velocity ( c2 - v2 ) 1/2 w.r.t. himself.

(ii) Since old age, it has been conman practice, to consider some event to have
happened in space at that instant of time; when the event signal reaches
an observer. Even in the earlier times of Newton; this belief was existed.
At present also, observations are taken and recorded on this basis;
because, the scientific theorems discovered involve this conception. Facts
need to be revised on the basis of Relativity Principles.
(iii) ‘c’ is not a universal constant. Speeds greater than ‘c’ can be existing
definitely. By different observers in relative motion with each other, ‘c’
the speed of light varies. From perception point of view; ‘c’ is not the
ultimate speed in the universe; but, it is the limit of perception imposed
by nature. Light photon is released by orbital electron of atom. Orbital
electron speed is limited to ‘c’ because of permittivity and permeability of
space. Hence, light photon speed doesn’t exceed ‘c’ w.r.t. its source atom.

26. RELATIVITY OF ENERGY:-

It will be observed that same source-radiation energy quantity received by an

observer is different; such that, when the source is going away with linear speed
‘v’ from observer the rate of energy receipt is smaller than that, when the source
is approaching the observer at the same relative speed ‘v’ w.r.t. the observer.

Because, in 1900, Max Plank put forth the ‘quantum theory’ of light. He used
there the formula for energy of a radiation. That is,

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 E = n.h. where, n is an integer number 1, 2, 3,…….
h is Plank’s constant and its value is, h =
6.525 x 10-34 J-s.
 is the frequency of radiation c/s…...(31)

When, a light source is moving away from the observer; the observer receives
lower frequency and, when that source moves towards the observer, the observer
receives higher frequencies. Therefore, an observer receives more energy when a
source is coming towards him than he receives it when the source is going away
from him at the same relative speed w.r.t. him and under the same condition of
excitation of the source. Because, the energy content of a radiation is directly
proportional to its frequency. And, the energy contained in one cycle of any
radiation is equal to h the Plank’s constant h. Because,
Energy of a photon,
E = hν
Hence, h = E/ν J/(c/s)………..(a)
= E/ν J.s/c …………(b)

In above equation (a), h is expressed in joules per number of cycles per second. If
we take ν = 50 c/s and substitute in above relation (a); then we get,

h = E joules/50cycles = E joules per cycle.

And, E50 = hν = 50h
If the radiation frequency is some another say 100 c/s =2X50 c/s
Then, E100 = hν = hX100 = 2hX50.
If we take ν = 1, then E1 = hν = h.
Then, energy of 50 c/s radiation is E50 = 50h = 50E1 and so on.
Does one cycle contains same energy for all radiations! It does not. Energy
contained in one cycle of different radiations vary in integer multiple of h. it is
the basic natural fact proved experimentally. Hence, h is unique energy packet. It
is basic photon. Hence, the general energy relation of a photon is

E= nhν joules.
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Thus, as per analysis above, this photon relation informs us that,

1. For practical purposes, energy contained in radiation continuous

similar waves radiated in one second is taken. It is considered as one
photon .

2. h is Plank’s constant. It represents one energy packet of one radiation

wave spread over time period of one second. It is the smallest energy
bundle that can exist with mass properties also attached to it.

3. In one cycle of radiation, one energy packets h is present.

4. The unit of h is joules-sec/cycle. Joules per cycle term in this unit is

easy to understand. h contains fixed quantity of energy equal to
6.62X10-34 joules. Nor a fraction of that energy can be radiated not it
can exist. In different radiation frequencies one cycle contains one
such packet of energy. Thus, units of h are J per cycle per sec. [J/(c/s)]
meaningfully i.e.= J.s/c conveniently i.e. further equal to only J.s
practically. Because, energy h is of minimum energy of one cycle of a
smallest photon has become a general fact. In expression of units of h
as J.s the time unit involved is the period of time required to pass or
cross a point in space. That will be fraction of a second. That fraction
is considered as unit time. Energy of different radiations is measured
on the basis of emitted energy in joules in one second or integer
multiple of one second for different frequencies.

5. The number n in photon energy formula represents integer number of

packets of hν. Thus, radiation energy increases with frequency in direct
proportion. As h is constant equal to energy of frequency one cycle per
second it is the value of constant h.
See figure [30] below.

In the figure, [30] below, objects A and B start moving at linear constant speeds
numerically equal to each other; opposite to each other; from ‘zero’ destination
line; A, away from observer O and B towards the observer. On x-axis, the figures

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1,2, 3…represent distance travelled by the objects in distance-units, and the same
figures also represent the time in time-units.

A and B use same type of light for signaling. Both release signal photons per unit
time, in the direction of observer. Both are moving with the same unit speed
opposite to each other. The first signal photon-pulse is released by both the
sources at 0th instant. Both the photon-pulses travel towards observer O, at same
speed (c2  v2)1/2 w.r.t. the observer. [refer figs. 1 and 2].

Both the objects are releasing signal pulses at per unit time passed. As per
relativity principles space-time frames of both the objects are similar. But they
have equal and opposite relative velocity between them. Now we shall study, the
receipt of signal by the observer and the position of each object w.r.t. the
observer. Observer is assumed stationary attached to his frame S.

When the observer receive the first signal-photon, the object moving away, has
moved five and half length units from zero destination line and is eleven and half
Fig. [30](i):

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length units from the observer. It has taken eleven and half time units to receive
the signal after the source released it. The distance of A as calculated here now
and time period of receipt of the signal from A by the observer at speed of signal
(c2  v2)1/2 are such commensurate with each other; that, the position of an object
in space; at the receipt of its signal is its position in space as seen by the observer
O. To find out its rest position divide it by ( 1 – v2/c2 )1/2

Similarly object B releases its first signal-photon at destination 0 point and travel
towards observer O at the same relative motion w.r.t. observer as A; but, towards
observer. The observer receives the signal at three time-units from B. when he
calculates the distance of observer from him at the receipt of first signal photon
from the object; he comes to know that the object is only three length-units from
him.

But, the present scientific thought is that, when we receive a signal from a stellar
body which is say some 12 light years away from us as seen from its now

153
receipted signal; and it is moving at say one tenth of light year speed away from
us then as per present concepts in science, the body will be assumed at 10.8 light
years away from us i.e. nearer than actual. This difference will definitely affect on
other scientific observations of the stellar body.

Therefore, means shall be developed, based on detection of electric and/or

magnetic field of far stellar bodies so that the information can be had at
infinitely high speeds. Because as author has found them establishing them
their vibrating field lines; vibrations generated at source immediately repeated
at receiver.
Fig. [30](ii):

Light is emitted or reflected from every point on surface of the body in all
possible directions. Infinite light ray combinations formed from those rays

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produce infinite number of images in space all around and up to infinite distances.
In above figure one such combination is shown. The combinations are made by
light photon paths they are going to obey during their travel at velocity at c w.r.t.
source body. An array of photons is continuously released for each combination
of image in space. Along with photon array the images travel. When an image
coincides the probable image place in photon acceptor instrument; observer see
the body at the place in space where the body is present at that instant nearer by a
small relativistic difference as shown in the figure.

Thus, above fig. [30] gives visualization of signal wave length elongation when
source is going away from observer, signal wave length contraction when source
is coming towards observer and source position when its signal is received by
observer.

27. AIRPLANE EXPERIMENT:-

They have performed an experiment to prove Einstein’s Special Relativity as

below.

At the observatory on the earth i.e. our inertial frame S, which is assumed
stationary; they have arranged a high speed airplane. They have arranged two
perfectly similar atomic watches. Both the watches were synchronized by the
observer O i.e. the scientist, at the observatory on the earth. Then, one watch was
installed in the airplane and the other at the observatory. The shifting of watch
was done so slowly and smoothly that, any of these two watches could not
experience an acceleration so as to disturb their timing-mechanism. Thus, both the
watches at the airplane start-instant read the same instant of time. The airplane
picked up its maximum speed and flew continuously in the sky at constant height
and speed changing its direction from see-level maintaining its maximum speed
constant but, changing its direction to remain in its allotted area in the sky. It flew
for many hours to suffice the relativistic time dilation calculations at its relatively
much smaller speed than ‘c’ and then, returned back; landed at the observatory
back. Soon both the watches that, one installed in the airplane and the other at the

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observatory; were read, at the instant when the airplane stopped on ground. They
found that, the watch in airplane read time less in comparison to the watch at
the observatory as below.

Let to be the conman instant of time read by both watches starting airplane run for
take-off. t be the instant of time read by the observer at laboratory on ground in
his watch at the instant when airplane landed and stopped on ground. t’p be the
instant of time read by the pilot in his watch when the plane landed on ground
and stopped its motion to rest. Time period spent by pilot in motion is
(tp’- to ) = ’. Corresponding time period spent sitting at laboratory by
observer at rest is (t - to) = . they found that, moving frame-air plane time
period ’ is greater than stationary frame laboratory at ground-time period
. They calculated value of relativistic factor (1  v2c2)1/2 where v is velocity of
the plane which was maintained constant. They also accounted the total
running of the plane as x. By substituting value of ’ for t and value of  for t
in Lorentzian transformation

t’ = (t – vx/c2). / (1  v2c2)1/2.

They have compared the both sides of equation and found them about equal to
each other; satisfying themselves that, relativistic time dilation is proved.

See that, here ’ is the time period passed in frame S’ (here in the plane) judged
by observer O with the help of Lorentzian transformation and  is its
experimentally verified quantity as above.

But, as per the author, it is not correct. Because, the airplane is not inertial
frame; instead it is accelerated frame. The plane suffered accelerations during
take-off and the speed pick-up from zero speed to its maximum; during its plying
at its maximum constant speed it suffered from gravity for maintaining its
constant height from see level and also during turns in the sky See figure, [31]
below.

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Fig.; [31]:

The atomic clocks work on orbital’s revolution period. An orbital revolution

period is very sharply remaining constant. Time periods less than nano second can
be measured by a sophisticated atomic watch. But, when an atomic watch is
accelerated, it slows down proportionately. The above airplane experiment is
one of the experimental proofs for this fact.

The gravity also affects the atomic clock working. Higher gravity makes
atomic clock slower. Hence, only in gravitational forces view-point, the atomic
clock of ground stationed observer runs slower than the airplane clock. Therefore,
gravity compensates up to certain extent the slow down effect of the airplane
clock due to other forces acting upon it.

Because, when an atomic clock is put at a hill top or at the top of a high
tower and another on ground; then, the ground atomic clock run slower than
the clock at top. Because, the earth’s gravitational force at ground is greater
than that at top of hill or a tower. Gravity accelerates the orbital electron in
its direction thus lengthening the periphery of orbit of the electron. Hence, an
atomic clock working varies as per gravitational force. Similarly in airplane
experiment above, the takeoff and landing and turning during flight involve
accelerations. That affects the clock in the plane and gives wrong result in
respect of special relativity.

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28. AN ATOMIC WATCH IN AN ACCELERATED FRAME:-

Let there be two frames S and S’ whose, x-x’ axis are coincident and will remain
in coincident. The frame S represents an observatory on the earth and the frame S’
represents the airplane. Both the frames are coincident with each other and there
is no relative motion between the two. There are two perfectly similar in all
respect, two numbers of atomic watches, duly synchronized at ground at the same
spot. Out of these two watches, one is attached to frame S and other is attached to
frame S’. The conman instant of time shown by both the watches is noted down
when the airplane starts its run. The plane is accelerating to pick up its flying
speed. Let us see now what happens with the orbital of the atomic clock attached
to the plane.
Until the airplane (frame S’) is stationed at the observatory without any motion it
is attached to stationary plane S, as if the inertial frames S and S’ are coincided.
Thus at the starting instant only, there is violation of ‘special relativity
principle’. In special relativity inertial frame S’ coincides the inertial frame
S, while it is already in constant linear motion ‘v’ along x-x’ direction. Their
watches are synchronized when the origins O and O’ of respective frames S and
S’ are coincided with each other. In the watch attached to airplane; an orbital
electron ‘e’, in its rest frame, will move say, from A to B position in its orbit
during a time period say t. But, during the take off of the plane, the plane (frame
S’) and therefore, the orbital of, the atomic watch fixed into the airplane; is
subjected to an acceleration. Let us assume that acceleration of airplane is a
constant acceleration.

As the airplane starts its linear accelerated motion for take-off, the nucleus of the
monitoring atom of the atomic clock also is subjected to that acceleration;
because, it is attached to the frame S’ i.e. the airplane. But, the orbital electrons of
this atom cannot do so; because, they are fixed to their nucleus by internal atomic
forces the orbital electrons are bound with their nucleus by electric field. Due to
their orbital motions they remain revolving continuous around their nucleus at
linear peripheral speed nearing c. an electron is store of energy but having its
angular momentum corresponding to its orbit number in an atom. As it it field
bound with nucleus; its binding with nucleus is rather loose. Therefore, as its

158
nucleus is accelerated during take off of the plane, the electrons lags to pick up
the acceleration. Let us tack now about any one outermost electron. It obeys laws
of motion. Because, due to its momentum it is having mass property. The plane
acceleration acts on it through the nucleus. Therefore the speed due to
acceleration adds to its orbital speed nearing c. Hence its path of revolution
increases in its host’s rest frame. Therefore, during its take-off, the orbital
electron move from A to B’ as shown in the fig, [32] below. Under constant linear
motion the orbital electron would have moved from A to C in its normal orbit
under constant linear motion of its host nucleus attached to the plane. In relativity
a velocity added to c reduces its magnitude below c because velocity greater than
c can not be perceived by observer. It is the experimental fact that when it is tried
to increase electron velocity beyond c; the energy fed to the electron increases the
momentum of the electron. Thus it increases its mass property. Therefore its
speed slow down. It becomes equal to ( c2 – v2 )1/2 where, v = at’ the velocity due
to acceleration. t’ is the time period passed during travel of the electron from A to
B’
In the diagram, the triangle AB’B can be considered a right angle triangle. In the
triangle; AB is proportional to c. And BB’ is proportional to velocity v=at’
Therefore,
AB’is proportional to ( c2- v2 )1/2

Thus, due to the acceleration for take-off of the airplane; the orbital electron speed
in atomic watch is reduced from ‘c’ to ( c2- v2 )1/2, where ‘v’ is the final velocity
achieved by the airplane after a acceleration.

Hence, the orbital electron takes longer time period to complete its each
revolution during the accelerated motion in its mother-rest-frame. The time period
of revolution of the orbital is the standard unit of an atomic clock. Therefore, an
accelerated atomic clock shows greater than actual standard time period of a
second.

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Fig. [32]:

Thus it is a different case from special relativity. Compare this figure with figs. 1
& 2 and realize how a linear constant motion and an accelerated motion of
nucleus of the orbiting electron, affect the orbiting electron. In linear constant
motion the electron orbit is maintained the same in its nucleus’ rest frame; where
as it is not maintained in accelerated motion of the nucleus. In accelerated motion
of the nucleus; the orbit of orbital electron becomes elongated and the orbital path
linear length in respect of the electron, becomes longer as shown in the figure [32]
below. Therefore, the time period of revolution of the orbital electron is
lengthened. Hence the airplane clock actually slows down in its attached frame. In
special relativity such thing doesn’t happen. Moving observer’s watch is not seen
slowing down in his rest frame.

160
It is the assumed stationary observer who reads moving observer’s time period by
means of received time signals per second from moving observer and checking
that time period with own clock at his observatory. Actually it is intended to
follow this principle of special relativity in the airplane experiment. But, as shown
above it is not like that. Thus, this experimental base is totally wrong. Therefore it
does not prove special relativity principles. Be careful to read this statement.
Special relativity is quite true but, the airplane experiment performed to prove
special relativity principles is basically wrong.

Let, ’t’ be the standard time period of unit of time i.e. a second. The scientist’s
watch i.e. the atomic watch of the observer O is not subjected to the acceleration.
Therefore, it is running as per the standard. Its monitoring atom’s orbital has
standard speed ‘c’ and standard peripheral distance. But, the accelerated atomic
clock’s; monitoring atom’s orbital; has reduced speed equal to ( c2- v2 )1/2 as seen
by the observer O’ (the pilot) himself, to whose frame the concerned watch is
attached. Such thing, doesn’t happen in special relativity. In special relativity all
inertial frames are equal. Therefore, in that case the moving frame will not have
accelerated velocity; instead the moving frame will be having always constant
velocity since before synchronizing of its clock with the clock of the frame
assumed stationary. let t represent unit-time duration of atomic clock of observer
O considered stationary and t’ represent unit-time duration of atomic clock
subjected to acceleration; then t and t’ will be related with each other by the
below given equation.

t’ = [1/( c2- v2 )1/2]. [t – vx/c2].

Assuming x=0 as x is very very small w.r.t. c; so also v is; hence, this equation
reduces to t’ = [1/( c2- v2 )1/2].t
Though the equation is the same to that of Lorentzian transformation in respect of
time dilation in special relativity; here it is not explaining time dilation
phenomena of special relativity. In special relativity, observer O finds that, the
clock of O’ is running slow and observer O’ finds that the clock of O is running
slow. Actually both the clocks run similar showing the same time in their attached
frames respectively. In this case above relation gives actual lengthening of time
duration in its accelerated rest frame itself only. Please see, fig. [33] below.

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 Fig. [33]:

In special relativity it is not actual lengthening of time duration; but, it is just like
a refraction phenomena in light. Actually, it is happening due to information
signal traveling at speed ‘c’ w.r.t. its source, which is in the relative motion w.r.t.
the observer O assumed stationary. In special relativity observer O finds that the
clock of O’ does not fall back actually; but he has found, it had happened because,
of time periods required to receive the time telling signals. O’ does not found any
time duration change in unit of time in his watch. But, here in the accelerated
frame, the time duration of the unit of time itself has changed. It is lengthened.
This all is observed by O’. If the airplane-pilot were to send time signals to
stationary observer O second to second; then, observer O would have found
as given by the relation, t’ = [1/( c2- v2 )1/2].[1/( c2- v2 )1/2].t = [1/( c2- v2 )].t
many fold time dilation as compared to that in special relativity.

Hence, in the above performed airplane experiment; though the observed and
calculated results are seen to have tallied; it cannot be considered a proof for
Einstein’s Special Relativity for reasons mentioned above and abstracted below.

1. The airplane does not represent inertial frame. Instead, it represents

accelerated frame subject to General Relativity. The plane is subjected to

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 acceleration during its take off and to retardation during its landing. Also,
during flying, it has taken number of turns; therefore, it is subjected
number of times during its experimental flight; to centrifugal force and
respective accelerations.

2. The observer O the scientist stationed at observatory on earth; has not

judged the time in the airplane i.e. in the frame S’, time to time during its
motion. He has read the time passed shown by the clock in the airplane
mechanically at the instant of time, when the plane came back and rested
by the observatory. Even then if both the watches have read same time,
then it would have been the proof for special relativity principle.

In fact we cannot know events at far stellar bodies directly, mechanically

or actually seeing them there. Hence, we have to use signaling method to
collect information of far stellar bodies. In signaling method due to
perception limits imposed by nature, speed of signal under different
conditions of motion of the body; the information sought off from far
stellar bodies, may differ from actual. Special Relativity aims hence,
to study these things, and find out actual facts. The use of lorentzian
transformations gives actual facts; they give rest frame facts
regarding the time and volume of events happening there..

3. As seen above the same equation; t’ = [1/( c2- v2 )1/2].[t – vx/c2] has
different meanings in special relativity and in accelerated velocity.

In special relativity theory , ‘t’ is the time read by observer O, assumed

stationary, on his watch, corresponding to time informing signals from O’.
Thus, when O’ informs that, (say) 5(t’) seconds have passed after
synchronization of their clocks; at the instant of receipt of that signal O
reads in his watch time period greater than 5 seconds say 7 seconds. It
happens because of time required by the signal to travel from its source to
the observer O; and the natural perception law that an event is assumed to
have happened by an observer; when, he receives the event signal.

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Suppose, two number of bursts have occurred on a stellar body far
away from us. Let the time duration between them be t’ seconds. The
stellar body is moving away from us at constant linear velocity v. Due
to this relative velocity of the stellar body w.r.t. us, and the speed of
light signal, we notice those bursts after respective sufficient time to
have happened at time duration t between them. Knowing the
distance of the body each instant of time then by using Lorentzian
transformations we find the rest frame time of both events and the
period between the both bursts.

Take well into understanding here that, at the instant of clock

synchronization, the frame S’ was not coincided at rest with the frame S
assumed stationary. But, it was moving at its relative speed v and has
passed so closely that observers O and O’ both stationed at origins of their
respective frames have communicated their timings as if hand to hand.
Therefore, in the original equation;
t’ = [1/( c2- v2 )1/2].(t – vx/ c2); x=0 at the instant of coincidence.

Therefore, there is a constant difference between t and t’. Neglecting the

difference between t and t’ as it is existed according to the relation t’ =
t.[1/( c2- v2 )1/2], both the observers synchronize their watches when both
of them coincide with each other, such that t=t’=0. But, as the frame S’
goes away and away from frame S; the difference between t and t’ go on
increasing due to increasing value of x. The relativistic effect becomes
more and more prominent. In this relation one have to be more careful for
the value of x. the value of x in this relation is the linear distance travelled
by the object, or the signal-source or the observer O’; at constant linear
speed v w.r.t. the observer O.

The interesting thing in synchronizing of clocks is that, inspite of constant

difference of times between O and O’ equal to t’= t.[1/( c2- v2 )1/2], both
the observers have synchronized their clocks to zero second. Thereby they
have nullified this inherent difference of time assuming t = t’ = 0.

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After then all the factors in the above equation play their role in special
relativity.

