Engineering properties

 Compression
 Consolidation
 Shear strength
 Permeability

The properties of soil which most affect the cost of construction are strengthand compressibility. Both
can be improved by reducing the volume of the voids in the soil mass. Water must be displaced from
saturated soils in order to reduce the volume of the voids. This may take months if the permeability of
the soil is low.
 
 

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Compression
Soil which is highly compressible is prone to volume change when a load is applied. This leads to
settlement. Fine-grained soils which have been compressed and then allowed to swell, experience a
smaller volume change when re-compressed. Loosely-compacted coarse-grained soils may exhibit little
change in volume under static loads, but become unstable and exhibit large volume changes when
either vibrated or flooded and then drained.
 
 

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Consolidation
The sudden application of a load to a saturated soil produces an immediate
increase in porewater pressure. Over time, the excess porewater pressure will
dissipate, the effective stress in the soil will increase and settlement will
increase. Since shear strength is related to effective stress, it may be
necessary to control the rate of construction to avoid a shear failure. This was
the case, for example, when approach embankments were constructed on
soft alluvium, for the bridge which carried the M180 motorway over the River
Trent near Scunthorpe. The rate at which the excess water pressure
dissipates, and settlement occurs, depends on the permeability of the soil,
the amount of water to be expelled and the distance the water must travel.
 
 

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Shear strength
Collapse will occur if the shear stress along a potential failure
surface exceeds the shear strength of the soil. Shear strength
depends on the effective normal stress, which depends on the
porewater pressure. Undrained loading causes an increase in
porewater pressure equal to the change in the total normal stress
so that there is no increase in strength to match the change in the
shear stress.

The shear strength can be increased either by decreasing the

water pressure or reducing the void ratio of the soil to produce
a peak strength which exceeds the critical shear stress.

 
 
 
 

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Permeability
Fine-grained soils have a lower permeability than coarse-grained soils, thus excess porewater pressures
take longer to dissipate. Consolidation reduces the void ratio of the soil and further decreases the
permeability. Real soils are not hydraulically isotropic: the natural orientation of particles in soils which
have been consolidated vertically tends to produce a horizontal permeability which is greater than the
vertical permeability.

Thin horizontal layers of coarse-grained soil in a mass of fine-grained soil may dramatically
increase the horizontal permeability while having little effect on the vertical permeability. It is
possible to increase the drainage rate without changing the permeability of the bulk of the soil by
introducing layer drains (sandwicks) or fracturing the soil. The most effective way to reduce
seepage into an excavation, through or under a dam, or away from contaminated ground is to
create a low permeability zone perpendicular to the direction of flow.
 
 

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Drainage
Pumping water out of the ground will cause a local lowering
of the ground water level and a decrease in water pressure.
Both will return to their natural state when pumping stops.
The rate of drawdown and the radius of influence depend on
the permeability of the soil: Low permeability implies slow
drawdown and large radius. Decreasing the water pressure
increases the effective stress, which increases the shear
strength and causes settlement.

The introduction of a grid of vertical drains, connected by

layer of highly permeable soil, reduces the distance water
has to travel through the natural soil and facilitates
horizontal flow. This limits the excess water pressure
generated during and after construction and increases the
rate of settlement.

Back to Ground improvement

Pre-consolidation
Settlement due to an applied pressure occurs over a period of time. A
proportion of the final settlement can be achieved prior to construction by
pre-loading the soil. The larger the pre-load, the less time it will take to
achieve the final settlement. Pre-consolidating the ground in this way tends
to be an expensive solution compared with the use of piles to support
localised loads such as columns. Pre-consolidation may be a cost-effective
way of reducing the settlement due to lightly distributed loads from roads or warehouse or supermarket
floors provided that material is readily available to provide the pre-loading. Pre-consolidation is normally
designed to take 6 - 9 months.

