‘Something rich and strange.

Operatic attempts on The Tempest.

Z L Palmer
Guildhall School of Music & Drama
MA Opera Making (writer) 2014

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 1. Something rich and strange: Introduction

I could imagine all the composers who have

thought about an opera on The Tempest…
sitting down to read the thing and by the end
of scene two they’re in despair because it is
so apparently formless (Ades 2012:158).

From December 2000 to February 2001 the Almeida Theatre staged The
Tempest – directed by Jonathan Kent with incidental music by Jonathan Dove.
As a member of staff working there at the time, night after night I listened to,
and absorbed, the raw emotion of Shakespeare’s words, marvelling at Ian
McDiarmid’s Prospero, in the watery world conjured in the shell of the half-
demolished theatre. Three years later I stood in the upper amphitheatre of The
Royal Opera House at the end of the world première of Thomas Adès’ The
Tempest applauding along with:

a huge, stamping-and-shouting roar

greet[ing] the composer when he took his
solo bow – a final storm of sound on the
enchanted island (Ross 2004).

Jonathan Kent described Adès’ opera as, “a brilliant response to the play…its
own thing” (Kent 2006). In researching this essay I learnt that Adès was, in
fact, inspired by Kent’s Almeida production, and that composer and director
went on to collaborate on a revival of the opera in the US in 2006 which critic
Hugh Canning described as:

one of the most magical stage images

I can recall in recent opera seasons…
In a production remarkable for its narrative
Clarity and observant delineation of character
(Canning 2006).

In grappling with The Tempest, Adès joined a long-line of composers,

filmmakers, poets, painters and theatre-makers who have been lured into the
orbit of Prospero’s kingdom (See Appendix 1.2). Of the 187 Shakespearean
operas on record, 76i are devoted to the play Bernard Holland describes as an
“enchantment and a trap” (Holland, 1994) for artists of all forms.

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 This essay will explore the mechanics of enchantment: how and why The
Tempest has snared a host of accomplished composers, the majority of whose
work - ink barely dry, has been subsumed into “the annals of opera…littered
with the corpses of failed musical versions of Shakespeare’s plays” (Littlejohn
1985:255). It asks: what are the particular qualities of The Tempest? What is
the nature of its provocation and how does this relate to the business of opera?
How have various collaborative teams approached Shakespeare’s rich, musical
text? And finally, focussing on the Adès-Oakes collaboration, to what extent
can comparative textual and structural analysis illuminate the process through
which Shakespeare’s play was ground down and re-imagined, giving Adès space
to craft a hugely successful, contemporary opera:

[where] the evening is driven by the musical logic

at least as much as by the drama itself (Adès in Ross, 2004).

2. Defining Shakespeare’s Tempest

Thought to be the final play Shakespeare wrote alone, in 1610-1611, The
Tempest was published in the First Folio of 1623 (Butler, 2015). The most
musical of his plays, it also contains more stage directions than any other, and
is one of his shortest with just over 2,000 lines. In an attempt to contextualize
the work James Jacobs argues:

[it] stands at the crossroads of theatrical history:

between the Renaissance and the Baroque,
between the Elizabethan theatre of the imagination
and the Jacobean spectacle, between the primacy of
the word and the primacy of sensory entertainment (Jacobs 2016).

The historical and political context in which Shakespeare was working

undoubtedly had a profound influence on The Tempest. However, as Alden T
Vaughan remarks that “the play has generated persistent questions about…its
fundamental genre” (Vaughan 2014:83) since first publication. Is it a romance,
pastoral, tragicomedy, comedy, an early musical or something altogether
different? How are we to interpret its symbolism, and characters? Is Prospero,
flanked by Ariel – his imagination- and Caliban, his animal nature, simply a

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 reflection of the bard himself and the play a self-conscious tussle with his craft
as he relinquishes control to put “most trust in the power of music” (Jacobs,
2016)?

Late 20th century criticism focussed on the island setting, power dynamics and
metaphors of colonialism – adding a fresh political dimension that created
resonance for the piece across African literature in the 1970’s. Vaughan argues
that the most illuminating responses to The Tempest accept its “multiple
strands, levels and combinations of influences and intentions” (Vaughan
2014:83). Perhaps confounding ambiguity is The Tempest’s greatest strength –
opening it up to the possibility of constant re-interpretation, a palimpsest and
mirror of prevailing cultural and political preoccupations of the time? Anne
Barton echoes this thesis, suggesting that:

The Tempest is an extraordinarily obliging work of art.

It will lend itself to almost any interpretation,
any set of meanings imposed on it.
It will even make them shine (Barton 1968:22, my italics).