In his explanation the present author is considering distances x in the

relativistic relations small in comparison to stellar object’s distances and
therefore in the time relation he has neglected the term vx/ c2 for ease of
discussion. The term when used in the relativistic time relation; is
required to be understood properly. Measurements of v and x are done
by the main observer O or O’. We are following O to be as main
observer, since beginning; since deriving the relativistic relations.

In both the relativistic equations;

x= {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ x – vt }……………………(32)

t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 }………………..(33)

The magnitudes of v and x are opposite to each other by sign. Because, v

the relative velocity of O’ w.r.t. O; that we are assuming along +x
direction. Hence, magnitude of v is positive. This is very easy to accept.
Regarding x the distance of the source of signal from observer O; we
are not measuring from observer to the source; but, it is measured
from source to the observer with help of signal coming from source
towards observer in –x direction. Therefore, the value of x in above
both the equations is minus (-) numerical value. Observations are
w.r.t. main observer O. with respect observer O we have to consider the
results.

Therefore, we write the relativistic equations for observer O

x = (1  v2c2)1/2(x’+ vt’) and t = (1  v2c2)1/2(t’+vx’/c2)

The author experienced that; they consider relativistic Lorentzian

transformations, as scalar quantity equations. But, they are not

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 scalar; instead, they are vector equations. One evidence of they being
vector equations is that, they are applicable to motions in a specific
direction, i.e. the direction, along the sight of vision of the observer. In
other than sight of vision direction if someone attached to the observer’s
frame tries to measure the source distance in other direction; he has to
take the component of observer’s vision of sight distance; along that
direction of his will, and then apply relativistic formulae to that distance.

In respect of accelerated velocity, the meanings of v and x are

different than from above. There in accelerated velocity; the
meaning of v is the total change in velocity in magnitude as well as
in direction in each instance and x is the distance travelled during
such each change. In the airplane experiment performed; all types
of such accelerated velocities are bound to have experienced by the
airplane. Summations of such time periods in total compel the
airplane watch to lag behind. Therefore, the airplane watch showed
time saturation w.r.t. stationed observer’s watch or the stationed
observer’s (observer O), watch showed time dilation w.r.t the
airplane-observer. It doesn’t prove time dilation indicated by special
relativity. In this case both the frames are not similar to each other.
Because, S’ is accelerated frame.

Therefore, above airplane experiment cannot be the proof for Special

Relativity theory.

For the special relativity proof the above same experiment may be performed by
applying relativistic modifications to above experimental set-up suitably required,
as per special relativity as mentioned below.

29. EXPERIMENT TO PROVE SPECIAL RELATIVITY

PRINCIPLES:-

We must be well aware about the following facts while working with relativity.
Because, the meanings of the terms are also with relative to each other. Therefore,

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there is every chance of reversal of the meanings of the terms or reversal of there
sense, wrong perception etc.
1. All lengths, time durations, mass etc. is same when it is observed in any
inertial frame as their attached frame. All inertial frames are similar.
2. An inertial frame is assumed attached to an object. all objects have inertial
frame attached to it.
3. All relative frames are in relative motion w.r.t. each other.
4. The mass, space, time behavior in an accelerated frame differ that from
inertial frame.
5. All measurements are with reference to observer. Observer’s inertial frame
is assumed stationary,
6. For measurements attached to a moving frame, they are taken with the
help of light or light signals.
7. Due to speed of light signal and relative velocity between relative frames;
observer receive apparent information which is something different than
actual. Therefore, to derive the true facts, relativistic mathematical
relations are developed with help of an imaginary observer O’ attached to
moving frame.
8. Relativity is mainly useful in astro-sciences to collect information of
stellar bodies at a distance and to know real facts with moving bodies
around us at speeds nearing c.
9. All measurements are taken by main observer. Therefore meanings of
terms in relativity should be borne in mind w.r.t. the observer i.e. main
observer sited as O. Meanings of below given terms is important.
a. Length [ l’]:- it is dimension of a object or a body; moving away from or
towards the observer along its line of vision, with constant linear speed v.
This is true dimension of the body. it is the actual dimension. The observer
can not measure it. Because the body is in motion and the observer is
stationary at far away distance from the body.
b. Time [ t’ ]:- all clocks in their inertial frames are similar. They all tick
same period of time between unit time i.e. one second. t’ represents the
instant of time of an event happened at the moving body. it also represents
period of time between two events at the body. observer can not directly
see or measure the both actually. He measure it apparently with the help of
light signals coming from the body.

Thus, [ l’ ] is the true length and [ t’ ] is apparent instant of time or the

apparent time period between two events at the moving body in space.

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 c. Time [ t ]:- It is the actual instant of time read by or actual time period run
at moving body, measured by the observer assumed stationary as per the
context.
d. Length [ l ]:- It is apparent length of moving object measured by observer
with the help of light signal

Thus, [ l ] is the apparent length and [ t ] is the true instant of time or

the time period in observer’s (assumed) stationary frame.

Keeping in mind above facts, let the airplane pick up constant speed ‘v’ and then
fly over the predetermined straight line rout, passing above head of the observer
O. at a constant speed over a plane area. Let it fly sufficiently near to the ground.
When the plane is just overhead the observer O; both should synchronize their
watches to t = t’ = 0th instant. Photonic-instant-time-signals-light signals shall be
released after each second from the airplane in the direction of the observer O.
The observer O, should record simultaneously the time t shown by his atomic
watch and the time t’ conveyed by the signal received from the plane i.e. from the
observer O’. O’ is the pilot, attached to the frame S’, and frame S’ is the airplane.
Observer O will see that, the duration between the consecutive two signals, one
second apart, received from O’; is greater than that of him. Thus, the observer
finds that the time duration of one second passed by observer O’ on board at
airplane, is greater than his one second. For example, very roughly; if during
consecutive two signals from the plane, the clock of observer O read say (1.25)
seconds; then, it means that, one second of the observer O’ in constant linear
motion ‘v’ w.r.t. him(observer O himself), is greater by one and a quarter factor.
This happens because, O’ releases first signal at some t’th second. Observer O’ is
at vt’ distance from observer O when he released this signal. The signal will reach
observer O, at the instant of time say t. The observer O’ then releases second
signal after one second, read in his own watch i.e. at the instant (t’ + 1) sec. this
time O’ is at a distance of v. (t’ +1). Therefore, this second signal will have to
travel an extra distance numerically measured equal to v at speed c w.r.t. O’. or at
speed ( c2- v2 )1/2 w.r.t. O. See Fig. [34] below

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The above air plane experiment though does not prove special relativity
principles, it proves the fact that any accelerating force when acts on an atom its
orbital electron angular speed decreases increasing its revolution period. Such
things happen due to lack of clear perception. Hence, to understand only
mathematics doesn’t work; it is quite necessary to perceive the facts pure logically
till no doubt remain. Here basic mathematics helps good. Then one may and he
can bark upon its higher mathematics; modern mathematics with its perception
simultaneously. Relativity needs strongly to come out from illusion state for its
more and more practical use. That twin paradox, length contraction, time dilation
all are apparent phenomena. Actually we see them. It is because of natural limits.
But, simultaneously nature has provided its knowledge as in case of length
contraction, time dilation etc. by means of relativity.

Every new finding need to be judged without any prejudice. Instead of trying to
check it on the basis of up to date available knowledge; it should be promoted and
modified by verifying the present up to date knowledge.
After going through this book any one can understand the apparent nature of twin
paradox, length contraction, time dilation etc. Even in mass energy transformation
it seems basic particles of mass remain. They are eternal. It senses well in the
mass energy conversion mathematics shown in this book in a different way and
also in the well known conman derivation of it. In author’s opinion “the GOD-
particle” named by “CERN” may be the eternal basic mass particles. Second
eternal thing in universe seems energy, the heat energy. Heat energy rolls by
means of basic mass particles in different forms even in material world for the
birth of universe, it rolls in all forms in universe. Doing work it again gets
radiated in the universe. It exists in the form like fluid packets. This nature of
fluid packet allotted to energy satisfies its quanta nature, mass property to energy
quanta and the momentum property, certain storage quantity and not allowing
extra quantity w,r.t. its surroundings. Third eternal quantity is electric field. It is
basic field. It work as binding agency of energy and basic mass particles. Forth
basic element of universe id duality. Whatever comes into existence from mass,
energy, field its dual gets produced to maintain balanced state of something.

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Fig. [34]:

When the observer receives this second signal; he naturally perceives that, O’ has
passes one second. At the same instant of receipt of the second signal, observer O
reads his watch. He finds that, in his watch, more than one second has passed; say
1.2 sec. therefore, observer O, assumed stationary, in his observatory on earth
thinks that, the clock of observer O’ in motion w.r.t. himself, runs slow.

In above figure [34] O’ has sent two numbers of consecutive signals to O with a
gap of 1 sec. but, the observer receives them with a difference of time period of
1.2 secs. though their watches are running similar. Happenings are shown in the
diagram in detail.

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O’ has sent first signal at t’=0 sec. [fig. (a)], and second signal after 1 sec. at t’=1
sec. see [fig. (b)]. O’ is in relative motion v w.r.t. O. each signal travels at speed c
w.r.t. O’. But, w.r.t. observer assumed stationary, the speed of signal arriving him,
he finds it equal to c w.r.t. O’ who has released the signal and that w.r.t. himself
equal to ( c2- v2 )1/2. When first signal is released O’ is nearer to O and when
second signal is released by O’ he is farther to O [Fig. (b)]. therefore, second
signal takes more than one second to reach observer O [Fig. (c) & (d)]. Hence,
observer O finds that one second of O’ is longer than his one second. Thus, an
observer takes it granted for that, time t’ at moving object concentrates hence it
flows slow; and that t with him dilates with him and flows fast.

Similarly, if the observer O also sends light signals per second to the observer O’;
then, the observer O’ also experiences similar fact. Observer O’ fiunds that the
clock of O is running slow. O’ will also find that the one second of O is equal to
his 1.2 seconds.

Thus, similar clocks run similar; in different inertial frames. But, due to relative
motion between them and signal speed with respect its source; each observer
attached to his frame finds that, the clock of other frame in relative motion w.r.t.
him; is running slow. This is the special relativity principle. When it is understood
known; it seems very simple. Hence, neglected or taken as something mysterious.

Since, Baba Adam, we, understand events, measuring space, counting time,
as we see and as we count. Scientific observations are also being done in this
way. What we see, we take it as it is. Relativity gave the third eye to human
beings to understand the things as they are in actual with the help of
Lorentzian transformations. Relativity principles though simple are of
crown-importance.

30. COSMIC RAYS’ EXPERIMENT:-

Cosmic rays come to the earth from the universe at the speed of the light. This
experiment includes measurement of cosmic particles at two points along their
path separated by sufficient distance comparable to their decay time period. And

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then, checking how the quantity reaching the second point tallies to their half time
decay.

This method is used to verify mainly speeds greater than c are existed or not
or/and space contraction and time dilation phenomena; and there by Einstein’s
special relativity. Near sea shore atop a hill, the count of cosmic particles is
measured for a suitable period. During the same equal period, the count of cosmic
particles is measured at the ground level. Then the counts are checked to see
whether, the ground count tallies with that, what works out as per half decay time
period. The cosmic rays travel at the speed of light i.e. ‘c’.

The experiment showed that, the cosmic particles reaching the ground were more
than calculated on the basis of their half life period. Hence from this result they
concluded that, during motion the time lengthens in the frame moving with
relative motion w.r.t. the observer assumed stationary.

It indicates that, the cosmic particle’s decay time is increased here. To calculate
the increase in decay time we cannot apply relativistic factor
[ 1/( c2- v2 )1/2]. Because those particles come to earth from the sun or from the
universe beyond the sun with speed c. therefore this factor doesn’t apply here.

The measurement of cosmic particles is taken by interception method by means of

sensors or acceptors of the cosmic particles with counters. Therefore, the
observations are in the frame of the observer and not in the frame of the cosmic
particles.

As per relativity inertial frames; assume, the frame attached to the cosmic
particles is S’, and that attached to the earth is S; so that, the frame S’ is moving at
relative speed nearing ‘c’ w.r.t. the frame S vertically down. The observer O
attached to the frame S is stationed one at the hill-top and other one on ground
below the hill top. Here the observer O has fixed detectors one at hill-top and
other at hill-bottom Both these detectors are attached to frame S. They are playing
the role of interceptors of, signals from moving objects. The other frame S’ is the
cosmic partical’s rest frame. The cosmic ray count at hill-top is taken when both

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the frames are considered coincident with each other. They calculated number of
cosmic particles received at hill top and that at on the ground. Further they
calculated expected receipt of cosmic particles on the half life basis at ground and
found that the count of cosmic particles at ground is more than expected. Hence
they concluded that, the cosmic particles are moving at speeds higher than c.
therefore, there half time does not complete in the length of their travel from the
hill-top to the ground.

We have seen in detail why an object in its rest frame cannot attain speed
greater than c. It can happen only when, the rest frame of cosmic rays is
already in sufficient motion in direction of earth; and there from the cosmic
rays are released at speed c ; so that we are receiving them at speeds higher
than c. But, the possibility of some body moving towards earth with
sufficient speed; seems to be very remote. Therefore, this cannot be reason
for receiving more than expected count of cosmic particles on ground. Hence,
cosmic particles are not moving with velocities greater than c. Then the
reason for their higher count at ground seems in gravitational force acting on
the cosmic particles. As seen before, gravitational forces slow down the
particle internal motions decreasing the decay rate of the cosmic particles. That
only can increase the count of cosmic particles at ground. every indivisual
particle posses different spin motions either in its free state or in its coupled
state with other particles. And external gravitation reduces its all motions
proportionately. The same thing happens in respect of cosmic rays. The earth’s
gravity acts upon it reducing its decay rate as discussed above. Hence, the
cosmic particle decay experiment proves that gravity reduces spin speeds of
basic particles.

31. APPLICATION OF RELATIVITY PRINCIPLES:-

The physical distance and the time period between any two events happened at a
terrestrial object, star or satellite which is some thousands of years away from us;
can be found correctly in their rest frames by Lorentzian relativistic
transformations; with the help of light signals coming from there.

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Now, there are two sides to the above scenario.

1) The light signal received by the observer from space, tells the observer about
the position of its source as, where it is at the instant of time of receipt of the
signal by the observer; and,

2) The state or the quality or the condition of that source at the instant of
release of the signal from the source. That’s the fact for we can notice events in
universe up to its end limit.

For, let a terrestrial body be at a distance of five thousand light years away from
us. Then, a light signal received from it will give information to us as below.

It (the received signal from a terrestrial body) will give us the physical
position of that body at the instant of the receipt of the signal; but, it will give
the state or condition of that body which was five thousand light-years back;
because, that terrestrial body is five thousand light years away from us.
Therefore, “e.m. photon (as light is made up of energy packets called
photons) signaling method” gives us the physical image of the object. The
actual existence of the object at present is doubtful. It might have perished
also.

Suppose, we received a light signal from space from an object one million
light years away from us, telling the birth of a star. That signal is showing us
the physical position of the star as at now; but, it is showing the condition of
the star one million light years before; when the star dust was concentrating
and causing bursts through which the star material was being produced.
Thereby we remain far away from actual physical present state of that star.

Similarly, when a received signal tells about a star one million light-years
away from us; which gets destroyed itself due to some reasons or other. Then
the signal received at that instant of time will tell us position of star dust
being spread in the space; and the condition of the star material at the time
of one million light years back when it was bursted. See Fig. [35] below.

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Fig. [35]:

For example, the condition of the exploded star given by the signal will give
its high temperature say five thousand degrees centigrade, one million light
years before; but, actually as on the day of the receipt of the signal; it will be
much cooler.

As per the natural law of perception we assume the read facts being present
now i.e. at the instant of the receipt of the signal. Therefore, we will
understand that the temperature of the star dust is five thousand degrees
centigrade now. It is a wrong assumption with reference to above theoretical
facts.

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Therefore, some communication link having infinite speed must be available
to receive present instant information of terrestrial bodies thousands and
thousands of light years away from us.

Much experimentation is done on measurement of visible light speed. In each of

that experiment light speed is found equal to ‘c’. Every where the speed found is
w.r.t. the light source. Its brief account is taken above in ‘Introduction’.

Light energy travels in the form of corpuscles that are energy packets. It is up to
infra red light lowest frequencies. As the transmission frequency decreases below
up to micro-wave frequencies; the mode of signal transmition changes to field
mode. But, we have assumed the corpuscular nature of transmission below
the micro-wave frequencies also in the form of a kink in field line. Very rare
experimentation is done in that respect; the results of which are not
established yet. As far as the author’s knowledge is concerned; he is the first
person to do this job in the scientific world.

As per author’s findings the communication electro-magnetic (E.M.) waves up

to micro-waves communicate information at infinitely high speed; practically
instantly in free space. Some obstructions in the path of communication
causes phase shift of the signal and introduces respective delay in
transmission of the E.M. field signal. However the phase shift speed is much
greater than c. It is proved scientifically in transmission waves reflection
from ionosphere.Those delays do not give the speed to electric and magnetic
field from infinity to near c. It remains still so higher that, as good as it is
practically infinite.
The below mentioned experiment was performed by the author to that effect.
To understand the facts of the experiment, let us perceive the real meaning of
Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s equations tell us, how, light is generated from
electro-magnetic oscillations; they convey us the speed of light; they show us
the corpuscular nature of light.

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32. MAXWELL’S ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELD EQUATIONS:-

Maxwell derived below mentioned equations for electrical field (E) and magnetic
field (H) intensities at a point in free space. That are,

2E = ε0µ0δ2E/δt2 …………………………….(34)

2H = ε0µ0δ2H/δt2 ……………………………(35)

Where, 2 is the operator. It is called as Laplacian operator. Here it is operated

on vector functions E and H. Hence here it is vector-Laplacian-operator. Here2
gives divergence of the gradient of the vector fields E and H respectively, at the
same point w.r.t. time. It indicates the gradient of rate of change of the vector field
w.r.t. time at that point in inertial rest frame of its source.
E is the electric field intensity or the electric field strength in volts/m.
H is the magnetic field intensity in ampere/m2
ε0 = 8.8542X10-12 C2/N-m2
µ0 = 4πX10-7 N-s2/C2
ε0 and µ0 are electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space.

Let us understand electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability. See below

figure, [36].

Assume a magnetic field B in air. Put an iron peace in the field. It is a magnetic
material. It is found magnetic field lines try to pass through the iron piece.
Increase the magnetic field in small steps observing what happens with magnetic
field concentration while passing through the iron peace. Up to a certain magnetic
field density inside the iron; the field goes on increasing. A point comes when
though we increase the magnetic field the field passing through the iron peace
remain constant and increased magnetic field finds its way through air around the
iron point. Here the capacity of iron to pass magnetic field through itself gets
exhausted. Magnetic field in the medium becomes saturated. Therefore, it finds
path from outside of the medium. This capacity corresponds to the permeability of
the medium. Permeability is a property of a medium therefore, it changes medium

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to medium. Similarly consider electric field and electric material that allows
electric field through it and observe as above. Arrange electric poles one positive
and other negative. Then see the behavior of electric field in the same manner.
When the electric material will not allow more field to pass through itself; then
the field saturation point is reached. That point corresponds to electric field
permittivity or simply electric permittivity. The permittivity is also a property of a
medium. It also changes medium to medium.

Above equations (16 and 17) are similar to the form of the hydro-mechanical
equation given below that is very often used in the mechanical engineering for
study of transmission of a mechanical quantity like pressure through the material
medium.

2 X = (1/v2) δ2X/ δt2 …………………………(36)

The factor ε0µ0 in Maxwell’s equations at (16) and (17) corresponds to 1/v2 in the
mechanical equation (18) where, ‘v’ is the velocity of transmission of the
mechanical quantity generated by X a desired field vector. As the mathematical
functions involved are similar in above equations 16, 17 and 18; therefore, (1/v2)
in the equation (18) corresponds to ε0µ0 in equations (16) and (17). Hence,
v = 1/ (ε0µ0) = 3 X 108 m./s.

It is the velocity in free space of electro-magnetic quantity. The velocity of light

was measured experimentally equal to 3 X 108 m./s . Therefore, it was concluded
that, the light is an electro-magnetic wave traveling in free space at the speed of 3
X 108 m./s. Further it was noticed that, nothing can move at speed greater than
this speed of light equal to 3 X 108 m./s. therefore, this light speed was
considered the ultimate speed in the universe and it is denoted by letter ‘c’. The
modern physics considers that, there are speeds greater than ‘c’ in the universe.
Definitely, they can be; but, the proofs presented for it; does not sound sure. They
are just guess in author’s view.
Hence, c = 1/ (ε0µ0) = 3 X 108 m./s is the ultimate speed in the universe
w.r.t. its source.-……………………………………………………………….(37)

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The light was considered then to be electro-magnetic (E.M.) wave on the basis of
above findings as the field equations are derived from electric and magnetic
quantities. Hence, all E.M. waves were being considered to be traveling at the
ultimate speed ‘c’ in free space. For wave propagation, some medium is
required. But, no such medium was found in the free space. The e.m. wave nature
of light and hence the phenomena of transmission of e.m. Waves through free
space has posed a big question. Then arose the quantum theory of light. It solved
the problem of the medium of transmission for E.M. waves. It considered light as
of particle nature. The particles are called photons. They are the ‘quantas’ of e.m.
energy. The quantas are ‘energy packets’ being released by the source of light
radially out in free space around it at speed ‘c’. The particle nature of light is
proved and even man-made satellite is traveling towards Jupiter using the
thrust provided by the sun light, whenever it requires.