 
 

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Compaction

 Compaction of fill
 Dynamic compaction
 Vibro-compaction/replacement

Compaction is a dynamic process, reducing the volume of soil by expelling air. The moisture content is
not altered significantly under normal circumstances. (Water may migrate a short distance from the
point of application but is forced to return when compaction is applied to the adjacent soil). Compaction
is most effective when applied to a thin layer because the energy dissipates with distance. Vibration is
the most effective method of compacting loose coarse-grained soils.
 
 

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Compaction of fill
Fills are normally compacted in layers between 300mm and 600mm thick. For granular soils, a motor on
the back of the roller is used to rotate an eccentric mass causing the roller to vibrate. For fine-grained
soils, the roller may be fitted with blunt spikes known as sheep's feet. Sheep's foot rollers produce a
kneeding action which changes the shape of clods of soil and displaces air from the spaces between the
clods.
 
 

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Dynamic compaction
Dynamic compaction involves lifting and dropping a heavy weight several times
in one place. The process is repeated on a grid pattern across the site. Trials in
the UK indicate that the masses in the range 5 to 10 tonnes and drops in the
range 5 to 10m are effective for compacting loose sand but not clay. Masses up
to 190 tonnes and drops of 25m are used by TLM (Technique Louis Ménard) in
France. Such heavy compaction causes fractures through which water can flow. This, according to the
proponents of the system, enables fine-grained soils to be compacted. Heavy compaction tends to
annoy the neighbours, which limits its use in built-up areas.

compactive energy per blow = m.g.h

where m = mass, g = gravitational constant, h = drop.

estimated depth of compaction = n.(m.h)

where n is an empirical constant between 0.3 and 1 depending on the grain size distribution and
degree of saturation (0.5-1 for sands, 0.3-0.5 for silts and clayey soils).

Back to Compaction

Vibro-compaction/replacement
Both vibro-compaction and vibro-replacement use a vibrating poker to make a
hole in the ground. Soil is displaced sideways, not removed from the ground.

vibro-compaction
in coarse-grained soils the poker may be removed slowly while still
vibrating. This causes the sides of the hole to collapse and results in a
depression in the ground surface.

vibro-replacement
in fine-grained soils it is usual to fill the hole with coarse aggregate (up to 50mm). The poker
may be used to compact the stone column in layers. A typical column might be 5m deep and
500mm diameter. A line of columns at say 3m centres can be used to support a reinforced
concrete ground beam effectively producing a piled foundation.
 
 

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Grouting
Injecting cementitious material into a soil mass tends to reduce permeability, cause swelling and may
increase strength.

Grout injection into fractured rock which forms the foundation of a dam is possibly the oldest
and best known application. Grout injection has been used successfully to strengthen and reduce
permeability of soil around a basement excavation below the water table. It has also been used to
control the settlement of structures adjacent to tunnel excavations in London: predicted
settlements of 60mm, which would have caused extensive damage to old buildings, were limited
to 10mm.

Silty soils with high water contents are unsuitable for embankment construction in their natural
state because they are difficult to compact. They can be improved by mixing hydrated lime with
the soil.
 
 

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Geo-textiles
Geo-textiles can be used for:

segregation of layers

Rock-fill laid on soft ground to form a road or embankment base can be prevented from punching into
the soil below using a geotextile underlay.

tensile strength

Horizontal membranes can be used to provide tensile re-inforcement and reduce settlement.
There are two primary difficulties:

(i) aligning the mebrane in the direction of the principal tensile stress, which is probably not
horizontal, and

(ii) the fact that geotextiles have a low modulus of elasticity and are plastic and therefore tend
to creep.

a drainage layer

Either as a water-conductor or as a filter to reduce the migration of fine particles into a granular
soil drain.

an impermeable barrier
 To prevent or control the flow of contaminated groundwater from or in land-fill sites.