Regarding the nature of elm, wave propagation the author’s opinion differs
with that of the present say of the science that, the light rays are electro-
magnetic oscillation in space throughout the travel of light. As per the
author, light photons are released from inside of the concerned atom by
electro-magnetic physical process taking inside the atom. [See figs. 1 & 2].
Once the photon is released it is electrically as well as magnetically neutral. It
is only energy packet moving at linear speed c in free space. In free space out-
side the atom, electric and magnetic field oscillation in any manner does not
take place to maintain it moving or existing. Electro-magnetic field
oscillations are taking place inside the atom with orbiting electrons. Because,
motion of electron produce electric current along the path of motion of
electron. When current flows magnetic field is associated with it as its dual,
in perpendicular direction to it, encircling the current path. Due to orbital
motion, the direction of the electric field remains always changing.
Therefore, the direction of the associated magnetic field also changes
accordingly. Thus,the rate of change of electric and magnetic field is
represented by .E and .H (w.r.t. time).respectively. This creates the effect of
oscillations of electro-magnetic fields inside the atom associated with orbital
electrons. When during its motion electron receive energy in some form from
outside; it immediately releases the extra energy in space. Because of atomic
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forces internal to an atom, there is no place to accommodate the extra energy
inside. Increased and immediately decreased these electro-magnetic field, due
to extra energy fed to an orbital electron; causes oscillations of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields associated with respective electron. It is represented
by 2E and 2H as above. The released energy in this process is in the form of
radiation energy. It is in the form of energy packets called quanta. These energy
packet electro-magnetically neutral. These energy packets have property of
mass. Actually they doesn’t represent any mass. Therefore, to be particular they
are allotted momentum represented by p w.rt. their light-speed Due to their
mass property they move freely in free space in the direction; they are
ejected from respective atoms. They do not need any medium. Being electro-
magnetically neutral there is not electro-magnetic oscillating field in space to
help them in their travel through space. Electric and its associated magnetic
fields are always perpendicular to each other. In this case electric and magnetic
fields are associated with electron in an atom’s orbit. To push the extra energy-
quanta out in space proportionate electric field swings out in space for a very
small distance in space for small period of time of the ejection of the quanta.

The photon mode of E.M. energy transfer, for electro-magnetic energy, over
all the electro-magnetic frequency range is accepted by the modern physics
on the basis of quantum theory. As per the author this is alright in respect of
E.M. energy transmission at frequencies higher than the micro-wave
frequencies. Because, in that frequency range, the energy transmission
method is, release of energy packets by the source through transmitting
antenna and absorption of that energy packet by the receiver through
receiving antenna. The working of these type of antennas is alike a diode;
that is like L.E.D. for release and like photo-diode for receipt of electro-
magnetic energy. But, below micro-wave frequencies, energy is transmitted
by the source, by proportionate change in the intensity of the electrical and
magnetic field lines; and the receiver receives that energy by electro-
magnetic induction phenomena. Thus there is basically difference in the mode
of energy transmission that is being discussed below. Above micro-wave
frequencies energy is transmitted in the form of energy packets. This is particle
nature or photon nature of energy transmission. At and below micro-wave

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frequencies, energy is transmitted as kinetic energy by field line oscillations. The
field line connects source and the receiver by field lines as if connected by a rigid
thin steel bar. The field line is electric field line. Its fulcrum for oscillations is
decided by masses of the source and the receiver actually participating in this
process; so that, momentums on both sides remain equal.

Thus, there is a basic difference in mechanical quantity transmission and an

electro-magnetic quantity c, transmission. Reconsider the above mechanical and
wave equation 16, 17 and 18 above.

2E=ε0µ0δ2E/δt2 ………………………………………………(34)
2H = ε0µ0δ2H/δt2 …………………………………………….(35)
2 X = (1/v2) δ2X/ δt2 …………………………………………(36)

See the fig.[36] below. In first part of the fig. transmission of electric and
magnetic quantities is shown. In the second part of the fig. transmission of hydro-
mechanical quantity pressure is shown. The pressure is transmitted as mentioned
below.
See the water container in fig. [36](ii).pressure wave is created at the point of
application of the pressure from outside and it travels at speed v in all directions
in the liquid, here water. In the figure, its travel is shown only in x-axis direction
for easiness of its study. Applied pressure or any pressure developed due to some
other reason e.g. local heating; is transmitted by water particles to its neibouring
particles by oscillating motion about its rest point. Thus, pressure; so also other
quantities say sound etc., are transmitted through the liquid medium throughout it,
like conduction from first point of receipt of external disturbance; to last point; in
all directions, at speed v; dependent upon physical properties of the liquid; such
as, mobility, density.

Now refer the fig. [36](i). The electric quantity E and magnetic quantity H; the
associated quantity of electric quantity; are transmitted within the atom when, an
orbiting electron, acquires higher than its normal energy level due to forcing of
foreign energy from out-side and due to limitations of atomic internal energy

181
arrangements; cannot hold it; therefore, it ejects out the extra energy in the form
of uncharged electron material’s extra part in space at speed c w.r.t. the source-
atom.

Thus, electro-magnetically; energy is transmitted in the form of photons or say for

understanding purpose as in the form of particles, or in the form of energy
packets. A photon is an energy packet. The photon travels at speed c; because it is
ejected from its source-atom at that speed. A photon is an electrical as well as
magnetically neutral particle. Though it is, an energy particle; it represents
equivalent mass. Therefore, it shows gravitational property. Thus, energy has
particle nature. It contains basic, the tiniest particles in its smallest unit
photon. Even gravitational energy has its particle nature called gravitons.

The use of word ‘particle’ to an energy packet travelling through a medium

can not be applied. Because, there the energy is transmitted by oscillations of
medium particles serially transmitted forward from source. Therefore, the
oscillations are in the form of travelling waves through a material particle
medium. Thus here the mode of energy transmission is kinetic mode.
Therefore, here the energy is not having its facial identity. Hence it is
represented as progressing waves.

But, in respect of radiation energy dual nature of energy transmission is

accepted so that, all behavior of radiation energy can be explained. Though
electro-magnetic field oscillations are not detected in space along the light
energy travel; they assume their presence and show the wave and photon
nature simultaneously as shown in the figure [36](i).

Thus, electro-magnetically; energy is ejected from its source and transmitted in

the form of photons or say in the form of particles or in the form of energy
packets through free space. A photon is an energy packet. The photon travels at
speed c; because it is ejected from its source-atom at that speed. A photon is an
electrical as well as magnetically neutral particle. Though it is, an energy particle;
it represents equivalent mass. Therefore, it shows gravitational property.

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Fig. [36].(i)

Thus, energy has particle nature. It contains basic, the tiniest particles in its
smallest unit photon. Even gravitational energy has its particle nature called
gravitons. We cannot avoid basic mass particles. Basic energy form is heat
energy. And the basic energy carriers are the basic mass particles. Due to heat
energy they remain vibrating before the universe existed. During their motion
they started exchange of energy between them. In this process bonds between
them mere created. Therefrom the process of birth of universe has started.

Let us see different modes of energy transfer .

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 1. Energy travels through a material medium; from one molecule to
another, by transfer of potential and kinetic energy. It creates at a point in
the path pressure variations with regular time intervals. At points serially
along the path the pressure variations are created in succession. Therefore,
the energy transfer posses wave nature in this case. Please see Fig. [36](ii)
and Fig. [36](iii). The energy being transferred act upon material
molecules physically; therefore, this energy transfer mode works.
Material potential and kinetic energies are transmitted in this fashion.

Fig. [36](ii):

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2. Field Mode: When an electrical charge is displace due to some reason; it
transmits its disturbance at a distance by means of its field line motion to
another similar charge immediately with a phase shift within 2πc. The
transfer of energy or a signal is infinitely fast in free space w.r.t. c. Please
see Fig. [36](iv) below. This field mode is innovation of the author.
Presently it is considered photon mode of energy transmission.

3. Photon Mode: When the charge oscillates beyond micro-waves take

place; the charge thows energy packets in space to get relived from its
extra energy. The motion of charge in this case is c or very near to c. in
field mode conduction band charges oscillate. As their oscillation
frequency increases beyond micro-frequencies; opposition to it increases
due to fields of other conduction band electron-charges. The energy to be
given to the material of a conductor or antenna becomes higher and higher
as the oscillations of charges increase higher and higher.

In photon mode, extra energy received by an atom from outside is ejected

out in space around in the form of energy packets named photons. An
energy packet is in the form of section of surface of a sphere along its axis.
Such photons are released in all directions in space. They behave as a
wave, and also as photon i.e. as energy quanta. Please see fig. [36](vii)
below.

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In the flow of explanation let me discuss further about energy particle and
energy field a genuine indigenous concept.

In respect of photons, whether, there is photon field or not; is to be verified.

Because, a photon moves in the direction in which it is ejected like a bullet
from a gun. An experiment is designed in this book by the author to confirm
whether a photon field is existed or not.

A flow of free electrons in conduction band, constitutes basically an electric

current through respective conductor. Let us call it first conductor. An electric

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current is always associated with magnetic field proportionate to the quantity of
the current and encircles the current path remaining perpendicular to the current
path. Change in the current causes respective proportionate change in the
magnetic field. Changing magnetic field opposes the change in the current by the
way of induction of electric field, in the current path so as to oppose the change in
the current. This magnetic field is spread up in space reducing its intensity in
inverse proportion to the square of its distance from the source i.e. the current.
When this magnetic field is changing and happens to encircle a distant electric
conductor; it induces electrical quantities current and voltage there-in; so that the
induced field will oppose the establishing of electric and magnetic fields of the
current in the first conductor. Work is done by the first conductor on other distant
conductor which is encircled by the magnetic fields of the first conductor i.e.
transmitting antenna. Energy transfer in this fashion takes place from lowest e. m.
wave frequency to micro-wave frequency. If one peruses through, from lowest
frequency appliances to micro-wave furnace for their functioning; he will easily
understand above mentioned phenomena. In communication systems up to micro-
wave; the antenna; works on induction principle. Let us note again, the current
produced from the lowest frequency to the micro-wave frequency is, due to
electrons in conduction band of the source. When these electrons oscillate in
transmitting antenna, their electric fields also oscillate in free space around.
If another similar antenna called receiving antenna comes in its oscillating
electric and magnetic fields; the receiving antenna generates similar voltages
and currents in itself, thus preparing an exact image of the information
signal. Let us call this type of electro-magnetic energy transfer as, ‘Field
Mode’. E. M. energy is not transferred in the form of energy quanta in the form
of photons as particles in this frequency range. It is transmitted by field lines
which behave like rigid steel bars in the form of kinetic energy. One end of such
a field line is attached with source electron and other end is connected to the
receiving electron. The source electron drives the receiving electron. The
fulcrum of the field line is floating and decided by equal kinetic momentums of
driving and driven electrons about the fulcrum. See the Fig. [37] below.

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Fig. [37]:

A field line works as a hockey-bat in the hands of player. The source i.e. the
driving charge here is like a player and one of its field line is like the hockey
stick in his hand. The driven charge is thus, like the cricket ball. Then, as the
player moves the ball to and fro, about a point on ground (waiting for kick
out a good shot); in that fashion the source’s E.M. field lines like a hockey
stick transfer the energy from the source to the receiver. It is not transferred
or transmitted in the form of photon like a particle. But, it is action at a
distance with the help of field line. It is transfer of kinetic energy from the
source i.e., the driving charge to the charge at a distance, the driven charge.
The author has named this mode of energy transfer as ‘kinetic mode’ or ‘e.m.
field mode’. The energy transfer from infra-red light above is named as ‘photon
as a particle mode mode’ or simply photon mode E.M. energy transfer.
There is very basic difference between E.M. energy transfer modes; photon mode
and the field mode (as named by the author). The differences are as given below.

Please bear in mind that, mass of an electron is its energy equivalent. Electron
is not having mass; but, it exhibit mass property. Therefore, in relativity we
have to consider ‘momentum’ an indivissuial quantity. Similar is the case with
light photon. We attach mass to them for ease of understanding.

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33. COMPARISON BETWEEN PHOTON MODE AND FIELD MODE OF
E.M. ENERGY TRANSMISSION:-

In case energy transfer is considered by wave motion of e.m. field; then the
generation of wave motion in field line will be as shown in above figure. The
source may be either vibrating with simple harmonic motion or revolving in
a circle. This leads to think, field lines very flexible. But the experiment
performed to measure e.m. wave speed in free space, given ahead; does not
show phase variation as per wavelength 9.1 metre of frequency 27.47 MHz
from zero to 20 m and for 50 MHz frequency of wave length 6 metre 0 to 50
metre from the transmitting antenna. Secondly, induction heating , heating
in micro-oven differs from condensed heating. In condensed lamp or room
heater the energy is radiated. The frequencies which work there are infra-
red frequencies. But, in case of above other heating the frequencies are below
micro-frequencies. In induction heating the field lines are connected between

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the source and the receptor. In these cases the field lines vibrate to transfer
energy. If field lines were flexible to transfer energy at light frequencies as
shown in above figure; Then, in the experiment performed by author for 27.45
MHz and the other for 50 MHz; the phase shift between different distances.
Would have been observed between transmitting and receiving antenna. Hence,
in case of higher than micro-wave frequencies also there is no bending of field
line to construct a propagating wave form.

Hence, energy transferred in frequency range up to micro-waves is by

oscillations of rigid field lines of electric field. Electric field doesn’t bend; it is
reflected from surface of its encloser conductor. That’s why concentration of
electric field at corners of electric conductors appear. Where as magnetic field
is circular around electric conductor. Hence, electric field transfer energy by
oscillating field lines and magnetic field helps it to draw energy from source
and deliver to receptor. Hence Author named this energy transfer mode as
Field mode.

In case of frequencies higher than micro-waves; energy transfer speed observed

is c. Though they say it is transferred by wavy motion along the length of field
lines; as seen above it is not at all possible. Then only possibility of energy
transfer in this case is, by energy packets. There are two possibilities.

Either, a spinning particle from source, carry the energy and mix with
receptor or the source particle imparts its energy to nearby present basic
particle (as discussed, it is having no mass; it has only existence) and that one
transfers the energy to receptor and disperses in space. Energy from a
source is transmitted to the receiver in the form of energy packets or
corpuscles called photons in photon mode. Photon, corpuscle, particle these
are the terms developed to express the radiation energy transfer.

But, there is a conman fact; that, in nature energy is something moving. Hence,
ideal mass particles are eternal. To describe motion they must exist. Their
eternal existence can not be denied. Hence, the concept of either packet or
quanta of energy, cannot deny particle nature or corpuscular nature of

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radiation energy.These photons are electro-magnetically neutral. There is not any
electro-magnetic field in the free space oscillating between the source and the
receiver associated with them, in respect of light propagation and also in case of e.
m. frequencies. Therefore, the light corpuscles do travel mechanically in the
space; once they are ejected out of the source and, not due to electro-magnetic
field oscillations. A photon with energy quanta and equal recess followed to it
work as one cycle. they satisfy light all phenomena polarization and all others.

In radio transmission; though, the transmission takes place, by the

conduction band electrons; some of the conduction band electrons do replace
some orbital electrons. In this process, swing of electric field of orbital
electron occurs. These swings introduce high frequency noise in
communication systems.

A very intelligent use of above mentioned swing of orbital electron’s

electric field can be taken to know the present instant physical state of
any stellar body many light years away from us. Because, as found by
the observer in the experiment mentioned ahead here; electric and
magnetic field travel in free space at infinite speed. The main difficulty
therein will be such a field is very weak. But, at present it should be a
great problem. Because, we are able to trace out recidual signals of Big-
Bang.

In photon mode, the source electrons taking part in E.M. energy transfer are,
the orbital electrons. Due to some reason or the other, an orbital receives
energy in excess from outside. An orbital cannot posses an excess energy due
to the inter-atomic balanced forces. Therefore, the orbital ejects out the
extra energy in outer space around it.

In the field mode, the respective source electrons are the electrons in the
conduction band. The conduction band electrons oscillate and generate
varying magnetic field in the space. This varying magnetic field encounters
the receiver and induces proportionate electric quantities. Also, as mentioned

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in above paragraph the swinging in space a part of electric field of
transmitting antenna assists the energy transfer.
In photon mode, the Maxwell’s oscillating electro-magnetic field is within the
source’s atom associated with the excited orbital electron. It is not in the space
in between the source and the receiver as is understood by the physics today.
The perception of Maxwell’s mathematics also indicates it. It is discussed
ahead w.r.t. the experiment conducted.

In the field mode, the Maxwell’s E.M. field is in the space between the source
and the receiver, associated with the excited conduction band electrons.

In photon mode, the transmitting antenna, releases light corpuscles i.e. photons.
They are ejected by excited orbital electrons at speed c as the source electron in
its orbit is in motion with speed c. Because, those excited orbitals have received
energy from outside. But, an orbital cannot hold extra energy due to inter-atomic
structure and the atomic internal forces. Therefore. During its revolution around
its nucleus at a speed very near to ‘c’, the excited orbital ejects out the extra
energy with it, in the space outside the atom, in the form of corpuscles. The
receiver orbital electrons absorb that energy and reproduce the image of the
source. There is not any E.M. field in between the source and the receiver. The
Maxwell’s E.M. field in this case is inside the atom associated with the
respective orbital-electron.

In field mode, transmitting antenna produces electro-magnetic field in the

space. This field encounters with the receiving antenna; that works on E.M.
induction principles. The receiving antenna reproduces the image of the source
by E.M. induction phenomena. There are not any corpuscles or photons traveling
from the source to the receiver. The transfer of signal takes place by electro-
magnetic fields of oscillating conduction band electrons of the transmitting
antenna.

Micro-oven function involves field mode E.M. energy transfer method. The
micro-wave generator generates E.M. field that oscillates at micro-wave
frequency. Electrical field lines there in, induce electric charges on water
molecules in the food to be cooked and thereby vibrate the water molecules at

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micro-wave frequencies with the help of these electric-field lines. Briskly
vibrating water molecules, generate heat due to their friction among themselves
and with the food to be cooked. The pot containing food to be cooked, does not
heat up at all, by the micro waves action but, it gets heated up due to the heat of
the food which is being cooked. Hence it remains cooler. Thus, the non-
conducting-heat, cooking pots remain much cooler than the cooked hot food. A
micro-wave oven shows crystal clear the phenomena of E.M. energy transfer
by field mode as mentioned above.

The most noticeable difference between the photon mode and the field mode is as
below.

A photon is an energy packet. It has mass property. Hence once it is released

from its source at speed ‘c’; it travels through free space maintaining its state of
linear speed ‘c’ till it is obstructed. Then it is either absorbed or reflected by the
obstruction. Photon mass property is proved in laboratory experiment. A very thin
foil of a metal, in vacuum in a strong and well transparent glass bottle, is
deflected; when a beam of light is allowed to fall on it. The satellite launched
towards Neptune, have acquired, its maximum speed by the thrust of sun light. A
photon is released in space from an atom by E.M. action; but, once it is released
it does not need E.M. field. It travels in space of its own mechanically
maintaining its state of steady motion equal to or very near to ‘c’.

In case of E.M. energy transfer from micro-waves below; E.M. field lines oscillate
following/obeying the source and move the receiver electron to and fro
accordingly. An important fact the author is going to state here that, an electric or
magnetic or E.M. field does not flow to transmit energy; instead, a field line
remains steady like a perfectly rigid thin steel bar, attached to its source and
laid in space straight. Due to extra than necessary energy with the source-
electron, it vibrates or moves its field lines spread in the space. Then, that
energy is transferred to those electric charges coming in the path of the field-
lines. Thus, the energy transfer from the source to the receiver takes place in
the field mode of E.M. energy transfer.

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The field or a field-disturbance a kink in field does not travel to transmit the
energy at speed ‘c’; instead, whole field line rocks keeping itself stiff like a
perfectly rigid thin bar.

The field lines appear as soon as the source appears in the space, from the
source radially out towards infinite distances. A flowing link of energy-
transfer, cannot have direct mechanical bond with the receiver. In micro-
wave oven, if the micro-waves were flowing from its generator to the food to
be cooked; it would not have vibrated water molecules in the food to heat up
the food; but, it would have delivered energy in the form of packets of energy
to the food. But, the food being almost non-conductive to the heat i.e. to the
energy packets; the energy would have been required to be absorbed by
suitable metallic pot of the food to be cooked. And then, by heat convection
the food wood have been cooked in the water; like in tungsten-coil electric
shegadi. Here the food cooking pot is much cooler than the food. Hence, field
does not flow to transfer energy. The charges having similar field, move or so
to say flow along the field; when, they are subjected to their respective field.
A moving charge has its own electric field directed in the direction of its
motion. Due to field of the flowing charge, the field intensity along the line
increases proportionate to the charge from the charge along its direction of
flow. The moving charge has its own speed. Therefore, around the moving
charge, the field density increases. Therefore, as the charge moves, the dense
field moves. It creates impression that a charge is moving. Hence, it appears
that, the field is flowing. It happens, when a current flows through a
conductor. The field lines of a free charge spread out in free space radially
out; behave like absolutely rigid thin steel bars. They tie-up to suitable
objects present in their path.

Thus, though a field posses energy, it does not flow at speed ‘c’ or any other
speed to transfer the energy. It transfers the energy by hitting the object as
the source move..

Therefore, IF STELLAR PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE BY THE

ELECTRIC AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES IS

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 DEVELOPPED; THEN WE WILL BE ABLE TO KNOW, THE
PRESENT CONDITION OF STELLAR BODY.

So, in order to verify above facts below experiment was performed by the author
in the year AROUND 2002.

34. VERIFICATION OF SPEED OF E.M. WAVE PROPAGATION

BELOW MICRO-WAVES:-

Instruments:-

Following instruments are used

Double channel scientific oscilloscope with its probes and having least count of
o.o2 µs per main division on time scale.
27.47 MHz transmitting antenna along-with two nos. of dipole antenna.
Single core screened cable for signal probing.
The instruments are connected as shown in the figure [38](i) below.
The idea of measuring speed of communication wave arose from desire to
measure speed of light directly in laboratory. Directly in the sense, measuring
time required to travel a certain distance by a light pulse actually physically. It
was somewhat around the year 2000. As the experiment was being designed for;
two German scientists measured it in lab in a very sophisticated way. Then, just
curiously author designed and measured speed of communication wave by
performing this experiment. The result of the experiment is astonishing. For, it
give speed of communication wave like infinity. The speed of communication
field-wave is infinitely great through free space. It suffers from phase shift due to
reflection from ions, metals, walls, hills. Its phase shift speed is as is known in
respect of radio, television, waves is also very greater than c. The speed of
communication field waves in this experiment in not the phase speed.
Therefore, it should not be mistaken as phase speed. During experiment phase
shift up to [2/3 πc] was observed in respect of thus reflected waves.

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The transmitting antenna signal and receiving antenna signal probing lengths are
taken equal to 30 mtrs. each to avoid the phase difference due to the different
cable lengths.
The experiment is carried out at high level all clear place in the signal range to
avoid reflected waves.

C.R.O. Settings:-

27.47 transmitter frequency gives the wave period equal to 0.0364 µs. i.e. 9.1
small divisions on time scale of c.r.o. It corresponds to the wave length equal to
10.9 mtrs.

Procedure and Observations:-

The supply is made on. Only the carrier wave is used. It being a communication
transmitter of 5 km range the carrier wave is a power wave.
Both the antennas are brought sufficiently near to each other. Phase reversal
between transmitted and receipted waves was observed. It was reverted to match
the both waves, by c.r.o. control phase reversal switch. Then, the peak points of

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first positive wave-halves of transmitted and the receipted waves were carefully
seen and marked on the c.r.o. screen. Then receiving antenna was smoothly and
slowly moved away from the transmitting antenna.

During above movement, shift in noted-peaks of both the waves was observed.
The receiving antenna was moved up to 17 mtrs away from the transmitting
antenna. During this movement, the marked peaks of transmitted and receipted
signals, were watched for their mutual relative displacement. But, not any phase
shift w.r.t. distance variation between them was seen.

In next phase of the experiment two numbers of receiving antenna were used one
fixed and other being shifted. No phase shift was observed between the two
receipted signals at various positions of the two receiving antenna.

Fig. [38](ii):

The observed and practical displays are shown in the figure-[38](ii) above.

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The figure [38](iii) below is about expected display. It is seen from the figure
that, there is appearing a constant phase shift between the two signals irrespective
of any distance between both the antennas. This phase difference is due to some
different but constant characteristics of the probes, the electronics of the two
channels, and the two antennas.

The wave shown dotted represent the expected receipted signal when the
receiving antenna is half wave-distance away from the transmitting antenna.

Fig. [38](iii):

The experiment was conducted by the author a dozens of time under varied
conditions to verify the results. Still the results were the same.

Laboratory measurement of speed of light by the two German Scientists were

viewed by the author on a web and found very satisfactory. As seen from these

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two experiments’ results, author pleads that, there are two modes of
transmission of E.M. signals.

Presently only photon mode of transmission is considered all over the

frequency-range of E.M. waves. A field line is also considered nothing than
rare charge distribution along the line. But the Author pleads existence of field
line to be separate. Regarding energy transfer by field line, the present concept
is that, the transmitter generates field wave groups corresponding to signal to be
transmitted. These waves then after travel at speed c along the field line. If it
were so; then, in this performed experiment field wave space speed would have
been seen. But, it is not existed as seen in this experiment. The experiment tells
us that the complete field line from source to receiver vibrates in free space
giving infinitely high signal transmission speed.

Further, in the above experiment for distabce 50 m. maximum, and frequency

50 MHz radiation field is only prominent much beyond the distance of 0.159ʎ
i.e. equal to 1.59X6=9.54 m. Induction field almost vanishes from 20 m. beyond.
Hence. The result obtained in 50 m distance variation between transmitting and
receiving antenna; are reliable.

As the radiations in respect of light are from inside of an atom; the orbital
periphery of electron remitting radiations and the wavelength correspond well
with each other. But, the field oscillations from micro-wave below, are due to
conduction band electrons in a conductor i.e. an antenna; complete field line
oscillations take place like a oscillating rigid bar connected between source and
the receptor; or more probably, due to permittivity, at a very longer distance the
electrical field line might be falling back the source electron at some kilo-meters
of distance and thus forming the field wave nature, in this case the wave lengths
are very greater. Similarly space speed of such waves is also greater and greater
than c. As the frequency in this below micro-frequency range, decrease, the
wavelength and space speed of the e,m, signal or e.m. energy increases
tremendously advancing towards infinity. If it is actually found; then a light
photon will represent a group of waves in actual which the physical world
assumes today. The author desires to perform, experimentation in this respect.

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From above all discussions author claims that there are two types of E.M.
signal transmission modes. (1) Field Mode and, (2) Photon Mode.In field mode
field linens of conduction electric charges of transmitting antenna between
source and object are, oscilated by source therebyoscilating the object, the
information is transmitted from source to object. In photon mode extra energy
of orbital electrons is ejected in the form of energy packet as energy quanta, in
space at speed c from the excited atom. The quanta has mass property;
therefore. They travel in free space as mass-particles at speed c. These photons
contain the information of their source.

35. E. M. FIELD TRANSMISSION MODE:-

Field Crieteria: - A field is that entity, which enables a source its action at a
distance in free space without any mechanical linkages. A field is considered,
to have number of unit lines radiating radially outwards from its source showing
the properties of the source. A field line behaves like a perfectly rigid thin bar
hinged to its source and touching to a receiver of energy. The receiver is also
similar to the source. The field line should not be obstructed by another material
in the free space in between the two.

Electro-Magnetic Field:- An electromagnetic field is due to a moving electron. It

encircles the path of the motion of the electron. In material conductor of
electricity, electrons from its conduction band move in the direction of the electric
pressure applied across the conductor. The flow of electrons forms electric
current. Magnetic field is invariably accompanied with the current. The magnetic
field encircles the conductor all over the conductor around the conductor from the
conductor. The field density goes on reducing from the conductor towards outside
direction perpendicular to the conductor and reduces in magnitude in inverse
proportion to its perpendicular distance from the conductor. Conduction band
electrons are valance band electrons with sufficient extra energy received from a
suitable source to make them free from the valance-orbit of respective atoms.

A field is considered to consist of unit quantity field lines of its kind. A field line
is a force-field. For unidirectional study flow of the conduction band electrons,

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corresponding magnetic field is also of constant study magnitude. It doesn’t affect
on the conductors in its field region and obviously outside also. A force of any
kind does mechanical work when it moves in space against opposition to it. When
a force does work, energy is to be supplied to its source, to maintain the source.
For study non-varying magnetic field the field force remains standing only
without doing any external work. Change in motion of the conducting electrons
due to, change in the electric pressure intensity applied across the source
conductor will cause; a change in its respective magnetic field magnitude and
direction. This changing magnetic field is opposed by another conductor called
receiver; by producing magnetic field in opposite direction to the changing
magnetic field of the previous conductor; in order to maintain the existing state of
current-conduction of both of the conductors the source and the receiver. In order
to produce the magnetic field opposing to the change; the receiver free electron
has to follow the changing motion of the source-electron; but, in opposite
direction please refer [Fig. 39]. If the signal of frequency below mycro-wave were
traveling at speed c; then, the anolog communication would not have been
possible. Please refer fig. [39]. Such a signal ψ1, is released at instant of time t1. It
reaches the receiver, observer at t2.

Field Mode:- Fig. [39]:

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During the instant t3, the signal is accepted and by receiving antenna. While
accepting the signal; antenna opposes to vary its electrical state as per the signal.
In this opposition self induced signal is developed by the receiving antenna. This
signal of receiving antenna is about 180° out of phase w.r.t. the receipted signal.
This opposing signal cannot be nullified because the receiving antenna is not
considered to be electro-magnetically coupled with transmitting antenna.
Therefore, receiving antenna would have produced resultant signal out of
receipted signal ψ1 and self generated signal ψ1’. The receiver electronics will tap
then that distorted signal; and will reproduce it in the form required either visible
or audible. The signal will give only noise and not the intended information.

If it is considered that a kink in magnetic field line transfers the information then
also, it would not work. For in that case transmitting antenna and receiving
antenna are coupled magnetically. Therefore, induced signal corresponding to that
kink will be reflected to sending antenna and at the sending antenna also, some nth
signal will be disturbed.

Therefore, flowing magnetic field or a disturbance in standing magnetic field

cannot have bond between the source and the receiver; whereas field lines have
bondage between the receiver and the source for signal transfer in frequency
range from micro-wave below; including micro-waves. the signal should
reach immediately to the receiver soon it is released from the transmitter and
self induced signal should reach immediately; soon it is generated in
receiving antenna in order to maintain the signal strength and eliminate
disturbances in the signal by transformer action.

We have seen till now that, oscillating conduction band electrons oscillate to
and fro in the conductor. During their oscillations, their field is subjected to
oscillations in space outside the conductor. The conduction electrons oscillate
due to intake a.c. power of intended frequencies. Electric field lines swing to
and fro in space along the direction of conductor. Magnetic field is always
associated with electric field and is perpendicular to electric field. Therefore,
magnetic field oscillates perpendicular to electric field clockwise-

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anticlockwise encircling the conductor of antenna. The oscillating field lines
drive electric charges of receiving antenna at distance and produce the image
of electron oscillations in receiving antenna. Thus, in field mode up to and
including micro-frequencies E.M. field directly transmits information. Thus,
the phenomena of electric and magnetic field oscillations at right
angle to each other takes place in the range of magnetic frequencies
up to and including mocro-wave frequencies. Similarly. Energy
transfer by energy packet having mass property momentum takes
place from infra red frequencies and above. Both the phenomena
are not applicable throughout the range of electro-magnetic
frequencies, as is considered at present.

Author opines that, when, an atom releases photons in space, that time orbital
electrons’ field swings in space. If it could be used for collecting information of
stellar objects many light years away from us; it will give present information
about the stellar body.

36. PHOTON MODE:-

In this transmission mode, an E.M. signal is transmitted by energy packets called

photons. The source of E.M. energy is an excited orbital electron. The electric
field of an orbital, in normal case is directed towards the nucleus of its host-atom
containing positrons stationed on protons in the nucleus. Still the orbital does not
fall in the nucleus because of its linear speed about ‘c’ in its orbit causing a
centrifugal force on the orbital in opposite direction to the mutual force of
attraction between the electron and corresponding positron attached to proton in
the nucleus. Thus, under equal and opposite to each other forces the moving
electron under its constant linear speed revolve continuously around its nucleus
maintaining its angular momentum constant inside the atom. No work is done
by revolving electron in its orbit. Because, work appears when a force moves
overcoming any opposition to its motion. There is no force opposing the linear
motion in its revolution or that opposing its angular motion. Also there is not any

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force opposing to force of attraction between electron and nucleus except equal
and opposite to it radially outward directed force and vice vis. Further, though
those forces seem to be moving; the direction of motion of them is perpendicular
to the forces. Hence, no work is performed by those forces. In case any two
electrons happen to cross their electric fields; field-repulsive forces appear and
they does work. That work is internal to the atom. Internal atomic energy of lower
orbital electron is greater than outer orbital electron. Therefore, in above process
lower orbital does work on outer orbital and therefore, transfer of energy takes
place from lower to higher orbital electron. Hence, outer orbital jumps to lower
sub-orbit and lower orbital to outer one. This process is continuous inside an atom
in respect of all the orbital electrons. Therefore, there is no work done outside the
atom by the constituents of an atom by means of its internal stored energy. Inter-
atomic forces keep an orbital in suitable orbit dependent upon its energy content.
In an atom, internal atomic forces are much stronger than the gravitational forces
in between the atomic particles. An electron in its atomic energy structure as
above behaves as below in respect of external energy if enter into an atom.

When, an orbital receives external E.M. energy, it receives it in the form of fine
particles forming a fluid-like substance. In fact an electron is consisted of a
fluid like energy substance with electrical charge particles. An orbital electron
cannot posses extra than its confined orbital energy. The inter-atomic forces do
not permit for that. Therefore, the orbital becomes excited. The extra energy
material in the orbital electron behaves like the part of the orbital electron extra
charge. This electron charge thus, received by the orbital have not counter
balancing field in the nucleus. Therefore, its field proportionate to its quantity
directs itself in the free space radially out w.r.t. the atom. Thus, the field of extra
charge material is directed out in space. The outwardly directed electric field acts
on the orbital electron to pull it out of its orbit to the free space. But, it neither can
do so nor can get ejected out from its host-orbital electron; because, of its small
force as compared to the internal atomic forces. Resultantly, the extra charge
material possessed by the orbital is ejected out in free space in the form of
discrete energy packets, along the electric field lines of the extra charge, in the
free space and soon the field lines projected in the space vanish. They get dissolve
in orbital electron. Thus, the basic material of ‘giving charge property’ to the

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energy material is a fixed quantity in an electron. Therefore, it cannot hold energy
material more than corresponding to the ‘giving charge property’ to ‘energy
material inside electron’. There-from it seems that, an electric charge has basic
quality of ‘charge-property-giving to mass-less material’. That ‘electric
charge property giving material’ can give electric charge property to
additional energy material received by the electronic charge, by its electric
field. But, due to this action the electric force between electron and nucleus
becomes proportionately weak. Simultaneously, due to increase of electron
mass property, its outward-direction force increases. It results in ejection of
extra energy material from the electron. Thus, once the extra energy
material attached to the orbital is ejected from the orbital, it does not have
any charge property either electric or magnetic when it is propagating in
space as a light corpuscle at ultimate speed c w.r.t. its source atom. It is
neutral electro-magnetically. As an orbital electron revolves around its
nucleus at speed near about ‘c’ the ejected energy photons also have the same
speed. When these photons reach suitable accepter or receiver, the receiver
orbital electron accepts that energy and gets excited. It causes the orbital
host atom to vibrate. The receiver doesn’t sent back its reaction
corresponding to the energy it has received from the source atom. It either
reflects it in suitable direction; not necessarily in opposite direction; or
passes it to neighboring atom if it is present there. Therefore, the photons can
travel up to infinite distance of their own in free space, if they are not
obstructed.

The author puts his doctrine about energy, an electric charge to be of a

particle nature. They give it momentum property but, does not accept its
particle-mass.

Clarification of Additional Experiment in Respect of Result that, E.M. Field

Transmit Signal at Infinite Speed Through Free Space:-

The results of above experiment were submitted to Current Science, Bangalore,

ApJ United States of America, A&A, France, NPL, New Delhi, one after other for
publication during the period about 2002 to 2004. But, all of them thought it

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below their standard and conveyed their say encouraging me. Then, I came to
know later on my e-mail pages that, they would accept the above experimental
results if, more sophisticated experiment would be performed for the said results
of the above experiment. The main requirement of that experiment they demanded
was as below. [Fig.40].

The transmitter should send a complex e.m. wave which is frequency modulated
by most possible different frequencies; then, this frequency modulated e.m. wave
should further be amplitude modulated to form pulses of frequencies and those
pulses containing varied frequencies be released through transmitting antenna.
The receiving antenna after its receipt; its receiver should give output the
amplitude modulating frequency envelops. Then, comparing same envelopes at
transmitter and receiver at their probing points suitably provided; the phase shift
between the sent and corresponding received envelope w.r.t. varying distances
between the transmitting and receiving antenna be measured varying the distance.
And, then manipulate the results. There the result should give no phase shift for
electro-magnetic field to have infinite speed of propagation. Then they will accept
the result. It require very sophisticated instruments in micro frequency range and
those could not be made available by the author rather suppliers technical
problems and author’s monitory problems. Author has planned or designed
necessary experiment-set for this purpose as shown in the [ Fig. 40] below.

The figure represents block diagrams of main equipments. Other auxiliary

equipments, amplifiers, impedance matching devices, necessary filters, phase shift
adjuster for zero shift adjust at start of experiment, conman electronic earth,
power supplies etc. are the additional equipments to be provided in the circuit.

It is necessary to perform this like experiments. Maxwell's EM Field results

have its limitations within atom and we are wrongly extending it outside in
free space. The experiments to find light speed, conducted so far are with no
linear motion between the source and observer. Hence, conducting of such
experiments is earnestly requested please. Author has no resources to do so.

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Fig. [40]:

In the experiment at least seven different frequencies in the range 1 GHz to 10

GHz be modulated. Further, frequency modulated frequency is amplitude
modulated by 50 MHz riding wave. The resultant frequency is then transmitted
through space. It is accepted by suitable receiver at a distance. Then, receipted 50
MHz and the generated 50 Mhz signals are compared for phase shift between
them, by varying the distance between the transmitter and receiver. The phase
shift observed will be nil w.r.t. the distance variation to prove infinite speed of the
electro-magnetic field. The probing leads should be of equal lengths and screaned
ones. The variation of distance may be from zero to 100 meters. It is more than
sufficient as compared to the wave length of 50 MHz frequency.

The demand of this specific experiment rose from the laboratory experiment to
measure speed of light performed by two German scientists around the year 2000.
[Fig. 41]. When author was preparing to do so. The figure is a thematic figure.
That experiment finds the speed of visible light of corpuscular nature. In a light
pulse there at, seven light different frequencies were used i.e. it was normal light.
On the same line we have to use seven or even more GHz frequencies duly
frequency modulated under the envelop of Mhz frequency minimum up to 27
MHz in the above experiment. (suitable in respect of range of distance of 100 m.

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[Fig. 41]:

The demand of this specific experiment rose from the laboratory experiment to
measure speed of light performed by two German scientists around the year 2000.
[Fig. 41]. The figure is a thematic figure. They performed it in laboratory very
sophisticatedly.

In the experiment light signals of frequency 50 MHz are generated by supplying a

bunch of LEDs. The 50 MHz wave is sine wave. Therefore, during different
instants of the sine wave, the intensity of light varied accordingly. That’s all.
Then, by means of photo receiver and converter the light signal is converted into
electrical 50 MHz wave. Then the input and output waves are compared for their
phase shift w.r.t. distance. And to the satisfaction, the phase shift tallied the speed
of light c.

Before that, the author was trying for that experiment but in a different way
involving use of cyclotron to measure the maximum speed of electron. But, due to
technical and administrative problems like, myself not being masters degree
holder and not any faculty of any University then, and being government servant,
working on hydro-electric projects in full swing; it could not be.

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But, the author is quiet sure about the above result derived from experiment in
respect of Fig. [38] that is performed by the author. Exactly similar results are
found by European scientist Mr. Peter Gubis after me, with the help of more
sophisticated instruments. Author is confident of his result, gathered from his
experiment as per fig. [38] performed by himself. that, e.m. waves below micro-
frequencies have infinite speed through free space. Because, consider any
frequency wave with any amplitude at the place of marked wave in the Fig.
[38](iii). Its transmission will remain similar irrespective of its frequency and
amplitude. Therefore, the transmitted and receipted frequencies up to micro-
frequencies frequency modulated any wave under the envelop of amplitude
modulated wave will not have phase shift w.r.t. distance between the transmitting
and receiving antenna. But, there will remain a constant phase shift irrespective of
the distance between the antennas, due to electrical quantities like capacitor of the
transmitting and receiving antennas and their circuits.

37. SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND REFRACTION:-

We have seen in above discussions that, length contraction is observed in

relativity. In special relativity, it is only perception. It is not actual. Similarly,
length contraction is observed in refraction of light. When a stick is immersed in a
liquid, it seems shorter than actual and displaced from its actual position. Both the
observations are similar but the situations are different. Both the observations are
compared below.

Let a rod be immersed in transparent fluid say water and its length for the
immersed part of the rod be measured by means of light signals coming from its
ends i.e. the ends of the immersed part of the rod. [Fig. 42].

1) In relativity the rest length l contraction to l’ and the displacement of

position are seen due to the relative velocity v of the source-object, here
length l, is w.r.t. the observer. The relative velocity of the source, adds
relativistically to the velocity of the light signals coming from the source l.

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 In refraction of light, length l contraction to l’ and displacement of
position are observed due to the change in velocity of light in the fluid
medium due to physical properties of the fluid.

2) In both of the above phenomena, though the length contraction is taking

place; actually, shortening of length in both the above cases does not take
place. It is only the perception. The shortening of length is an apparent.

3) In both of the above; it is like parallax phenomena observed in study of

light. If we try to find image of a pin at equal distance from the lens; it is
not there. It is somewhere else.

4) In refraction, the length contraction phenomena occur mainly due the

fluid-medium density.

In relativity it occurs due to relative speed of the source of the light signal,
w.r.t. the observer.
It is caused by the perception limit imposed by nature corresponding to
sensation limited to ultimate speed ‘c’as mentioned above time to time.

Contraction of space means increase in density. Thus, observation of a

moving object w.r.t. the observer, at a constant linear speed at any
particular instant; can be considered as if, the ‘time’ is stalled or frozen, at
that particular instant; and that, the space has become a fluid. Relative
speed ‘v’ between the source and the object, is representing the density of
the fluid; which may be calculated by the relativistic formula (14) above,
as in [Fig. 42] below. There in an effort is made relatively to consider
speed as density of a liquid. When speed of an object is seen to contract its
length; and the density of liquid also seems to contract the length; then,
density of liquid and space contraction can be considered similarly; Not
equal but hence, they can be considered similar phenomena. It leads to
philosophy that, any absolute cannot be perceived by itself. It needs
something else; which is affected by that absolute.