Soil nailing:

Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by
the insertion of relatively slender elements - normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually
installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously.
They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward inclination. A rigid or flexible
facing (often pneumatically applied concrete otherwise known as shotcrete) or isolated soil nail
heads may be used at the surface. The basic concept of soil nailing is to reinforce and strengthen
the existing ground by installing closely spaced steel bars, called "nails," into a slope or
excavation as construction proceeds from the "top down." This process creates a reinforced
section that is itself stable and able to retain the ground behind it. The reinforcements are passive
and develop their reinforcing action through nail ground interactions as the ground deforms both
during and following construction. Nails work predominantly in tension, but are considered by
some to also work in bending/shear under certain circumstances. Generally, the soil nails
significantly increase the apparent cohesion of the soil through their ability to carry tensile loads.
A construction facing is also usually required, and is typically shotcrete reinforced by welded
wire mesh. For permanent walls, the shotcrete construction facing is typically covered in cast-in-
place concrete facing. Soil nailing appears similar to reinforced fill. However there are some
differences in the construction especially since the nails are inserted directly into an existing
mass of earth as opposed to being installed with the fill. Also the construction process for
excavated faces commences at the top level and proceeds downwards such that the upper nails
are loaded. For reinforced fill the lower reinforcements are loaded first as a consequence of
constructing by layers.

Two common applications are the construction of new slopes in cuttings and remedial works for
unstable slopes. Soil nailing may be used in any natural ground but some ground conditions are
more suitable than others.

Stress Distribution of a Soil Nail As the soil loads the grouted nail, the stress starts at the back
of the nail behind the active zone failure plane and reaches a maximum stress at the failure plane. The
stress dissipates from the failure plane through the active zone to the flexible front fascia. The shotcrete
fascia can be very thin, as there is very little force at the face.

Soil Nailing

Soil nailing is an effective and economical method of constructing retaining walls for excavation
support, support of hillside cuts, bridge abutments and highways.

Schnabel Foundation Company's soil nailing walls are often the ideal solution when an
excavation is required close to an adjacent property line, where a site has limited access, for
emergency repairs and where the cost of installing soldier beams is high.  Soil nailing projects
are built from the top down in a minimum of space and without disruption of the area behind the
wall.
When used in the proper application, our design-build soil nailing walls can be constructed more
rapidly and economically than other retaining wall systems.

Soil nailing is an in-place reinforcement of the soil.  It uses steel tendons grouted into pre-drilled
holes to create a stable block in front of the soil that requires support.  Soil nails are used for the
temporary support of excavations, construction of permanent retaining walls, construction or
replacement of bridge abutments, and for the control of landslides.  When used with other earth
retaining techniques, such as micropiles, tiebacks and tiedback elements, they will stabilize large
masses of soil.  Soil nail walls are usually built with smaller, easily mobilized equipment and
without extensive steel fabrication.  This minimizes the start-up time and makes soil nailing the
best application for congested sites.

Ground freezing is a technique that has been

used extensively for groundwater control and
excavation support in the underground
construction industry for over 100 years.

The process involves the circulation of a

refrigerated coolant through a series of
subsurface pipes to convert soil water to ice,
creating a strong watertight material. The
material is so strong, in fact, that it is routinely
used as the primary method of groundwater
control and soil support for the construction of
shafts hundreds of feet into water-bearing soils.

Most ground freezing systems are quite similar in principal. The

single most important component of a ground freezing system is
the subsurface refrigeration system, consisting of a series of
refrigeration pipes installed with various drilling techniques.
Depending upon the application, the coolant can be brought to
temperatures well below -150 degrees celcius. Ground freezing
can be achieved by using either a large portable refrigeration plant
or liquid nitrogen. After the initial freezing has been completed
and the frozen barrier is in place, the required refrigeration
capacity is significantly reduced to maintain the frozen barrier.

Ground freezing technology

Ground freezing technology, as practised
by the company Max Bögl, is a special
discipline in the field of civil engineering
that exploits the properties of artifically
frozen soil, namely the temporary increase
in stability of the soil and/or the ability of
the frozen soil to prevent groundwater
seepage.