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 [Fig. 42]:

l = l/ (1 v2c2)1/2 where, l’ is the actual mechanical length or rest

length of the immersed part of the rod,
l is the length of the immersed part of the rod
measured from outside of the water container
Thus, knowing l and l’ ‘v’ the relative velocity between the observer and
the rod, equivalent to the fluid density can be judged. Thus, a refraction
phenomena can be represented by relativistic phenomena and vise vis.

With the help of above concepts we can find out ‘equivalent density fluid to
relative velocity ‘v’ and relative density of space as below.
211
36. TO FIND OUT RELATIVE DENSITY OF SPACE:-

Let there be a straight, well calibrated steel rod having a sharp mark showing its
accurate length from its one flat end. Let us take two fluids, one whose density is
to be found and other distilled water whose density is known i.e. (kn = 1). Let
the density of the fluid be un . Assume the free space as fluid whose density is to
be found out.

To find out the un-known density un of the fluid; Deep the rod in the water
vertically up to the sharp mark and measure its immersed length in water from
out-side of the glass, seeing the immersed length in perpendicular direction to the
rod. Note down this length as l’.

Then deep the rod vertically, up to the mark in the fluid of unknown density un
and measure its immersed length from out-side of the glass in perpendicular
direction to the rod, very accurately. This length corresponds to l.

In denser medium the length shortens apparently. Therefore, the relation between
relativistic length and the density of liquid in which the length is measured; is
inversely proportionate.

Substituting the respective values in the relativistic length contraction relation,

l = l/(1 v2c2 )1/2

l’  1/kn l  1/un

Hence, ( l’/ l ) = (un / kn) = un because,

density of water is Unity.
.
Or, ( l / l’ ) = 1/un

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Substituting this value of l/l’ in relativistic equation,
l = l/ (1 v2c2)1/2 i.e.
l’/l = 1/(1 v2c2)1/2 or i.e.
l /l’ = (1 v2c2)1/2 i.e.
l2/l’2 = (1 v2c2) i.e.
2 2 2 2
v = c . (1 - l /l’ )
Substituting the value of l/l’ = K/un
v2 = c2. (1 – 1/2un)
= c2 .( 2un - 1)/ 2un
The equation reduces to 2un ( v2 - c2 ) = - 1
Rearranging, 2un (c2 - v2 ) = 1
Therefore, un = 1/ (c2 - v2 )………………………(38)

The refraction of light is dependent directly on density of the liquid. The length
shortening visual effect in respect of a rod dipped in the liquid is proportional to
the density of the liquid. On the other hand, the visual shortening of length of a
moving object say that of a rod is, directly proportional to its linear constant speed
along the direction of vision of the observer. Therefore, the relative motion v can
be considered equivalent to the density of space of attached frame of the object
i.e. a rod in this case, which is in relative motion w.r.t. the observer. Therefore if
we assume space to be a fluid, whose density is to be found then, above relation
for density of space attached to a moving body as judged by the observer assumed
stationary becomes finally as below.

un = 1/ (c2 - v2 )……………………….(39)

Thus to find out fluid density equivalent to relative velocity v, substitute value of
v in above equation.
The equation (39) is a very interesting one. For ( v=o ) represents equivalent
density

un = 1/c…………………………………..(40)
And that, ( v=c) give it ,

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 un = …………………………………….(41)

Thus, the equation (40) and (41) above informs us that,

1. The density of rest free space is ( 1/c ) w.r.t. water density unity. It is about
(3.33 x 10-10 ).

2. In fluid mechanics, increase in density of a liquid corresponds to decrease in

speed of an object passing through it under influence of same force. Similarly,
in optics velocity of light through a liquid decreases as the liquid density
increases. But, in respect of space, when considered as a fluid, its density
seems to be increasing as the speed of a moving object increases w.r.t.
Observer. And this is well commensurate to the fact that, increasing speed of
light becomes harder and harder indicating increase in density of space.

3. As ultimate speed in free space is ‘c’ and density of free space in a

relatively moving inertial frame is (1/c); it will be very interesting to verify
the relation between density of a fluid and the velocity of light through it.

4. When the relative speed of moving object v equals to speed c; then the density
of space attached to moving object becomes infinite for observer. It means the
observer cannot perceive speeds of objects greater than c w.r.t. him.

5. When, a terrestrial source moves at relative speed ‘c’ the observer will
not get the light signals from it . (The reasons for that are covered in so far
discussions). This situation is equivalent to the space of terrestrial body
becoming so very dense that light could not pass through it for the
respective observer.
6. Author thinks, of a ‘Black Hole, as all atomic structure of the star material
has then got destroyed by itself due to tremendously high pressures inside
it or otherwise. Therefore, all the basic material is revolving at speed ‘c’ in
the domain of the black hole. Therefore, the density of black-hole is
infinite. Similarly, as per above equation due the infinite density even light
also can not pass through it. The density generates gravity. Thus, infinite
density means infinite gravity. Hence, anything, even light passing from
sufficient near-by of a black hole; is also swallowed by the black-hole.

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7. One should very sharply note that, when an object attached to an assumed
stationary frame S; is given a speed; it means the body is accelerated to
attain that speed. This acceleration is sensed by the accelerated objet; its
attached frame and all other inertial frames also which are in relative
motion with each other. Inside an atom orbiting electrons revolve around
their nucleus at linear speed c along their orbital path. Therefore, as seen
above there is infinite space-density inside an atom. Therefore, to break an
atom we can’t break it by bombarding energy on it externally. Actually,
what happens is that, our imparted external energy works as a catalyst to
initiate the atomic break-down. If an object is accelerated with
acceleration nearing c it will break down into basic particles. Because, the
orbital electrons will stop revolving and hence will either collapse into
nucleus or will be ejected out in space around. However, if the body is
accelerated in small suitable steps with sufficient time in between every
consecutive two steps to stabilize the atomic internal structure; then the
body can be made to achieve the ultimate speed ‘c’. further if another
inertial frame is chosen w,r,t, which the body is moving at velocity <c, then
from that frame the body can then be accelerated to speed c w.r.t. it. Then,
the body will be moving at speed >c w.r.t. the first frame. Therefore, it will
not be visible from the first frame.
Please note that, it is not constant linear velocity c at which the body is
destroyed; only it becomes invisible. A body is destroyed when it will be
accelerated at the rate of c w.r.t. its rest frame.

8 Let us see how space density reflects in our life. Please see fig. [43]. As seen
in the figure, when an orbital motion, is in the direction of vision of an
observer; it represents infinite space density to the observer around the
orbital electron. In a rigid continuum any change anywhere is conducted
immediately. Therefore, the density of space around the orbital is sensed by
the observer, through space. And it is gravity. Total effect of all the atoms
contained in an object represents its total gravitational force. This
gravitational force is due to nature’s basic tendency to maintain existing
state. Then that state may be anything. So this gravity will go on reducing
proportional to 1/r2, where r is the distance of a point in space. The space
around the object will form spherical layers after layer of reducing space-

215
 density. The curvilinear space spheres will represent reducing density
outwards from the object.

9 From above discussion the author tries to define space as below.

The space is not made up of some matter; but it is the basic field of nature. It
represents other fields e.g. gravitational, electrical, magnetic, force field etc.
as its source appears in space. The author opines that, as electric field
doesn’t flow; it is established, soon its source appears; similarly gravitational
field also doesn’t flow, it is established soon the mass appears. They are the
orbital electron revolutions and molecular oscillations that give impression
of gravity flow. A field is the path for flow of its respective particles. The field
provides its force- gradient to enable the respective particles to flow. Thus,
from this discussion logically it comes out that, dense material have denser
gravitational field and lower peak value of oscillations of its atoms. On
contrary, rarer material have rarer gravitational field and higher peak value
of oscillations of its atoms.

10 Author feels gravitational field origin to be in motion of electrons around

nucleus and positrons inside nucleus. It is postulated by author as below.

Electric field is along the direction of motion of electric charge. Say it is

along x-axis. Its associated magnetic field is around the path of motion of
charge and perpendicular to the electric field. Say along y-axis. Its plane is
parallel to y-z axes. Hence it is judged that, gravitational field is combined
effect of these electric and magnetic fields along direction of linear motion of
electron in its orbit.Gravitational field show very high vibrations. Those are
due to sinusoidal motion each electron describing number of cycles in its one
revolution equal to number of electrons present in its orbit. It apply to each
orbital electron in all orbits.

216
Fig. [43]:

This phenomena can be detected in a straight bar magnet of high strength.

For in a magnet atoms are aligned so as to make the planes of rotations of
orbital electrons parallel to each other. Therefore above mentioned
gravitational effect can be found up to noticeable mark. The experimental set
up is designed by author as given in below figure.

A strong permanent magnet duly insulated from external magnetic fields and
electric fields perfectly; so also its own magnetic field be perfectly short

217
circuited to avoid its engaging with outside magnetic matter; be placed along
earth’s magnetic lines and weighed accurately by scientific sensitive balance
within a milligram in a kilogram weight. Then the same magnet be weighted in
vertical position. In case electron motion is source of gravity, the first weight
will be higher. The experiment may be better performed if bfore magnetizing
two similar pieces of magnetic material having same weight in accuracy of a
milligram be taken. Then one of the piece be magnetized strongly and the
weights compared with above consideration.

39. SPEEDS GREATER THAN ‘c’ :-

In special relativity, all inertial frames are moving at constant linear speed w.r.t.
each other since previous. Between any two frames, not any one is accelerated to
obtain some relative speed ‘v’. If it is considered, as in the airplane experiment
discussed above; then, that case doesn’t stand in special relativity; instead, it
becomes a case of general relativity during the period of acceleration.once the
acceleration is stopped that case again becomes of special relativity. Till now, not
any two terrestrial bodies are found having relative speed equal to or greater than
the ultimate speed ‘c’. All frames are moving at constant linear speeds w.r.t. each
other. The linear speeds are varying within the ultimate speed ‘c’. The highest
speed observed is of orbiting electrons in any atom. It is very near to ‘c’. For
practical purposes we assume it equal to ‘c’. If speeds greater than ‘c’ were to
exist, they would have been generated at the time of ‘Big-Bang’. But, the acting
and reacting fields have limited the relative speeds between basic particles to the
ultimate speed ‘c’ w.r.t. the ‘Big-Bang point’ and with respect to each other. If
one thinks to generate speed greater than ‘c’ in its inertial frame, the orbitals in
the object will get seriously disturbed due to accelerating forces acting on them.
Hence the acceleration should be within such a quantity that, the accelerating
forces will not be greater than the internal atomic forces; otherwise, the object
being accelerated will break up into pieces. Thus, as speed of the object nears ‘c’
its electro-magnetic effects in outer space to its each atom, becomes stronger and
stronger and near the speed ‘c’ the e.m. forces of the object, appear equal to the
external accelerating forces. See microscopically; if there were not imposed a
speed limit w.r.t. each other at the instant after the ‘Big-Bang’; by E.M. constraint

218
or any other constraint; the world would not have come into existence. Because,
the basic particles would have acquired tremendous speeds and would have
vanished in space; instead of collecting together to form subsidiary particles,
atoms and the elements, then compounds etc. When, some group of particles
would have achieved similar speed and therefore, there was not relative speed
w.r.t. each other in between them; therefore, the material became a bunch of
particles in one rest frame; then, there the material to construct the world would
have formed. To happen all this; definitely the ultimate speed limit imposed by
the nature on itself by itself, is the very basic one of the cause of the world being
come into existence.

However, yet speed greater than ‘c’ is existed in the universe; then, there, must
have been already existing some body, moving at a relative speed near the
ultimate speed in the universe w.r.t. us and, that must have born at the birth of
universe by ejecting out some of its parts due to some repulsive forces there in
from group of material already moving at speed c. Then, the speeds ‘vn’ of that
body will be speeds greater than ‘c’ for us. But, it cannot be in reality. Because of
the nature’s basic laws regarding manifesting the world; Such that ‘c’ is the
perception limit imposed on observer. Therefore, though there would be such a
body in universe, we cannot see that body; because, as the body it is moving at
speed ‘c’or greater than c w.r.t. us, and therefore, a light signal from it will not
reach us. We ca not sense it.

The concept of ‘c’ perception limit imposed by the universe; and, the
concept of ‘Big Bang’ lead to perceive that, there may be trillions and
trillions stellar bodies forming another universes at-least six numbers of
universes, like ours, subtending a solid angle of 2/3 at the point of Big Bang.
The author assumes that, in Big Bang the material would have released at
speed ‘c’ w.r.t. its centre. Therefore, the stellar bodies formed by that
material must have been moving at ultimate speed w.r.t. the point of Big-
Bang, as the centre. Thus, our universe is a conical frame subtending a solid
angle corresponding to plane angle 2/3 at the point of the Big Bang. An
observer assumed stationed along the centre line of that cone formed by the

219
solid angle perceive that beyond that region; the stellar bodies are moving at
speed ‘c’ and even greater w.r.t. him. Please see fig.[Fig. 44] below,

In the figure, the big-bang is represented. After big-bang all the basic material is
thrown at speed c in all directions in space. An observer O is attached to one of
the particle. Then it is seen that beyond solid angle θ corresponding to plane angle
(2/3)π, the particles are moving at speed greater than c w.r.t. observer on centre
line of the solid angle. After formation of clusters and then terrestrial bodies, all
that masses are moving at speed c w.r.t. big-bang point. Nearer objects to
observer will be found moving slower than farther. Because, all of those are
moving at speed c w.r.t. the big-bang point. But, the objects at more and more
distance will be found by the observer; moving at higher and higher speeds up to
the ultimate speed c, as shown in the diagram. Because, as distance from observer
increases, the light signal travel-time also increases. It increases time period
between consecutive light signals coming from the farther particles or farther
bodies. It indicates accelerated motion, when this accelerated motion reaches c
then the particles or the bodies become invisible to the observer. As all the
material thrown out in space by Big-Bang is assumed to have been thrown out at
ultimate speed; the thrown out nearby particles will have much smaller relative
speed w.r.t. each other. The particle outside the solid triangle or the cone will
have speed near c or even greater than c w.r.t the particle much inside the solid
triangle. Once in the big-bang the material is thrown out at speed c; then there is
no force acting on the material. Therefore, it will remain moving at a consistent
speed c w.r.t. the big-bang point. But, due to all particles or bodies near observer
are moving almost at the same speed c radially out; individually the particles are
not experiencing speed c w.r.t. each other; but, they are experiencing much lower
than c speed and distant particles moving at more and more speed as distance
increases, giving illusion of accelerated speed. Actually due to perception
principle it seems like that. The relativity does tell us the actual fact.

Thus, we can know very small portion of the universe.

To increase our approach, we should have signal source of infinite speed. And as
per experimental finding by the author described in this book, the electric field in

220
free space has infinite speed. It is just established soon its source appears. Or,
electric field has infinite speed. The field-lines behave like absolutely rigid bars
hinged to their respective sources. They are moved by their sources. At their other
end are the electrons of object that follows the motion of its master. The source
also gets attached to the field lines. Then during the informative motion transfer
from the master i.e. from the source to the object; depending upon inertia of the
two, the fulcrum of the field lines is decided. Naturally the fulcrum determines
what amount of motion is to be transferred to the follower from the master.

The author has found in above performed experiment that, E.M.

communication waves up to micro-waves including itself; communicate signal
immediately by field mode in free space. Therefore, if we develop field mode
communication at far distances; then, we will be in position to know about
those universes. To produce field mode transmission equipment, the sensing
antenna shall be field sensing transistor’s panel. There after suitable
electronics to create the visual copy of the remote body.

[Fig. 44]:

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40. ‘ct’ AS UNIVERSAL CONSTANT:-

It is very interesting fact that, minute systems as well as very huge systems work
very smoothly and very accurately. Micro-machines in ‘ Mega-thousand’ frequency
electronic circuits and huge generators of which rotating parts weight counts
around hundred tones, maintain their shaft oscillations within 40 microns at
sensitive parts. The Mega-thousand frequency generator maintains its wave time
period in nano seconds accurately for its generated every frequency. Whereas power
generator exhibit frequency or time period variation up to ten percent during their
normal operation. The heavy machine parts run within 30 microns to 150 microns
accuracy, very stably; but, small machinery run minimum up to 2000 microns
accuracy and that too uncertain.

An atomic structure is the smallest running structure in the universe. In an atom,

orbital electrons revolve around their nucleus very stably maintaining their orbital
time period of rotation always constant in their unexcited state i.e. their non-
accelerated natural state. Therefore, for a scientific standard watch time unit
accepted is the time period of rotation of a particular orbital of a specific atom
further manipulated as and where required.

It is observed that, the universe is expanding with an accelerated velocity. In the

article on airplane experiment discussed above; it is found that due to an
accelerated motion; the orbital electron speed reduces to ( c2- v2 )1/2 . where, ‘v’ is
the velocity gain due to acceleration. It indicates reduction in velocity of the
orbital. Therefore, orbital time period will be increased as measured by present
scale of time. The decrease of the orbital electron velocity means decrease in
ultimate velocity ‘c’ and the increase in time period of rotation of the orbital are
in inverse proportion mutually; so, that the product ‘ct’ remains constant. This
constancy is w.r.t. the passing of time of the universe.

Now, let us see how the product ‘ct’ remains constant in different inertial frames
which are in relative motion with each other. Refer the relativistic relation ( 17 )
above.

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t = {1(1  v2c2)1/2}.{ t – vx/ c2 }, where, t’ is the time in the inertial frame S’
which is moving w.r.t. the inertial frame S, at a constant linear relative speed ‘v’
along their coincided axes x-x’.

Now, to delete light-signal communication, introducing communication delay e b.

substitute (x = 0), in the above equation and simplify. Then, we obtain below
equation,

( c2 - v2)1/2 .t’ = ct ………………………………………(a)

Let observer O attached to frame S check the product of velocity of light and
corresponding time duration in his attached frame and in frame S’ in relative
motion w.r.t. him.

In above equation (a), ct is the light speed-time product related to his rest frame.

Substituting for t’ in terms of his time t. the equation becomes,

( c2 - v2)1/2 [1/(1 –v2/c2)]t = ( c2 - v2)1/2 [c/( c2 - v2)1/2 ]t =ct.

Thus, Therefore, c’.t’ = c.t --------------------------------------------------------(42)

Thus observer O finds the product ct in respect of any inertial frame in

universe. c is always to be considered as per its reality that, it is the speed of
light w.r.t. its source; measured in any universal inertial frame.

In the universe the most reliable time counting machine is an atom. In

astable atom an electron revolving around its nucleus can not err in millions
and millions of years. Therefore, its orbital linear speed is related to ultimate
velocity c. Its orbital time period is stable. It is related to unit time. Therefore
c and t are complementary numbers of each other. If one will decrease other
will increase in the same proportion maintaining the product ct constant.

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c may change. Time t is complementary number to c, and as stated above it
is also bound to change in inverse proportion; so that ct will remain
constant. ct represents a c represents a velocity. Though it is constant in
present era; it being a quantity that distance; in broad sense space. In the
universal space constancy of distance between any two points forever is thus
represented by the product ct. Though, c the velocity of light is constant w.r.t.
its source as seen from any inertial frame in the universe; it doesn’t express any
constant dimention of universe. It represents the state of universe during
different era. On other hand ct represent a constant distance under any state of
universe. Let c change accordingly t is bound to change inversely to maintain
product ct constant. Since the birth of universe c and t are changing but ct
is not changing. It can not change. Hence “ct” is universal constant. In
Minkowaski’s four dimensional space time co-ordinate is not t but, it is ct.
therefore, facts mentioned by x, y, z, ct will remain real till the universe exist.
The juniors at millions of years latter will learn today’s world very correctly
with the help of Minkowaski’s four dimensional space. Hence, ct is the
universal constant and not the c alone.

39. MATERIAL BASIC PARTICLES:-

The existence of the universe is dependent upon three properties of each

entity in the universe. They are, ( 1 ) Inertia, ( 2 ) Its physical nature, ( 3 )
Its action or interaction. There are basic particles to provide properties to
different kinds of materials in the universe. e.g. Higg’s bosons provide the
property of mass to all materials. Gravitons provide the property of gravity
to all material mass. Similarly, there are basic particles which provide an
electrical charge, the property of electricity. As light photons exhibit the
property of the mass or in microscopic view, momentum; the Higg’s bosons
must surely be attached with them. An electric or its complementary
magnetic field does not have basic particles. Yet, it exhibits inertia property
that is to maintain one’s own existing state, because of the electric
permittivity and the magnetic permeability of its medium. Thus inertia is not
limited to mass only; it is existed with each object, each subject matter,
energy, fields, (even with perception, feelings, thoughts which have their sure

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existence once they are generated) etc. The finest physical particles in nature
are that of ‘energy’. This energy is stored in each and every point of the
universe. It is in the dormant state. Therefore, it is undetectable to an observer.
But, when a Higg’s boson like basic particle attaches to it; the energy packet
comes in existence; then, that energy form is perceived by an observer. Because,
it works, it moves around a point. In its first stage before the birth of universe; it
works as passive energy. That is, the work done is again converted to its original
form; as it happens in the existing universe, in an electrical active circuit having
pure capacitive or pure inductive load. It also exists in an atom. For, when an
orbital is revolving around its nucleus under the force of electric and gravitational
fields of nucleus, due to protons and neutrons; it is doing work. The work is
transferred mutually between different orbital electrons in the atom. Therefore, an
atom can maintain its existence millions and millions of years if they are not acted
upon by sufficient external forces. That’s why; Einstein had defined energy
truly, as ‘some thing moving is energy.’ Thus, electric charge material must be
moving inside the domain of the charge, involving passive work; i.e. the work
being getting generated within the charge and getting absorbed within itself.
Instead of talking about charge material or energy material; it will be more correct
to talk in terms of quarks; the most basic particles.
We have seen that, extra charge with an orbital, released in free space, does not
exhibit electric properties but, it exhibits mass properties. It clearly indicates that,
the sensible pure energy particles are attached with Higg’s bosons; an electron is a
store of basic energy attached with sufficient quantity of Higg’s bosons and the
basic particles of electric property. That’s why the light photons, though they are
released by an electron; does not have electrical properties but, have mass
property.