To freeze the soil, Max Bögl employs a

freezing process involving either liquid
nitrogen or brine. Our in-house
equipment, including freezing units,
prefabricated pipe sections, measurement,
control and dosing technology, are also
available at short notice if required.

This technology finds application in the

following construction projects:

 Underpinning
 Tunnel roof freezing
 Freezing of cross-cuts in tunnel
tubes
 Clearing out of tunnel fall-ins
 Forcing of framework
constructions into railway
embankments
 Foundation skirtings
 Removal of intact soil samples
 Rehabilitation measures

To be able to use freezing technology, a

complex understanding of the thermal,
mechanical and hydraulic properties of the
frozen soil, the equipment used to freeze
the ground, and the assessment of the
construction process, is required.

The Max Bögl construction company

offers complete solutions for ground
freezing measures. The essential services
included in these solutions are as follows:

 Technical and financial advice on

the selection of the freezing
 process (brine freezing or freezing
with liquid nitrogen)
 Planning of the building project,
dimensioning of the ice wall, static
calculations, design of the ground
freezing unit
 Boring of the holes for the freezing
and temperature measurement
pipes
 Setting and injection of the pipes
 Installation of the ground freezing
equipment
 Carrying out of freezing
measurements including operation
of the equipment, evaluation of the
measurements, documentation,
supply of liquid nitrogen
 Dismantling of the equipment

India has seen increasing growth in infrastructure development in last

decade. The presence of large deposits of weak soil of varying type has necessities the
development & application of various ground improvement techniques which are as
follows.

VIBRO COMPACTION

Vibro-compaction is a deep compaction ground treatment technique for

densifying granular soils in-situ by means of a vibrating probe, or "vibroflot". Shown
below, the vibroflot is a long, slender, hollow tube of cylindrical shape, consisting of two
parts. The lower part, termed the vibrator, is connected by means of a special elastic
energy coupling to the upper follow tubes. The vibrator houses two components,
including a 150 Kw electric motor in the upper part, to drive an eccentric weight in the
lower compartment. Capable of 1,500 to 1,800 revolutions per minute, the vibrator
develops an unbalanced (centrifugal) force of 30 to 50 tonnes, creating vibrations in a
horizontal plane.

SUBSEALING, PERMEATION GROUTING, MECHANICAL JACKING,

CONTACT GROUTING, CHEMICAL GROUTING, UNDER PINNINg

Chapter 6 Case study of ground improvement work at the Suvarnabhumi Airport of Thailand

Za-Chieh Moha, b and Penchi Lina, b

a
MAA Group Consulting Engineers, Taiwan
b
MAA Group Consulting Engineers, Thailand

Available online 19 June 2007.

Abstract

The Construction of Suvarnabhumi Airport (or Second Bangkok International Airport) has been
planned since 1960s to accommodate the rapid growth of air traffic in this region. The
Suvarnabhumi Airport (SA) will not simply substitute the existing Bangkok International Airport
at Don Muang, but will also develop Bangkok into an international aviation hub in Southeast
Asia. The first phase of SA is scheduled to open in September 2005 with capacity to deal with 40
million passengers and 1.46 million tons of cargo annually. Total construction cost is estimated
to be over 4 billion US$. Owing to the underlying high compressibility and low strength soft
marine clay, ground improvement by using prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) with preloading
embankment was selected at SA to reduce the postconstruction settlement prior to construction
of permanent airport facilities. Over 60 million meters of PVDs have been installed at the SA site
so far. A comprehensive instrumentation program was undertaken to observe the ground
improvement performance. Subsoil investigation was conducted after the removing criteria of
preloading were achieved. This chapter will first describe the history of major geotechnical
studies with comprehensive field-testing program and subsoil investigation at the SA site, and
then discuss the design concept and construction method of the ground improvement projects
conducted at Airside Pavements including runways, taxiways, apron and airside roads. The
ground improvement performance is evaluated through the comparison of monitoring data with
design assumptions and change of soil properties before and after ground improvement. The
issues on ground subsidence and under-hydrostatic water pressure encountered at this new
airport site and settlement occurred during pavement construction are also addressed.
Micropiles (also called minipiles) are high-performance, high-capacity drilled and grouted piles
with diameters typically 5" – 12". These micropiles can extend to
depths of 200 feet and can take loads as small as 3 tons or as high as
200 tons.