The photons travel through free space mechanically. i.e. once they are
released from their source-electron, in the free space, at the speed near the
speed of light; they travel themselves keeping their state of motion w.r.t. their
host atom; thus following Newton’s law of motion. Thus, the light photons do
not need a field for their propagation through free space.

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42. MASS-ENERGY CONVERSION, E = mc2 :-

A mass is a specific form of energy. Because, when an electron is in free space its
electric field is distributed homogeneously all around it; emanating radially out
and extending up to infinity. But, when the same electron is in an atom revolving
around the nucleus in an orbit; its whole field is directed towards its nucleus. An
electron is the form of stored energy. An atom is made of electrically neutral
neutrons and positively charged protons bunched in a ball like shape called
nucleus. Around the nucleus electrons revolve in orbits at linear speeds nearing
‘c’. These revolving electrons are tied up with the nucleus by their field and
remain revolving around their nucleus without falling into the nucleus; Because,
the mass property of the revolving electrons creates a centrifugal force that
balances the internal electrical force between a orbital electron and the nucleus.
An atom is a mass, and in normal condition it is electrically as well magnetically
neutral. When an atom acquires superfluous charge; it shows electric field due to
that charge. Then it is said an ion. Thus, when a group of basic particles does not
exhibit either electrical or magnetic properties; they form a mass. All component-
materials neutrons, protons, electrons are made up from basic particles called
‘quarks’. Some quarks are positive and some quarks are negative electrically.
Each component of atom is suitable combination of the positive and negative
charges.

The outermost orbital electrons have maximum energy. In some material atoms
they are loosely bound with the nucleus. Therefore, a small quantity of an external
energy can drive it out. There are some more basic particles related to atomic
structure and very strong atomic internal forces.

When, an atomic component is driven out by supplying necessary energy, internal

atomic energy is released. And in that process the component itself brakes into its
basic particles giving out its bonding energy and gets vanished.

Author has claimed that orbital electrons are rotating around their nucleus at
linear speed ‘c’when they eject radiation energy out. Therefore, when an electron
is ejected out from its orbit from an atom; it will travel at the same linear speed

226
‘c’ in space. Therefore, the electron will possess a momentum equal to, ‘emo . c’,
in the space outside of the atom also, where, emo is the rest mass of the electron.

When, above electron will hit another suitable atom; it will deliver its whole
kinetic energy to inside of the atom within a very short period ‘t’. and will come
to rest immediately. Thus its momentum will be reduced to zero. Hence change in
momentum from emo . c to zero, generates a force thus, the force generated by the
electron will be (emo . c – 0)/t i.e. equal to, ( emo . c / t)

Above electron force does work on the dashed atom during its travel ( emo . c /
t).{( c – 0 )/2}.t. i.e. equal to, ( emo . c2)/2 . Thus it is one part say E1of the
electron’s mass energy. Thus,
E1 = ( emo . c2)/2

is one part of energy created by the electron…………………………………...(43)

As seen above, the electron has come to rest very instantly. A flow of electron
constitutes a current. Current is always associated with magnetic field,
perpendicular to the electric field of a moving electron. Electric field of a moving
electron is in the direction of its motion. Therefore, the magnetic field encircles
the electric field of the moving electron.

When the speed of electron changes suddenly from ‘c’ to ‘0’, there is
instantaneous change in its magnetic field at very high rate, in such a
direction so as to oppose the change in speed. Therefore, extra high voltages,
in ‘eV’ are generated to push the electron inside the atom to maintain its
state of motion. But, the strong internal atomic forces do not allow it. Hence,
in this dual stress, the electron gets crushed into pieces of energy photons,
acquiring ultimate speeds due to the effort of induced forces by the e.h.v. to
the resting electron. Thus, total photon mass is equal to the crushed
electron’s rest mass, emo . There is change in velocity of the total photon-
mass from zero to ‘c’ again within a short time period, t. therefore, a force
acted upon the rest mass of the electron is, (emo . c)/ t. This force has done

227
the work of breaking the electron into pieces in the form of photon. Within
its travel through an incremental distance equal to, ( c. t )/2.
e
Therefore, the work done by the force is equal to, {( mo . c)/ t}. ( c. t )/2 =
(emo . c2)/2. This is the second part of the energy conversion i.e. say E2. Thus,

E2 = (emo . c2)/2…………………………………..(44)

Then, E1 + E2 give the total energy E obtained from the mass emo .Hence,

E = (emo). c2, i.e. in general,

E = m c2…………………………………………..(45)
Every outside non-electric particle is having electrical properties with its basic
particles quarks. Hence above calculations apply to each component of an atom
of any mass.

See that, after derivation of above mass-energy relation; the total rest mass
of the electron has remained in the form of basic particles. Hence, very basic
particles have eternal existence. These are heat corpuscles as per the author.
They can not be other than that. Before the world came into existence, those
were moving in universal space w.r.t. each other relativistically. They
represented energy as Einstein has quoted that, ‘something moving is energy’.

What is that ‘something’. To understand it the author remember the definition of

a point. ‘a point is that thing, which have no length, no breadth, no thickness, but
have only existence’. It means a point posses only one dimension of
Minkowaski four dimensional space. The basic particles are of that nature.
Hence, basic mass particle is a particle exhibiting mass property but have no
existence. Higs Bosons are also of that nature. Gravitons are also of that nature. In
the Minkowaski’s four dimensional world they have only one dimension ‘ct’.

‘That something is moving’ to manifest energy. To exhibit mass as its existence

only and energy as something mowing; they have allotted it energy quantity ‘pv’
(mv2) which include mass property also. To represent energy one can not avoid
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mass. Therefore for explaining and understanding purpose we assume basic
mass particles.

What is heat energy. On microscopic view; it is kinetic energy of basic mass

particles. In practical life we measure temperature of a body, temperature of an
object or a fluid. As the vibrations of atomic internal structures are increased due
to forcing of kinetic energy in the form of quanta from outside and there from
atomic vibrations in matter increase. These vibrations are transferred to the
measuring device. They are converted to expantion of mercury or electrical
resistivity; all working on the basic kinetic energy principle. Thus heat is
relatively increased vibratory motion of basic particle representing more energy.
See the nature of a burn and not-deep wound cuts. Both are similar. Their results
are similar. A knife cut is due to bundles of mass particles in the form of atoms
aligned in a line and a burn is due to pinching of basic mass particles on a surface.
Those mass particles are in the form of needles of nano-meter dia and are in
bunch with their pin-points in a plane of the surface on which they pinch. Hence,
mass is not totally destroyed in the mass to energy conversion as shown in the
proof of mass energy conversion relation proved in this book.

As we agree existence of point; we agree existence of basic mass; having no mass

but having well known property of mass i.e. momentum. Thus, for manifestation
of energy motion of mass particles is the must existence.

Therefore, at start author has quoted heat as the basic energy.

Thus, the basic mass particles were moving in space before the universe as
terrestrial bodies’ material was generated; or before the Big-Bang. During
their motion at some instant of time, their density at some spot has increased.
That had created fire and gases and other basic particles. Thus the process of
creation of world has started. Nothing other than this event can happen to
create the universe.

In the running world also, the heat is the ultimate energy that is running the
universe. Because, energy required to start a work is only heat in suitable

229
other form, mostly in electricity form; and after the work it returns to its
original heat form. In each and every example this fact is definitely existed.
Let us discuss below two examples to get the direction of thought.

Say one has to go to say, Pune. He has selected a car for travel. The car required
petrol. Petrol comes from buried lives long before in entient days. The life on
earth is due to heat from the Sun. He burns that petrol in the car-engine converting
it into heat through motions involving friction. That’s all.

We produce electricity from coal or water or atomic reaction in major quantities.

The coal is having storage of heat received from the Sun. we burn coal in
electricity generating machines to generate electricity. The electricity drives
electric motors, and electric static appliances. In moving parts electricity comes
over friction involved in motions to perform intended jobs; and in static
machinery it is converted in different forms like heat in ovens, magnetic fields in
solenoids, radiations in communication systems. Magnetic field energy in
solenoids during the work is converted into heat through friction of mechanical
operated parts. In radiation, during completion of desired work, the electricity
flows through electric circuits of the instruments and generates heat during
overcoming the circuit and the job resistance. It is very interesting to know that, to
do a work we take a quantum of energy say ‘Q’ from nature and after doing it we
return that quantum of heat ‘Q’ in full quantity to the nature.

Thus, the basic form of the eternal physical energy is HEAT; and, the eternal
basic material particles of mass may, they not have any gravity, any Higg’s
bosons; still be existed, engulfed with heat in a point domain in motion in the
universe.

43. CONCLUSIONS:-

The prime instrument with human being, to live life and to communicate the
nature for making the life better and useful is his physical vision of eye and the
communication medium is the light.

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The light has speed equal to 3Χ108 m/sec w.r.t. its source. The source may be
light generating or light emitting one. Further though light is made up of energy
packet-particles; is works as a wave.

The fixed speed of light in a small domain of speed range, and wave nature of
light involve the base of resolution power of vision. If the light would not have
these properties no one could have been able to discriminate objects. All would
have been seen something flat curtain. Farther and nearer objects would have
been seen at same distance. The wave nature involves phase shift. Light coming
from same source, falling upon an object having different orientations is reflected
towards us. Each spot of an object has its specific distance from an observer.
Therefore, light received from the different points of the object has different
respective phase shifts. Such light from all points of the object enters the
observer’s eye. The constant speed of light rays maintains relative phase
difference amongst them. Thereby, an observer can see the object’s three
dimensional view very clearly.

Therefore, it is the natural very basic law of vision; that, the light rays from all the
parts of the object, coming under projection of vision of the observer; should enter
the observers eye at the same instant of time. These rays cannot be released at the
same instant from the object. Rays from longer points are released comparatively
earlier. Infact, the object reflects light rays continuously. It is the natural
visualization system with living as well as non leaving system; which responds to,
those rays which create a meaningful picture. The visualizing charges in eye of
livings and in camera lenses are connected with each other. They resonate at such
instants when they find smoother phase changes in receipted rays. Thus the
process of seeing takes place.

As the speed of a moving object becomes higher and higher, becomes more and
more difficult to see it. At its speed equal to light; it becomes totally invisible,
such objects can neither be detected by human eye nor by camera, only way to
detect them is to collect their light signals intercepting parallel to their path of
travel. It is also necessary for life on earth. Because, there are so many particles in
nature; they are moving in total space here and there nearing speed of light. If the

231
natural property were such that human being were able to see them.; then, the sky
view would have become something like a rainy day sky and that too forever.
Every one can imagine what a hell that life would have been. In fact life would
not have appeared on this earth. Hence, there are basic natural laws that govern
the above mentioned behavior of observer and the nature itself. These laws are as
below.

1. The light has maximum speed of 3X108 m/sec w.r.t. its source. With
respect to any observer the light speed is (c2 – v2)1/2 where ‘v’ is the
relative motion between the observer and the source of light. ‘c’ is the
velocity of light.

Please see here one very interesting fact. The light velocity coming
from a mowing object always reduces though the object is
approaching towards the observer with what so ever speed may be of
that object. This happens because of the particular way of releasing
the light photons, as shown in fig. 1 and in this book.

2. A human eye, a camera lenses can sense the light within its visible
frequency range. They cannot sense speed of a moving object which is if
greater than the light speed.

3. An object is realized by an observer, when the signals from all the

points of t6he object are received by the observer at the same instant
of time as described above.
These are the three basic laws of nature, being declared by the author first
time.

4. After going through the facts in relativity, anyone can easily understand
the exact sense of space contraction and time dilation. In case where
ever linear constant motions are involved, these phenomena are like
parallax in optics branch of physics. In reality nothing happen like that
affecting human life. These space contraction and time dilation effects are
the outcomes of natural perception theory mentioned in above three rules.

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5. For energy release; conduction electrons oscillate to and fro in the
conductor of antenna at a.c. frequency of supply and produce
oscillating fields in the receiver antenna. The varying a.c. eV are
induced in receiving antenna. That processed further in receiver
electronics and the information is got. This is field mode. The field
lines released from transmitter, after suffering some reflections in
environment reach receiving antenna.

6. In photon mode, energy received say, from transmitter electronics is

ejected in the form of photons in space by transmitting diodes. The
photons travel at light speed in space. Reach receiving photo diode
antenna. Receiver electronics processes the signal and gives out the
contented information.
In field mode the transmitter antenna is in direct contact with
receiving antenna by means of field lines. But, in case of photon
mode it is not.

7. Only to be a good mathematician is not sufficient; he should have good

pure logical scientific perception. Every scientific pure logical fact can be
mathematicallised very perfectly and the new unknown outcomes from
that mathematics should be understood on the background of the facts
which are used to form basic mathematical relations. While studying
Lorentzian transformations this fact is understood. ‘All inertial frames are
equal in themselves’; this scientific perception is very beautifully
mathematicallised in Lorentzian transformations while forming the basic
two relativistic relations and while substituting all possible conditions to
solve the equations that can involve in nature w.r.t. equality in all respect
of inertial frames.

8. As all inertial frames are equal, in themselves, the length contraction

and time dilation phenomena are like parallax in optics. The
relativistic Lorentzian mathematical derivations should be used to
know the actual facts.

9. ‘c’ is not the ultimate speed in nature. Speeds greater than ‘c’ can
exist. But, those speeds cannot be realized perceived by an observer.
Hence, ‘c’ is the limit of perception imposed by the nature, (for
creation and existence of nature).
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10. ‘c’ is not a universal constant; but, ‘ct’ is the universal constant.
Because, space contraction

11. In relativity study we take two frames. But, third frame the universal
frame is inherently involved there in. One who is reading, studying,
whatever is doing with relativity, is attached to that inherent third frame.
This third inertial frame makes understanding of relativity very clear.

12. To understand relativity better, the author has introduced the concept of
mechanical length and electro-magnetic length or the relativistic length.
The length measurable directly by means of measure tape or civil
engineering survey in the attached frame of both; one who is measuring
and the other, what is being measured; is mechanical length.

The length of a moving object measured with the help of light signals; is
named by the author as electro-magnetic length or relativistic length.

13. The stellar bodies farther and farther from us, are seen moving away
from us, at the same time moving away from each other. Their
motions are found accelerated motions.

As per relativity the linear constant motion of a stellar body or any

other, at far away distances seems accelerating. It is well discussed by
the author under the heading’….Red-Shift.’

14. There is a misunderstanding that, the present position of a stellar body is ,

when it released the signal, which we have analyzed to find its position;
when that signal was released by the body; at that instant where the body
has been; that is the position.

The author has proved that, the position given by the analysis of
the signal is the position where actually the stellar body is present at the
instant of the receipt of the signal that is taken for analysis. Infact that
length l is shorter by relativistic factor (c2 – v2)1/2. Therefore, the actual
length l’ the rest length in the inertial frame S’of the body, which is in

234
 relative motion w.r.t. us, i.e. observer O; is obtained by dividing the
measured relativistic length l by this factor. So that,
Actual present distance of the stellar body from us at present, is

l’ = l/(c2 – v2)1/2

15. Above mentioned receipted signal, gives the condition of the remote
stellar body at the instant when the body released the signal. This fact is to
be verified. For, if there exists such photon field, that, it may be modifying
its light signal photons then, here mentioned condition will be just reverse.

Presently, we consider, the condition of the stellar body as we perceive

here now. Or, to apply relativity principle to it, we assume the condition of
that stellar body; when the signal was released by the body.

16. The basic laws of motion, stated by Newton, are universal; they
obeyed everywhere. Wherever some additional KIND of forces are
involved; their effects on motion are to be taken into account in the
laws of motion.

17. To attain ultimate speed by an object w.r.t. its rest frame, the
acceleration used to increase the speed of the body should be less than
‘c’ necessarily. A body accelerated at speed ‘c’ will get destroyed by
its atomic structures.

18. There is a lot of difference, in behavior of a field and that of a light photon
or simply a photon.
On the basis of Maxwell’s equations, only following mathematically, we
are taking it granted for that, the light photons are propagated in space by
electric and magnetic field oscillation in space and the fields are
perpendicular to each other and they oscillate perpendicular to each other.
But, infact these oscillations are limited in the domain volume of an atom;
which releases the photon.

19. It is necessary to put forth in scientific world, the nature of

transmission by field. A field doesn’t flow; it is established; soon its

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 host appears. A field transmits information at infinite speed. As both
the facts are seen in analysis of it, in this book by the author.

20. The author tried to find the density of space w.r.t. relative speed of an
object. He found ; how the density of space increases for that moving
object as its speed increases and it becomes infinite, when the object
moves at relative speed ‘c’. The author tried to peep into gravity
through this mentioned observation. By that, author has arrived to
the point that the orbital motions of electrons make dense the space in
their path and works as gravity. Further, the gravity is the feeling of
density. Further, it is the universal law that, everything tries to
maintain its original state by reacting the change. Therefore, the
density in paths of orbitals tries to dilute by expanding itself in outer
space w.r.t. the atom. Therefore, we experience it and feel it gravity.
This very scientifically appeared fact needs necessary
experimentation.

21. The author has proved the mass energy conversion relation E=Mc2.
With the help of relativity principles. It is found that. The very basic
form of energy in the universe is the HEAT. And similarly the very basic
energy in this visible world is the KIENETIC ENERGY.

In the science it is considered that all the mass can be converted into
energy; but it is not at all. The author, while deriving the mass-energy
conversion relation found that at last very basic particles remain. The
mass energy conversion relation only converts all the energy stored in a
mass particle into the very basic energy, the heat energy at last.
. At this END the readers are requested to read the Appendix- ‘The Universe’
invariably and think on it.
__________________________________________________________________

Thank you, Sir.

Er. D. B. Dhone.
Author.

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 APPENDIX: 1.

ALGEBRAIC AND RELATIVISTIC VECTOR ADDITIONS

There is basic difference in calculation of resultant of two vectors by algebraic

method and relativistic method. Because, there is a basic difference in behaviour
of these two. In special relativity, these two differences are noticed.

1. Their resultant directions are different, and

2. Their resultant magnitudes are also different.

To discuss above facts let us draw the figure-5, with minor changes; but, having
major meaning.

Fig. [1]:

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Let us compare above both the figures in respect of the velocity vectors.

1. The magnitude and the direction in algebraic vector addition is obtained

by rectangular summation of the vector quantities. Both or all the vectors
are applied simultaneously. Therefore, the vectors react with each other.
During their reaction with each other; they find their opposing components
to each other and cancel them out. Therefore, the object moves under the
influence of only one resultant force in its direction describing the source
of its velocity, the point at which the both or all the forces were applied.

2. The magnitude and direction in relativistic vector addition is obtained by

effect of each force independently. Because, the application of forces in
relativistic mathematics differs much in comparison to that in algebraic
method. In relativistic method each force is applied solely at any different
instants of time, after the application of the previous force is finished. Any
component of any force is not cancelled. Motion of each force is
possessed independently by the object. To find next position of the object
along its path of motion we have to add all the velocities serially as per
their order of application. The source is seen to be moving along the
direction and the magnitude of first velocity w.r.t. observer which is given
to the source of the object. e.g. in relativity study here a light photon is an
object under velocity and the atom from which it is emitted is its source.

238
3. In algebraic vector addition, the direction of the resultant is given by
rectangular summation of the vectors at the point of application of both the
vectors. The original point of release of algebraic velocity vectors remain
stationary w.r.t. position of velocity vector along its path of travel.

4. In relativistic vector addition each velocity acts independently. There is

not cancellation of opposing to each other components. Therefore, the
resultant doesn’t follow single path; but, it moves parallel to the direction
of last applied force. Therefore, the original point of release of relativistic
velocity vectors moves along the first applied velocity vector. Thus, the
path of travel of relativistic resultant vector moves parallel to itself.

5. Thus, as seen in above figure, the origin of algebraic resultant velocity is

the point ‘A’ and that of relativistic vectors is ‘R’. in case of two vectors.

6. In relativistic as well as algebraic summation, the finishing point of the

resultant is the same i.e. the observer. But, starting points as seen by the
observer differ. In above figure the observer O finds that algebraic
resultant vector is coming from point ‘A’ whereas, the relativistic resultant
vector is coming from the point ‘R’.

7. The algebraic vectors are attached to one conman inertial frame. Because,
They are generated in the same frame. But, relativistic vectors are
generated in different inertial frames in relative motion with each other.

8. As seen from above figure, the position of a velocity vector in universe as

such is same in respect of algebraic as well as relativistic vectors.
Therefore, in relativity the universal inherent frame is always present and
every one, who studies velocity; gets attached to universal frame. All
frames inertial as well as accelerated are contained in universal frame. The
universal frame also is in motion. Because, as per Einstein, something
moving is energy. Energy is converted into mass. Therefore, every mass is
in motion. Therefore, the universe is also in motion. Therefore, the
universe is expanding.
Er. D. B. Dhone,

Author.

239
 APPENDIX: 2

DERIVATION OF RELATIVISTIC SPACE-TIME RELATIONS FOR A

DISTANT FRAME BY SCIENTIFIC PERCEPTION METHOD

With the help of Figures 1 and 2, in this book; the space-time relativistic
relations are developed by the author scientifically. Those are as below.

x’ = [1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2].x, and

t’ = [1/( 1 – v2/c2)1/2].t

these relations are applicable for magnitude of x, very small. For, great values of
x up to infinite value, the relations are derived as Lorentzian transformations
mathematically in this book. They are as below.

x’ = [1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2] . (x – vt )………………………………( 1 )

t’ = [1/( 1 – v2/c2)1/2] . (t – vx/c2)…………………………….( 2 )

The author has made here an Endeavour, to derive the terms ‘vt’ and ‘vx/c2’
scientific perception.

With the help of figures [1 and 2] in this book; space-time relativistic following
formulae are derived on the basis of scientific perception. They are,

x’ = [1/( 1 – v2/c2)].x………………………………...( I )
and t’ = [1/( 1 – c2/v2 )].t……………………………….( II )

The conditions for above equations are shown in fig. [iv] above.

For deriving equation ( I ), the condition is, t = 0. This condition tells that the
equation can be used to find out rest frame distance of any stellar body at any
distance from us.

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The second equation involves the condition that, the event should take place very
near to observer. This condition is indicated by assuming x = 0 . Two nos. of
consecutive signals by one second apart from observer O’ attached to frame S’,
will enable observer O/us; to know electromagnetic or relativistic time relation
between the S and S’ frames. For distant stellar body also this condition may be
arranged by knowing some rhythmic process taking place at that distant body.
Under other than above conditions following will apply.

Fig. [ 1 ]:

If we are necessitated to measure x’ of a stellar body say Neptune, not from us

but, from some other point in path of Neptune such that that point maintains
constant distance x’ from Neptune; then in formula ( I ) we have to use term ( x –
vt ) instead of only x; where, v is the velocity of Neptune along our sight of vision
in respect of Neptune.

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Similarly, to apply the equation ( II ) simultaneously, below consideration
applies.

t’ is the period of time required to reach the event signal to observer O’ i.e.
corresponding to the above mentioned point along the path of Neptune. That point
is on y’ axis of frame S’ theoretically. Hence the time required for the event-
signal to travel from y’ axis to O should be deducted. That time period is (vx/c2).
It is obtained as below.

We have to find out the time period of travel of the light signal, from y’ axis to y
axis. The distance between y and y’ axis is ‘vt’.

Therefore, time period for travel of this distance as is required by the light signal
is
= vt/c secs
To eliminate ‘t’ because it is the time period required by the signal to travel from
event-source to observer O or to the y axis, multiply and divide by ‘c’ to above.
Thus we obtain,
vtc/c.c = vtc/c2
i.e. = x.c/c2 because, x = ct
Therefore, by substituting for x and t as discussed here; both the relations reduce
for distant relative frame as below.
x’ = [1/( 1 – v2/c2)].[x – vt] --------------------------( III )
and t’ = [1/( 1 – c2/v2 )].[ t – vx/c2 ] ---------------------( IV )

these are the Lorentzian transformations, derived commonly..

Er. D. B. Dhone.
Author.

242
 APPENDIX-3

UNIVERSE

The human curiosity about the Universe, is everlasting. Pure logically thinking
without any prejudice; whenever it might have been, the universe had came into
existence from ‘nothing’.
There can be two ways of the ‘First Universe coming into existence.
1. The well known ‘Big-Bang’ and
2. Whirling motion of very basic particles.

If the universe is spherical, the Big-Bang theory will stand. And, if the universe is
like a disk, then, whirling motion theory being considered by the author ought to
stand true.

The basic energy form in universe is the ‘Heat Energy’.

We see that, in the running universe, the heat is rolling by taking different
forms of energy and lastly again sinking into universal ‘heat sink’.

The light falls on some object; some of its portion is reflected back and rest is
absorbed by it. The absorbed portion enter into orbital electrons and make it
vibrate to go to higher energy level and then by releasing the extra energy mostly
in the form of heat. We burn fuel in vehicle, in cooking shegadi, in boiler, etc.
most of its stored energy is converted into heat. We eat food, the energy in the
food is converted lastly into heat when we work and when our body systems work
within themselves. Some how or other when an atom disintegrates, the internal
atomic energy is released mostly in the form of heat. Radiation energy other than
heat form, also converts into heat energy when it falls on some object. Random
motions of particles are converted into heat energy. Electricity is converted finally
into heat.

Thus, every form of energy is lastly converted into heat energy.

243
We know that, for universe to come into its existence, different atomic structures
are developed. An atom possesses tremendous energy. Where from this energy
every atom might have gathered! It is from the universe as a heat sink.

We know that, there is infinite heat energy in in the universe. Because, the free
space temperature is 4° K. and, that , the universe is infinite. Thus, the universe
itself can act as source of energy; because, it is having tremendous storage of
energy. Similarly, the universe can act as a heat sink for the heat emitted by the
running universe because, of its lowest temperature of 4° K.

Temperature is the measure of ‘thermal state of an object’.

Now let us see states of object matter. Initially, we were assuming three states of
matter; solid, liquid and gaseous.

But, in modern era-Science an object matter can be transformed into its ionic state
‘Plasma state’.

Thus, we say that, there are four states of material; solid, liquid, gaseous and
plasma.

But, now in the era of basic particles, five to six states of material are
appearing.

In relativity study, we have seen the nature of light as corpuscular nature. Light
consists of energy packets having mass property of momentum with ultimate
velocity ‘c’.

Light is emitted from orbital electrons of an excited atom to relieve it from excess
energy. We have seen how this energy is thrown in space by an excited orbital
electron in the form of as if droplets of a fluid.

Imagine absorption of energy by some material object, by an orbital electron,

conversion of electron equivalent mass into energy; it feels that energy is like

244
some viscous fluid packets. Further, energy is trapped in every atom. Therefore,
energy is the first entity of the universe and then the basic material.

All material can be converted into energy. Hence, energy is the fifth form of
material.

We are finding every existence in universe, attached with particle nature. But,
energy is to be considered made up from very fine fluid material without any
particle nature, being spread in the universe in abundance infinite quantity.

In this book while deriving mass-energy conversion relation, the author has
noticed that, at last after derivation of the well established relation E = mc2 rest
mass broken into basic smallest particles having no mass but having its existence
remain. Thus, for construction of the universe, the basic mass material existence
is eternal.

A fluid when it is filled in empty volume fully remain quite. But, material
particles can not be homogeneously filled in empty volume of its own.

Energy radiates radially out from its source-point, but, when material particles
when spread due to disturbance, they spread more or less by spiral motion. The
Big-Bang can not be like a burst of cracker but, it is like a typhoon.

Due to somewhere dense existence of material particles, the homogeneous

distribution of enthalpy, the heat energy distribution in space was disturbed. It
caused spiral motion at that space. That spiral motion activated the basic mass
particles to gather heat energy. On one side basic material particles were
collecting; simultaneously on the other side void of material parbicles must have
been appeared forming a big black hole like structure; an anti tniverse. Because,
the “dwand” or “conjugate” is the basic physical property of the universe. Then
the energized particles were thrown into space. They formed the galaxies and
stellar bodies.

245
I think the planetary systems in the universe are more or less in parallel plane to
our solar system.

Hence, the universe is thought by author to be in a spiral thick plate form

expanding spirally, or Number of such plates one above other, at their center
they being thiner and becoming thicker at periphery. The disks are arranged
to form a spherical shape. This construction is commensurate to Big-Bang
event.

The universe as such is infinitesimally small in comparison to the infinite space.

Above type of situations can be existing at lot of positions in the universe-beyond.
Hence such number of universes definitely are possible.

Due to more dense basic material the temperature of that portion in space is bound
to increase from 4° K to some higher value. That has caused the disturbance in
‘something’ that is the very basic material particles. Therefore, they started
moving due to adaption of enthalpy the heat energy. Due to motion at ultimate
speed the particles experienced gravity as mentioned in this relativity book.
Therefore, different numbers of particles united to form basic; we may call them
secondary basic particles like quarks muions, ets. To form basic material particles
of hydrogen etc. to create the material universe.

Thus, in the space where universe is existing, the temperature, before creation of
universe must be higher than 4° K as mentioned above. After the birth of universe
it has dropped down to 4° K. Because, the universe has stored a lot of energy. It
has locked a lot of energy in its atoms. We are releasing much of it by burning
fuels and returning it to the universe as a sink. The sun is giving its energy to us.
If we use it fully the energy balance will be maintained; otherwise slowly we will
be carrying life nearer and nearer to the end by increasing temperature of our
surrounding by releasing stored energy by burning fuel, by deforesting and
thereby reducing heat storing capacity of our earth, reducing ionosphere thereby
causing un-necessary heating of the earth by the sun concentrating constructions
thereby storing heat in the form of heat in turn converting stored energy of nature
to satisfy heat transfer of machines, lievee etc. utilities on our earth.

246
It is spoken of habitation on Mars by creating earth-like environmental hub there.
It is clear they will fetch air and water from earth. No doubt they will succeed in
doing so; but, then it will lead to establishing cities on Mars and also on other
suitable satellites. It will be exhausting the air and water on the earth. In effect the
life on earth will get vanished. And the foreign satellites like Mars would not be
able to hold the air and water naturally. Therefore, there also the air and water
will vanish due to some cause or the other. Hence, such efforts to establish
residency naming any beautiful cause; be strongly opposed by the mankind and
not allowed by the Governments.

D. B. Dhone,
Author.

247
 APPENDIX-4.

ENERGY QUANTA-PHOTON.

Light is emitted from an excited atom. Because, an orbital electron can not store
more than its quanta of energy assigned to itself in an atom. In atoms of different
elements, the quantum of energy assigned to orbital electrons goes on increasing
as the nucleus dia. of atoms of different elements goes on increasing. To perceive
light phenomena of polarization and transverse wave nature of light some definite
modifications in atomic structure are perceived without affecting other derived
properties.

In article of this book named Generation of Photon a chart showing, how the
surface area of a its orbital electric charge is same in an atom; is given. That
chart explains why number of electrons in an orbit is fixed quantity and why
the distance between orbit to orbit is the same equal to radius of first orbit.

The polarization of light indicates below modifications in atomic structure

without affecting its established properties..

ATOMIC MODEL:-

Please see the figures- 1, below. In the figure, second fulfilled orbit of an atom is
taken for for studying release of energy quanta from an atom. The second fulfilled
orbit have 8 electrons. They are assumed to have equal energies. They occupy
equal surface area of the sphere formed by the radius of the orbit. An electron
spins along its axis while revolving around its nucleus. Therefore, the electron
sphere spins along its axis as well as simultaneously, its axis rotates through 4πc
solid angle. It is granted by author that, each orbit forms a sphere and the sphere
area is equally distributed between the orbital electrons

In Fig. [ 2 ], one electron shape as it is existed in an atom is drawn. It is oval

shape. Extra energy quantum acquired by the charge obviously will be spread

248
upon the charge and will be of the electron-shape. It will resemble with the view-
D in the Fig. [ 2 ].

Fig. [ 1 ]:

In figure 3, extra energy is ejected out. Due to two spin motions perpendicular to
each other; how the extra energy ejected out particle gets twisted through ninety
degrees; it is shown in section- E in Fig. 3. In figure 4, electron motion as a
particle in shown in double spin of electron.

In Rutherford’s atomic model electrons are shown as tiny balls revolving around
nucleus in atom. It is to be taken as indicative diagram. A couple of years before,
at the Cambige University London; atomic structure was viewed. The electrons
were not discriminated from each other. All orbital electrons seemed as if forming

249
a fog. It rather supports the Authors structure of atom consisting electrons in an
orbit forming a sphere enclosing inside orbits and nucleus for each orbit. And
whole sphere of an orbit spinning doubly both spins being perpendicular to each
other. In particle nature of electron the shape of oval shaped section of a sphere is
very suitable. In fact one electron doesn’t mean one particle. There are assumed
abundant number of basic particles in one electron. It is assumed or say postulated
by the author. Therefore, author has quoted as a packet of fluid material suitably
for explaining some phenomena. Again in news it was seen the photograph of a
photon captured in a specific crystal at the Cambridge University. The photon
does not look like a tiny ball. But, it looked like tiny particles were scattered.

Atom as such is electrically neutral under its stable condition. If the electrons
were like tyny balls then, some of its electric field was likely to leak always
outside through gaps between electrons during their revolving. But, it is not there.
Therefore, authors opinion about his assumption of electron shape is strengthened.

Fig. [ 2 ]:

250
Fig. [ 3 ]:

Fig.[ 4 ]:

Above assumed oval shape of electron and its extra charge satisfy all light
phenomena as light photon. Er. D. B. Dhone, Author.

251
 APPENDIX-5

DISTANCE BETWEEN CONSECUTIVE ORBITS IN AN ATOM

We will study the rules governing the distance in consecutive orbits of electrons
in an atom revolving around the nucleus.

Fig. [ 1 ]:

In the above fig. [ 1 ], m is the mass of electron. mv is the linear momentum of the
electron. The linear momentum itself represents the force under whose influence
electron is driven at a constant distance r from nucleus against the force of
nucleus due to positive electric charge Ze.

The change in momentum from point a to c is equal to 2mv.

The average change in momentum is hence; [{mv – (-mv)}/2] = mv.

252
The rate of change of momentum is therefore, [mv/(T/2)],
where T is the time
period of one revolution of electron around nucleus.

The term [mv/(T/2)] represents constantly acting force on electron. during its
path of rotation this force appears at every point. This force is acting against the
force of attraction of positive charge Ze at nucleus. Hence, work is done by this
force [mv/(T/2)] during its travel of linear distance equivalent to πr.

Hence, work done by the force [mv/(T/2)] is equal to

[mv/(T/2)][πr] = [mvπr/(T/2)] = [2πmvr/T]

This work is done by orbiting electron on nucleus. It is stored in nucleus in the

form of increased movements or vibrations of positive charge in the nucleus.
During second half of rotation the same work is returnrd to electron by the
nucleus to bring the electron to its previous position. This phenomena takes place
at every point along the circular path. Therefore, though there is work being done
by orbiting electron, energy is not expelled out of the atom. The energy oscilates
between the nucleus and orbiting electron sinusoidaly. One revolution of orbiting
electron represents one cycle of sine wave representing energy give and take or
energy oscillation between orbiting electron and the nucleus. The oscillating
energy term [2πmvr/T], involves the radius of circular orbiting path. Energy does
not exist less than quantity expressed by h the Plank’s constant.

Therefore, the energy expressed by the term [2πmvr/T], ought to be in integer

multiple of h, minimum it can be h.
Hence, [2πmvr/T] = h.
i.e. mvr = hT/2π = (h/2π)T. Where, T is time period
of one wave length.
Thus, when there are two electrons in an orbit, one revolution of an electron
around its nucleus describes two wave lengths. Thus, each one electron in an orbit
describes energy oscillation waves equal to number of electrons in that orbit. It is
just as a pair of positive-negative magnetic field pole in an electricity generator

253
generates number of voltage or current cycles, equal to total number of pair of
such poles. A moving electron constitutes current. Flow of electron is current.
Movement of electron is a current. Current flows under the influence of electric
field strength i.e. voltage. The voltage is between positive charge on nucleus and
negative charge on electron. Therefore, energy transfer takes place from electron
to positive charge in nucleus during one half cycle and during remaining half
cycle it flows reverse from positive charge of nucleus to the respective electron.
because, during assimilation of negative charge energy by positive charge; the
energy of positive charge diminish. Therefore, as per nature’s basic inherent law;
to maintain its own state of energy, the positive charge returns back the energy
received from electron.

Hence, an electron does not travel purely circular around its circular orbital path
but, it oscillates sinusoidal with suitable amplitudes about its circular path.

Thus, during orbital electron motion, inside an atom, energy is not given out of
the atom but, it oscillates between nucleus and the respective electron in
sinusoidal manner . Please see Fig. below.

In the figure a revolving electron in second orbit of an oxygen atom is shown.

There are 6 electrons in the second orbit of oxygen atom. As there are 6 electrons
each electron during its one revolution will describe 6 cycles. These cycles of
energy transfer both way; will be described in the nucleus also simultaneous to
respective electron. These waves representing energy oscillations inside the atom
without any expenditure of energy are called De-Broglie’s waves. Scrodinger
studied the wave equations.

The energy transfer is integer multiple of [h/2π]. All electrons in an atom

describe these energy transfer cycles. All those are also described in nucleus
naturally each in 180° phase opposition to that of respective electron-cycle. .

254
The nucleus of an atom is the junction managing oscillations of energies in
respect of all orbital electrons in total in an atom.

Thus, there are numbers of positive charges in the nucleus, equal to number of
electrons total in all orbits in respective atom. Thus, the nucleus forms a deep well
or an enclosed box. Each and every orbital electron in its respective orbit does its
energy transfer both way, in cyclic manner.

In a hydrogen atom, there is only one electron in first orbit. Corresponding to one
electron there is only one proton possessing one positive charge. During one
revolution of electron, only one De-Broglie’s wave is described. See fig. below. It
represents a function ψ which describes the electric field between nucleus and an
electron w.r.t. distance x along the wave length. The fig. shows; that, when there
is one orbital electron in first orbit then that only one electron describes one sign
wave during its one revolution and when there are two electrons in first orbit like

255
in oxygen atom; then each one electron describes two sign waves during one
revolution of each one.

Fig.

Both the sign waves representing energy transfer appear inside nucleus. Viewing
both the variations of energy transfer, it is seen that, energy of one electron is
reflected to another electron by the nucleus. Because, the ψ functions of both
electrons are in 180° phase opposition w.r.t. each other.

In oxygen atom in its second orbit, there are 6 nos. of electrons. Those will
describe 36 plus first orbital two electrons have described four wave forms; thus
total 40 different ψ functions of energy transfer, are working inside oxygen
nucleus.

As seen above, in hydrogen atom the energy transfer takes place in between
nucleus and electron . In case of oxygen atom there are even number of electrons
in an oxygen atom. Therefore, as seen above, in oxygen atom instead of nucleus
energy transfer in both directions; orbiting electron energy is reflected by the

256
nucleus from one electron to another suitable electron whose ψ function is in its
phase opposition completely.

Every object intends to maintain its prevailing state; therefore, it opposes the
change in its state. From above discussion, hydrogen-nucleus is more disturbed
than oxygen nucleus. Hence, hydrogen is more active than oxygen in chemical
reaction. Then, after viewing periodic table; it seems that most of the odd
atomic numbered elements are chemically more active. But, such atom also does
not release its internal energy of its own. During chemical reaction between two
elements; energy is released in the form of heat when lower orbital electron gets
engaged with higher orbit number of other and vice vis.

The energy of an orbital electron in its orbit, is given by,

En = -[me4Z2]/[8ε02h2n2

Similarly, the radius of an orbit is given by,

rn = [n2h2ε0]/πZe2 m , where, m=rest mass of electron ,

e=charge,
Z=no. of positrons in nucleus
ε0=electric permittivity of free space
h=plank’s constant,
n=integer multiple of h.

In above basic equations, in respect of multi orbital atomic structure; to start with
force of positive charge in nucleus acting on an orbital electron is once calculated
mechanically and next electrically. While calculating that force mechanically,
care is taken that, in atom the work involved in any orbit in respect of an orbital
electron is integer multiple n w.r.t. other orbit. But, the same care is not taken
while calculating it electrically. With this consideration the formula for velocity
and force of orbital electron are calculated bellow.

Electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is

257
 Fe = [1/4πε0][Ze2/r2]
This force is force on orbital electron. during revolution around nucleus it does
work that is stored in nucleus and given back to the electron. this work is integer
multiple w. r. t. other different orbital work of electron. That, integer appears in
expression of force. Hence,

Fe = n[1/4πε0][Ze2/r2]

Equal and opposite centrifugal force acts on the electron. Therefore, electron
revolves in its orbit around nucleus. The magnitude of centrifugal force is
calculated as below.
Fcf = mv2/r.
mvr = nh/2π i.e. [please refer page 250, 251]
Hence, v = nh/2πrm, hence, v2 = n2h2/4π2r2 m2

Substituting this value of v2 in equation Fcf = mv2/r. we get,

mv2/r = Fcf = [m/r][n2 h2/4π2r2m2] = Fe = n[1/4πε0][Ze2/r2]……( 1 )

Simplifying to obtain value of r in respect of nth orbit, we have,

r = nh2ε0/πZe2m …………………………………( 2 )

In above relation for rn all are constants except rn and n. Therefore, if the radius of
first orbit is r1, then, r2 = 2r1, r3 = 3r1, and so on.

rn = nr1…………………………………….(3)

energy calculation:
Potential energy of orbital electron = -nZe2/4πε0r

Kinetic energy of electron = [1/2][mv2] =n Ze2/8πε0r [please refer above eq. [1]

Total energy of electron En = K.E. + P.E.

258
 i.e. = [nZe2/8πε0r ] + [ -nZe2/4πε0r] = [ -nZe2/8πε0r]……….(4)

substitute value value of r from equation [2] above,

En = [z2e4m]/[8ε02h2]…………………………… (5)

Above equation represents constant energy in respect of each orbital in every orbit
of an atom under its stable conditions. It is as if a generater is fully excited and is
floating. It is not supplying any power.