Generally, micropiles are applicable when there are problems with

using conventional deep foundation systems. These problem
conditions include: obstructions, adjacent structures, limited access
job sites, and other shacky areas like caves, sinkholes, underground
rivers.  For example, micropiles are commonly the preferred
foundation choice in the challenging areas that feature nearby
buildings and difficult access.  
 
The unique characteristics of micropile offers advantages when
other deep foundation systems are not applicable include:

 Limited access situations due to size of equipment 

     Use the ICE LA-4 for these jobs with up to 9 5/8 casing
size
 Environmentally sensitive projects because they create
relatively little disturbance to the surrounding area
 Seismic Retrofit
 Arresting Structural Settlement
 Resisting Uplift/Dynamic Loads
 Underpinning
 Reticulated Pile Wall

Installation techniques vary depending on the load bearing specifications of the project. The
selection of the installation technique depends largely on soil conditions and load transfer
requirements.
 
Common Uses of Micropiles

 To replace deteriorating foundation systems

 To provide extra support for structures during renovation
 To provide pile foundations where access, geology or environment prevent the use of
other methods
 To support structures affected by adjacent excavation, tunneling or dewatering activities
 To provide a fast, effective alternative to more traditional underpinning methods

Benefits of Micropiles

 Can be installed through most ground condition, obstruction and foundation at any
incline.
 Ensure minimum vibration or other damage to foundation and subsoil.
  Can be installed in as little headroom as 6' and close to existing walls.
 Depending on situation, could actually allow facility operations to be maintained during
construction.
 Simple and economical connection to existing and new structures.
 Can be preloaded to working load before connecting to particularly sensitive structures.

The vibro compaction technique is most suitable for medium to coarse grained sand with fines content
(material passing sieve size of 0.074mm) of less than 10%, and clay content of less than 2%. Cohesive
soils consisting of silt and clay material will not respond well to the vibratory compaction process.

An electrically driven vibrator is utilized for vibro improvement work. The vibrator is suspended by a
track mounted crawler crane and lowered by its own weight and vibration with the aid of

jetting water at the bottom nozzles

and the wash pipes above the vibrator.

The vibrator is lowered to 0.5m above the lower limit of the required compaction depth, at which time
the volume of water output at the bottom nozzle jets is reduced and controlled in order to cause
compaction of the soil around the vibrator. The wash pipes on the sides of vibrator remain operational
to wash the in-situ material on the side of probe hole down as backfill, thereby increasing the relative
density of the in-situ sandy soils. The vibrator is raised in 0.5 meter increments, forming a compacted
zone of soil mass as the deep compaction progresses.
Vibrocompaction
Compacting Loose Sands

What Is Vibrocompaction?

Vibrocompaction is a ground improvement process

for densifying loose sands to create stable foundation soils. The principle behind vibrocompaction
is simple. The combined action of vibration and water saturation by jetting rearranges loose sand
grains into a more compact state.  Vibrocompaction is performed with specially-designed
vibrating probes. Both horizontal and vertical modes of vibration have been used in the past. The
vibrators used by TerraSystems consist of torpedo-shaped probes 12 to 16 inches in diameter
which vibrate at frequencies typically in the range of 30 to 50 Hz.

The probe is first inserted into the ground by both jetting and vibration. After the probe reaches
the required depth of compaction, granular material, usually sand, is added from the ground
surface to fill the void space created by the vibrator. A compacted radial zone of granular material
is created.