Once, a stable atom is excited; its orbital electrons receive energy from outside.
But there is no extra space to accommodate that energy. Therefore, an electron
first elevates to higher orbit permitted by [h/2π] rule discussed above; and then
drops down to lower orbit releasing that extra energy received. In this case, the
basic rule of electric energy transfer developed from force between two electrical
charges apart from each other applies. Because, now electrons accept a second
motion which is along the force applied on the electron. the electric force acting
on electron is in radial direction. Due to the extra energy received from outside,
the excited electron move radially outward the +ve field emanating from nucleus
was enclosed inside the atom complete. But, under excited condition of the atom,
the positive charge in nucleus spreads its field out of the atom partly; and it then
behaves like a electric positive charge in free space. The excited electrons expel
out their extra energy via the expanded outward field. The electric field obey the
bsic rule of electric force between two charges in free space, and not that confined
in a particular domain like inside of an atom. The situation is now an excited
floating generator is loaded and is delivering power. An excited electron flow
towards nucleus under the influence of electric field between nucleus and orbital
electron. As the electron in atom has received extra energy in quanta of h it is
released in the same count, though it is released in free space.once the extra enegy
is released thus, the extited atom returns to its original state of stability; which we
cannot see. In experiment we see only the second excited state. In this excited
state the orbital radii are/may not/not be, in integer multiple of first radius. An
electron has a fix amount of electric charge. Therefore, under normal stable
condition, the electron distribution as per rule 2n2 won’t be possible. The sub

259
orbits are involved due to inter reaction of electric fields between any two orbital
electrons. The energy transfer and receipt takes place inside of the respective
atom. Hence, what the facts we have received are in respect of unstable atom.
There upon , by applying electricity behavior under different conditions and the
properties of an electron; author has worked out the structure of an stable atom
relative to that under unstable one.

Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author.

260
 Appebdix-6

MORE ABOUT PHOTON AND FIELD MODE

When tried to achieve the result of wave nature as against photon nature;
following facts are seen.

The atomic model suggested in this book helps a lot. Due to its completing one
revolution about its each of the two orthogonal axis; its orbital generating one
wave in space can remain in line with the wave.

As the e.m. field oscillations beyond micro-waves up are generated by orbital

electrons, their path of motion being round; they generate field oscillations as
explained below. Let us name it W-MODE

261
In the above figure, an orbital electron is shown rotating with its field line out side
of the atom in space radially out. When electron moves from a to b its out side
field line can not move radial to the atom due to permittivity of space. It rather
can move a distance at speed c parallel to its previous position. When electron
returns back due to same reason the field describe a part of sine function in space.
further oscillation completes the sine wave in space.

Therefore, an orbital electron due to its curved motion generates advancing sine
waves in the free space out side the atom.

But, in case of conduction electrons in an straight antenna the motion of electron

is in a straight line. Therefore the field lines can move complete at speed c or
lower as per the speed of electron. hence information to receptor is supplied
immediately. To differentiate this phenomena from orbital electron’s radian; it is
named by author as ‘field mode.’ In short F-MODE Please fig. below.

262
As per acceptance of modern science, that the lights are electromagnetic waves;
author has tried to perceive the generation of light-e.m. waves as above. But not
yet satisfied. Because, it is seen that, an electric field can not exist in space
without its source providing gradient to field line. In an atom , when light is
coming from many light years away bodies in space from us; there the excited
electron generating that light wave can not remain holding the field line and
keeping it oscillating. Once the field source is disconnected the field lined in
space disconnected with source are scattered in all directions in space and
dissipate their stored energy. In case of light, it travels in its same direction in
space when its source is vanished or its field is obstructed. This cannot happen in
case of field but, it is true in case of particle nature or corpuscle nature of light.

Author finds relativity principle is working there as below.

In book author has concluded from mass-energy transformation relation that,
basic mass particles are eternal. According to the mass-energy transformation
relation the kinetic energy and internal energy corresponding to internal atomic
energy of an atomic particle is only converted to energy; not the very basic mass
particle. Therefore, in a light photon basic mass particles in a bunch say in a space
dynamic shape of annular surface shape of part of sphere skewed through π/2
radians, is moving at ultimate speed c. hence, as per relativity principles, we can
not see them as particles; we can experience them as energy. What so ever
mathematics is developed and is proved is with respect to the happenings taking
place inside an atom while releasing and while absorbing the light in respective
atoms. We apply the mathematics to light travelling in space. and as the light is
generated as per field theory behave in a atom; the light obeys those laws in space
also.

E.M. field gets lost with its source. If along the 27 km. path at CERN electric
charges in opposite directions are sent and when its electric field is cut off; the
charged will not move further along there prescribed path; but, the two groups
will burst where they are as they are; because of absence of their driving field.
Then, under the influence of their own field they scatter in all possible directions.
Therefore, if the light is e.m. field, after its source is destroyed or obstructed; the
light waves could not travel further; and in this situation how we could have

263
gathered their information after the bodies have not their existence in the form
when they released those light signals. Contrary to e.m. wave particles having
high energy when they were released, can remain in space, experiencing
reflections continuous.

*Now, at last let us discuss the very eminent property of electro-magnetic fields.
An electric field in the original prime field. Magnetic field is secondary one. It is
generated due to changing of electric field intensity. A changing electric field
does work; electrically in its own direction and magnetically in direction
perpendicular to it. Constant electric field represents proportionate to it, the stored
energy. e.g. a charged perfect capacitor has an electrical energy stored in it. The
orbital electrons in stable state of its host-atom, have stored atomic internal
energy in electro-magnetic form.

Now, see the conditions under which e.m. energy is releasedin space in the form
of packets. .
1. The electric circuit must become closed.
2. There must be source which recoup the lost energy or the source which
forces to release the energy where in it is stored.
Above two conditions are must for e.m. energy release.

In the light of above necessities, let us view microscopically, as to how, radiant

energy is released from an atom.

264
In figure A above, an orbital electron is shown revolving around its nucleus in a
stable state of atom. The electron field is completely engaged with the bucleus.
External energy is imparted to the atom. Effectively, the energy of the electron
increases. Therefore, electron then occupies higher energy sub-orbit as shown in
fig. B below.

The increased energy appear in the form of increased charge as per energy mass
conversion rule. Therefore, electric field of the electron increases. A +ve charge
equivalent to the additional –ve charge on electron is induced in nucleus. Under
unexcited condition the field coupling between nucleus and orbital electron is like
a capacitor. It remain same in unstable state under our reference. due this extra
input energy the electron tries to jump out of its orbit. When it reaches at a point
where its rotating speed would be c; so that additional energy can expel it out of
orbit into the space; and if that much energy is not available; the closed field
circuit breaks down; the extra energy is released in the form of energy packet in
space at speed c. the orbital electron return to its original stable orbit. Again when
it reaches behind the nucleus it comes under the shadow of external energy and
receives it. The enrgy release process repeats. This goes on and continuous ray of
radiation energy is released.
Fig.B above indicates how external energy destabilizes an orbital electron.

265
In fig.C, the electron releases its extra energy received in space and occupies its
stable orbit that as in fig. A.

Thus, we have seen that, there can be below repeated three modes of e.m.
radiation energy transmission.

In the first figure a conduction band electron follows the generator creating
oscillations. During the oscillations, electric field of the source electron that is
oscillating as above, its part of field extends in space and gets engaged with a
follower electron coming in its path. Therefore, the source electron transfers its
oscillations to the follower at a distance with the help of the field line. This type
of energy transfer is existed up to micro-frequencies.

266
Fig. [field oscillation]:

Fig. [ Wave]

267
An electrical field line is there, in between electron and +ve electric charge,
straight like a rigid iron bar.

Above second figure represents the wave nature of e.m. energy transfer.

Fig. [Photon release]

Above three figures represent three modes of radiation transmission.

Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author.

268
 ANNEXURE-7

DUAL NATURE OF E. M. SIGNAL

Principle of Duality:- ‘Duality’ is the basic eternal property of universe since

before the universe came into material existence. Every object, every emotion,
every thought have its respective dual.

Basaic Nature of Energy:- The basic nature of energy in the universe is Kinetic
Energy. The definition of energy itself is, ‘something moving is energy.’
Einstein has defined energy thus. To define a motion two entities are required.
those are (1) some form of material and (2) some form of field.

Something moving represents Kinetic energy. Energy is a scalar quantity. Motion

has its direction at every instant of time. Kinetic energy includes definite mass;
what so amount of it may be. Motion includes specified space and specified time.
Before the universe came into existence there may not be mass. But, energy as
such is an eternal quantity. Because, mass can be converted into energy and
energy does not get destroy; it can get converted in its different forms. Hence,
though the mass can not be existing before the universe came into existence;
energy is existed. Its basic form is kinetic energy. Therefore, to include mass as
well as space and time Einstein’s definition mathematically can be stated as
‘Momentum ‘p’ contain energy and it manifests the energy when the momentum
is opposed. Thus, a momentum can be considered totally as an energy packet or
mass in the form of its property. Here we are making energy something illusive.

See the following are the basic laws of nature since before the universe came into
existence.

1. Like things having conman same property attract each other. e.g.
gravitation.
2. Like things those can have opposite to their existing property, repel each
other. e.g. electric charge, magnetic charge.

269
 3. Unlike things having opposite things attract each other. This attraction
result is very different from that mentioned above at sr. no. 1. There in the
things existence is not destroyed directly due that attraction property; but,
here in it does happen invariably and both the objects having opposite to
each other property loose there property. e.g. +ve and –ve charges when
unite they become a neutral mass prominently exhibiting gravity only.
4. Higg’s boson is a basic mass particle. It gives visual existence to mass. It
allots particle nature to the mass.
5. A graviton, gives gravitational force to the mass particle.
6. These particles don’t have space dimensions but they have their definite
existence as a point in geometry. They are detected by their interactions
with other objects, paricles etttc.

Nature of Light:- The light is, extra energy packets or quanta or photons
periodically released by an orbital electron. The smallest light packet is a photon
having momentum which can generate energy equal to plank’s constant h.
where, h= 6.625X10-34 J.s.

Light rays hence its basic element photon, experience, gravitational force.

Therefore, auther say that, a photon is the combination of a graviton and speed
in observer’s attached frame. When it is a spinning speed; it is a material
particle; and when it is a linear speed equal to or very near to c; it is a light
photon.

In a stable atom, orbital electrons have stable circular speed and field of each
electron is fully attached with the nucleus of atom, the host of the electrons. any
external disturbance is first experienced by outermost orbital electrons naturally.
Basically, the disturbance is in the form of increase in rotational speed. This
disturbance bay be caused due to uniting a speedy basic particle graviton or by a
field line of a moving charge at a distance with speed nearing c. thus increased
speed, disturbs internal force balance of host-atom of the orbital electron.
Secondly, the linear speed and thereby the centrifugal force on the orbital electron
increases due to increase in speed approaching to c. therefore, the orbital electron
just experiences a jump out-side its new sub-orbit corresponding to its increased

270
energy. In effect, the orbital electron imparts motion to graviton-higg’s boson
particle as if a cricket bat hits a cricket ball. Then the graviton-higg’s boson
particle becomes a photon travelling at speed c. The velocity c; because, a large
mass has hit a small mass.

Thus, to avoid illusion like ‘ a particle has momentum but not mass’. One should
have to accept the fact that, the space is full of very fine point-like particles
having not at all any physical friction. A physical friction between two material
makes it to stick with each other. No such friction keeps the different particles
unaffected by each other. See the physical properties of materials. An oil is more
sticky than water to a glass etc. But, mercury(Hg) is not at all sticky to glass
though it is very denser. Thus the particles in space are non-sticky w.r.t. the
objects in space. Therefore, they do not experience any drift w.r.t. the motion of
the objects in space.

In the figure below, only one orbital electron of outermost orbit is considered for
suitability of explanation. The respective atom is excited due to receipt of some
external energy. Therefore, its speed has increased. Hence, some field of the
electron attached to its host’s nucleus, is released and is directed radially out in
space up to infinite distance. But, the field is terminated somewhere on similar
charge coming in its path. as shown in the figure. The field line in space will now
follow the radial motion of its source electron governed by space permittivity and
permeability. As shown in the figure below, orbital to observer field line is
established. Orbital has achieved speed very near to c due to its excitation from
outside of the atom.

With the help of above explanation author’s view about field mode and photon
mode mentioned in just previous to this annexure is very clearly explained.

Now, let us discuss regarding wave motion. The fact is that a field line follow
shortest path and a straight field line has di-pole. One pole at one end. In previous
annexure, it is shown; how, an oscillating electron forms an electro-magnetic
wave. Here, author is trying to explain its particle nature.

271
In a wave-length there are two nos. of points of change in direction of the field.
Change in field causes induction through space into basic particles in space
forming induced charge of opposite nature as shown in figure below.

272
Thus, due to field line oscillations and effort of field line to become radially
outward-linear under the constraint of permittivity and permeability of space
each apex in the wave travel at speed c towards observer.

The oscillations of orbital take place due to coupling of atoms and exchange of
orbital electrons having opposite circular motions w.r.t. each other, between
coupled atoms. For continuous radiation three atoms have to take part as shown in
figure below.

Thus, experimentation from say 50 MHz onwards up to infra-red wave is

necessary to find out space speed of e.m. waves.
Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author.

273
 ANNWEXURE-8

PHOTON AS A MASS PARTICLE

Please compare sun burn and heat burn with needle pinches very side by side
aroud and a knife cut. All of their action, on human body is basically the same;
on small or large scale their effect, their pains and even basically the cure for each
is, the same.

The needle or the knife cut is acted by their particles experiencing sufficiently
high pressure and the heat burn is due to the heat photons cutting the skin due to
their momentum. The act of the heat photon is quiet similar to material particles
of a pin or a knife edge.-----------------------------------------(Statement-1)

We know all that a photon has no mass but have a mass property ‘momentum’.
Hence, a photon acts like a mass particle.-------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------- (statement2)

Sir Einstein has defined energy as, ”something moving is energy.” That
something is ‘photon’. A photon can not be stationary. It is always moving in free
space. When it stops; it delivers its energy to the agency which, made it to stop
and it vanishes; because, it doesn’t posses ‘rest mass’.---- (statement-3)

A photon has one more mass-property. And that is the ‘gravity. Because, when a
light ray passes nearing a stellar body, it is seen that, the light ray bends toward
the body and follows another path after leaving from the gravitational influence of
that stellar body.—------------------------------------------------(statement-4)

The mass property of photons is so prominent that, photons forming a laser-beam

is used for cutting hard materials. ----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------(statement-5)

A ‘Higg’s Boson’ gives the ‘mass-nature’ to a material particle or more precisely

to some hypothetical particle.—------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------(statement-6)

274
A mass exhibits gravity.---------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------(statement-7)

Only a differing from mass-property that a photon is having that, they does not
collide with each other; but, they slpip on each other without changing their
directions of motion. ----------------------(statement-8)

Above property at (statement-8) is confusing because of the general definition of

photon. It is, “ant bound storage of energy is photon”. Therefore from a light
photon to the BIG-BANG, all each one entity is called a photon. Thus, burst of a
cracker is a photon; A lightning stroke is a photon; a burst of volcano is also a
photon. But these said photons involve mass actually. therefore, for further R&D
on photon having hypothetical mass; the mass particle-energy-burst must be
named differently; say, ‘moton’ .—--------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------(statement-9)

And now main thing. The main thing is that, the photons are generated from the
mass. In atomic disintegration, the radiation-photons are generated from the mass
of the atom. So we can definitely say that, a photon is converted form mass. -------
--------------------------------------------- -------------(statement-10)

Modern science knows that, photons can be converted to mass also.-----------------

-----------(statement-11)

From above facts in the 11 statements, it is concluded that, the photons are
‘mass-particles’ and a pulse of photon is the 5th state of mass. Thus, a mass
has 5 states. Solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma and the photonic state.

By, er, d.b.dhone. retd. EE, E&M, HP, Maha. S.

275
 APPENDIX-9.

Research Papers Published by Er. Dadarao Dhone, Nanded.

1.*An Innovative Review of Kennedy-Thorndike Experiment; published in

Scientific Research Journal (SCIRJ), Volume V, Issue V, May 2017: ISSN 2201-
2796: Free access.

- Speed of light is not constant c in free space irrespective of relative speed

between the source and obser as said to have proved in Kennedy-Thorndike
experiment. Therein both the source and the observer are stationary w.r.t. one
another. There the Observer is made the medium of light travel the sky; which
can't be an observer in that experiment. That experiment doesn't prove the
constancy of speed of light but proves Einstein's statement that "all the frames
in relative motion with each other; are equal.

2.*The Light Photon, Dark Matter And The Whirling of Dark Matter, The Theory
Of The Birth Of The Universe; published in International Journal Of Current
Research (IJCR), Volume 9, Issue 09, September 2017: ISSN:0975-333X.

It is proved that a light photon, is the very basic fundamental, eternal mass
particle. In BEC, in particular crystal light is stopped by scientists. In Addition in
the related experiment/project, very concentrated beams of light collide each
other when sent in direction opposite to each other and the light photons
scatter around. All this confirms light photons are material particles. A photon
particle is Plank's mass h/c2. Something moving is energy; thus de3fined the
energy Einstein. There the 'something' is nothing but, the light fundamental
eternal the smallest mass particles which have energy due to their positions and
also due to motion. they either vibrate in space in different modes due to
oscillations of their potential energies or under certain conditions move in space
at the speed of light as light. So the Dark Energy in the Universe is the rnrgy of
these photonic masses filled in space all over. The all terrestrial bodies are

276
reduced from these masses. Due to above said some major imbalance of their
energies within themselves. Then resultantly forming whirling of photonic
matter like a big vortex through which elementary particles came out; from
them step by step the visible and nonvisible Universe came into existence. It was
the first Universe. Thereafter the Universe birth after its complete destruction
happens as per Big-Bang theory.for

3.*Length Contraction, Time Dilation, Gravity, Total Existence of Universe and

Beyond; Published in IJCR: Volume,9; Issue 11, Nov. 2017: : ISSN:0975-333X.

Length contraction due to relative speed is apparent. It takes place due to the
natural principle of vision that, an object is visualized by an observer when light
photons released from all the points of the object to be seen, are released at
such different instances of time, such that, trhey all reach the
observer/observer's eye at the same instant of time. That makes the length
contraction. Time dilation and the length contraction are reverse facts to each
other. General relativistic length contraction is real. It is due to In relativistic
behaves, when two vectors are added they do not form resultant vector; istead,
the smaller vector pulls the major vector in its direction. Parallel to its initial
position. Gravity is original property of mass. the photonic masses also have
gravity. Beyond Universe, there is photonic Dark energy. the photonic masses
have gravity. That is all around the Universe. And that attracts the inside
Universe constanly, Therefore, the Universe is expanding at an accelerated rate.

4.*Satellite Remote Control; published in IJCR, Volume 9, Issue 11, November

2017.

In this the main sub-theorem of Relativity; that I quoted is, the receipted signal
from an object does not show the position in space of the signal source; at the
point in space; where the source object has released the signal; but, it shows the
position of the source object; where it is in space at the instant, when the
observer has reseaved the signal.

277
5.*Field Mode And Photon Mode of E.M. Energy Transfer Through Free Space;
Published in IJCR, Volume 9, Issue 12, December 2017.

Light is not electric field and magnetic field oscillating at right angles to each
other; but, of photonic eternal mass particles moving linearly at ultimate speed
c . Light photons are released from its source atoms which are excited due to
receipt of external energy some how or other by electro-magnetic fields
oscillating perpendicular to each other; inside the atom. Outside the atom the
photons travel mechanically. This photon mode of electro-magneic energy
transmission. The electro-magnetic energy transmission by this mode takes place
in radiant energy transmission above micro-frequencies. Below it and in it 'Field
Mode' of electro-magnetic energy transmission takes place. In this electric field
inside an excited atom projects outside the atom in free space and vibrates as
the atom vibrated due its vibrations due to external energy fed to it. The
protruding field in space when gets engaged with another suitable charge it also
vibrates following its source charge. So, this is 'Field Mode of electro-magnetic
energy transmission. This mode acts in Radio-Transmission and the photon mode
mentioned above acts in light transmission.

6.*Cause of Magnetic Field Associated With Earth; Publication in IJCR, Volume

10, issue 04, April 2018.

It reveals that the cause of earth's magnetic field is due to its ionosphere and not
due to its iron core. The iron core of earth provides high permeance path to
magnetic field developed by the ionosphere of the earth. It also explains the
why? The Mars had lost its magnetic field.

In next forth coming my papers, there is a paper on Einstein's General Relativity

Constant Perception ; is under writing. It will explain Einstein's constant on the
basis of elementary mathematics following theoretical proved facts.

In above papers the facts mentioned in this book are being delt in their minute
details.

278
REFERRENCES:

1. Atomic Physics by J . B . Rajam.

2. Special Relativity by A . P . French.
3. Optics by Ajoy Ghatak.
4. Measuring the velocity of light. PHYWE series of publications, Germany.
5. The Velocity of Light. Extended Lab Report of Michael Hughes College of
St. Bede.
6. The scientificpapers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol. I & II(e.d. W.D. Niven,
1890, republished by Dover, 2003)(http://m.rsta.royalsociety)`
7. Einstein’s Theory of SpecialRelativity by AndrewZimmerman Jones.

8. Special Relativity: A First Encounter: !00 years since Einstein by Domenico

Giuluni.

9. Microwave oven: Wikipedia.

10. Modern Physical Chemistry by V. G. Ratolikar, S. S. Ogale, S. B. Basu.
11. Modern Physics by R. Murugeshan, Kiruthiga Siva prasath
12. Optics by Dr. N. Subrahamananyam, Brijlal, Dr. M. N. Avadhanulu.
13. Antenna Wave Propagation, by K. D. Prasad.
14. Einstein’s spooky action acts at 10,000 times the speed of light, by Roger
Highfield, Science Editor, The Telegraph, 13 August, 2008.

Er. D. B. Dhone,
Author

279
280
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