What Soils Are Suitable?

Vibrocompaction is ideally suited for clean sands where the silt content is less than 10 to 15
percent. Soils with appreciable silt content can not be densified by vibration alone. However, the
use of gravel backfill with the vibroreplacement (stone column) method extends the range of soils
that can be improved to silty and clayey sands, silts and clays.

How Much Improvement Is Possible?

The degree of densification that can be achieved by vibrocompaction is dependent upon many
factors, including:

 Soil type, plasticity, and gradation characteristics.

 Spacing of compaction points.
  Type of backfill.
 Characteristics of vibrators.
 Construction techniques used.

Relative densities in excess of 85% can be achieved, with relative densities of 70 percent being
common. Allowable bearing pressures of up to 8,000 pounds per square foot (psf) are not
uncommon with vibrocompaction. Minimal settlement results since the modulus of deformation
is often increased to over 1,000 tsf.
 

Under-soil heating is a method used in various sports stadia (that have grass as their main
surface) which heats the underside of the pitch to avoid any bad weather, such as snow and ice,
from building up and ultimately helps the club avoid having to postpone any matches.

The first ground in England to have under-soil heating installed was Goodison Park, home of
Everton.[1] Most English Premiership teams now have this installed in their stadia. While it is not
an official requirement, it avoids any financial loss that a club might face in having to postpone
any matches due to bad weather. Several teams in the United States National Football League
(American football) located in cold-weather cities also have such a system installed. In the case
of American football, it is more a matter of player safety, since NFL games are never postponed
on account of cold weather. In Germany a under-soil heating is mandatory for 1. and 2. Fußball-
Bundesliga. The first one was installed 1972 in the Olympic Stadium of Munich.

There have been numerous occasions where under-soil heating's effectiveness has been
questioned. One notable incident happened in December 27, 2005 when three stadia in the FA
Premier League, supposedly equipped with under-soil heating, failed to stop their pitches being
covered in thick snow - this led to the matches being postponed. Subsequently, on January 1,
2006, the Premier League investigated as to why the pitches at the Reebok Stadium (Bolton
Wanderers), Ewood Park (Blackburn Rovers) and St. James' Park (Newcastle United) were not
able to repel the snow. In the U.S., a notable example of the failure of an under-soil heating
system occurred in 1967, when a newly installed system at Lambeau Field in Green Bay,
Wisconsin failed before the NFL Championship game. That game would enter American football
lore as the "Ice Bowl".

Ground Freezing
The Problem:

Artificial ground freezing can be an effective way to deal with various construction ground
control challenges such as the mitigation of seepage infiltration into tunnels and shaft
excavations; or ground strengthening for excavation. First used over 100 years ago, it is common
practice in several areas of geotechnical engineering. In many cases, the presence of moving
water adds more heat than can be removed by the chilled pipe network. When this happens,
closure of the barrier wall will not happen.

The Solution

GeoStudio 2007 can consider ground freezing and thawing with phase change due to conduction
or both conduction and convection of heat in moving water and or moving air. There are a
variety of boundary condition options that allow for steady state or transient analyses. A
“convective surface” boundary condition is specially implemented to allow for artificial ground
freezing where a flowing fluid in a close piping system removes heat from the ground. The same
boundary condition could be applied in reverse to simulate forced heating of the ground in
special circumstances. Using Add-In constitutive models in SIGMA/W and SLOPE/W will allow
for the results from a thermal analysis to be used to assess deformations or stability due to
changing ground strengths that are temperature dependent.

Vibro-Replacement (Stone Columns)

The use of stone columns (vibro-replacement) for the in-situ reinforcement of soft cohesive soils and for
the densification of granular soils has been accepted for over fifty years in the United States. The
construction of stone columns in-situ has proved successful in improving the stability of embankments
and natural slopes, increasing bearing capacities, reducing total and differential settlements and
reducing liquefaction potential.

Stone columns are constructed using a vibratory probe (vibroflot). The tip of the vibrator (stinger)
houses an off-balance weight that rotates about a vertical axis. The eccentric weight is driven by a
hydraulic motor and is capable of producing over 30 tons of centrifugal force at frequencies as high as
2400 revolutions per minute. The vibrating stinger is attached to varying length extension tubes chosen
for the appropriate treatment. With the vibrator running, the vibroflot penetrates to treatment depth
with the aid of water-jetting at its tip. The water jetting creates an annular space (void) around the
vibroflot from the tip of the stinger back to the ground surface. After initial penetration, the vibroflot is
repeatedly "plunged" into the ground to stabilize the open hole and create a path for the backfill
materials to reach the stinger. Select backfill materials (typically #57 granite) are then dumped at the
ground surface where they fall through the annulus to the tip of the vibrator.

Vibrocompaction
On rare occasions, subsurface conditions on a site consist of very clean, loose sands. If these sands
contain less than five percent silt and clay, the site may be improved by a technique known as
vibrocompaction. Vibrocompaction consists of the same methods and equipment as vibro-replacement
but utilizes coarse sand instead of gravel for backfill. Without silts and clays ("sticky particles"), sands
rearrange into very tight configurations from the vibration of the vibroflot alone. The higher density of
the sands results in higher bearing capacities, reduced settlements and lower liquefaction susceptibility.

When in doubt, crushed stone should be used as backfill to ensure the intent of the geotechnical
engineer is met. If time allows, test sections may be performed on site to evaluate the appropriate
spacing and backfill materials at substantial cost savings to the owner. For this reason, we strongly
suggest that test sections be considered and included in any ground improvement package containing
vibro-replacement or vibrocompaction.

Vibro-Replacement is a method for construction stone columns using a

vibroflot.
Benefits can be increased bearing capacity, reduced settlement, increased
shear strength, and increased resistance to liquefaction.

Related to Vibro-Compaction, Vibro-Replacement is the process of constructing stone

columns using a vibratory probe (vibroflot). After the vibroflot penetrates to the desired
depth of treatment, stone fill is deposited into the hole from the ground surface or
through feed tubes to the tip of the vibroflot as it is withdrawn. Repeated raising and
lowering ("plunging") of the vibroflot into the stone during withdrawal results in columns
of stone measuring 30-42" (750-1100mm) in diameter. As with vibro-compaction, stone
columns results in higher bearing capacities for shallow foundations, a reduction in total
and differential settlement, increased safety factors for slope stability, and mitigation of
liquefaction potential in seismically active areas. Vibro-compaction is often an
economical alternative to deep foundations, especially when considering the added
liquefaction protection in seismic areas.
  

Top-feed vibroflot rig    

   

Adding stone in top-feed installation   Bottom-feed vibroflot rig

Grout is a construction material used to embed rebars in masonry walls, connect sections of pre-
cast concrete, fill voids, and seal joints (like those between tiles). Grout is generally composed of
a mixture of water, cement, sand, often color tint, and sometimes fine gravel (if it is being used
to fill the cores of cement blocks). It is applied as a thick liquid and hardens over time, much like
mortar.

It is also a component of mosaics. Although ungrouted mosaics do exist, most have grout
between the tesserae.

Main varieties include: tiling grout (either urethane, cement-based or epoxy), flooring grout,
resin grout, non-shrink grout and thixotropic grout.

There are a few tools associated with applying and removal of grout such as:

 grout saw or grout scraper; a manual tool for removal of old and discolored grout. The
blade is usually composed of tungsten carbide.
 grout float; A trowel-like tool for smoothing the surface of a grout line, typically made
of rubber or soft plastic.
 grout sealer is a water-based or solvent-based sealant[1] applied over dried grout that
resists water, oil and acid-based contaminants.
 Dremel grout attachment; an a