To what extent does Shakespeare’s aforementioned trust in the power of music

have a role to play in creating ambiguity? Should the play in fact, as Jonathan
Holmes suggests, be considered an early musical or court masque? (Holmes
2016). Embedded within the interpretation of The Tempest as Shakespeare’s
most musical drama lies a source of creative tension and paradox for opera
composers that Gary Schmidgall identifies:

it may be the completeness of Shakespeare’s dramatic

vision and the music inherent in his poetry are so
self-sufficient that there is no room for the interlinear
music an operatic treatment would provide (Schmidgall 1977:4)

2.1 Sounds and sweet airs: a musical vision?

Developed as an art form devoted to the spectacle of absolute monarchical

power, masque was characterised by a close association between music and
dance. It is believed that The Tempest was written to celebrate the wedding of

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 King James’ daughter; within the play the betrothal of Miranda and Ferdinand
provides an allegorical setting for the event (Butler, 2015). For director and
Shakespearean scholar Jonathan Holmes, masque permits music to function as
an underscore, creating a sonic, physical experience throughout the play.
Holmes argues that The Tempest:

was the first play in European drama ever to have

music the whole way through (Holmes, 2016).

Closer analysis of the text confirms the omnipresence of music. The play is
saturated with musical references and sound cues which are “integrated…in an
unprecedented way” (Jacobs, 2016). During his speech to Stephano and
Trinculo in Act 3 Sc2, Caliban almost sings the island into being through a
cacophony of sounds:
be not afeard, the isle is full of noises,
sounds, and sweet airs, that give delight and hurt not.
Sometimes a thousand twanging instruments
will hum about mine ears; and sometimes voices.

Furthermore, there are numerous stage directions that provoke a musical

response, Ariel’s entrance in Act 2 Sc 1 being one such example: “enter Ariel,
invisible.” The ephemeral qualities that permeate the play are personified by
Ariel. How better to articulate that than with music? In her article documenting
the trajectory of The Tempest through the Restoration, Julia Muller approaches
the issue of stage directions and music from a contrasting perspective,
suggesting:
the musical events on stage contribute to both
the action and the stage directions…in other words
music can underline or undermine the plot
(Muller 2016:188, my italics).

Muller anchors this within the wider debate about the nature of The Tempest
that unfolded during the Restoration period, in tandem with the development of
notions of through-sung opera versus English dramatic opera, ie. Opera
with spoken dialogue (Muller 2016:189). Dryden, who was responsible for the
first Restoration Tempest, was adamant that,
The Tempest cannot be called an opera because
the story of it is not sung (Dryden in Ibid).

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 If not an opera then was it, as Holmes suggests, an early musical? Citing the
fact that at least two songs, Ariel’s ‘Full Fathom Five’ and ‘Where the Bee Sucks’
were written by lute virtuoso Robert Johnson, Holmes argues that Johnson
should have shared credit for the play (Holmes, 2016). Definitions and
authorship aside, what the critics appear to agree on is crystallized by Jacquelyn
Fox-Good in her suggestion that:
Shakespeare came increasingly to regard music,
which appears prominently in the last plays,
as a means of figuring that which couldn’t be figured,
that which seemed to him beyond his power to represent
(Fox-Good in Halliwell 2009:371).

Pulsing not only with the innate musicality of Shakespeare’s text, but with the
rhythms of Johnson’s music, The Tempest’s
irresistible ingredients [also] include familial betrayal,
violence among the upper classes,
sweeping fantasy [and] the power of magic (Holland, 1994).

At first sight this looks like the stuff of an opera composers dreams. I will now
examine operatic attempts on the play to elucidate features of operatic
dramaturgy and seek insight as to why so many of these dreams didn’t work
out.

3. Operatic Attempts on The Tempest

Writing in the 1880’s, composer Emmanuel Chabrier described his fascination

with The Tempest:
I know The Tempest by heart; there are many good
things in it…as for drama…where is it?
Are they genuinely dramatic, those conspiracies?
…The interest will have to be spiced up elsewhere…
(Schmidgall 1977:3)

Perhaps unable to reconcile these concerns, Chabrier never wrote his opera of
The Tempest but many others did. Beginning with Thomas Shadwell in the
1680s, Appendix 1 provides an overview of composers and chronology. For
the purposes of this essay I will focus my analysis on the period 1983 – 2005
during which time a number of contemporary productions were premièred on
the stages of opera houses in the US and UK.

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 3.1 America 1983 - 1994

American composer John Eaton began work on The Tempest in 1983, with
music critic Andrew Porter as librettist, a collaboration Eaton later described as
“one of the happiest experiences of my life” (Eaton 1985:30). On Eaton’s
request, Porter reduced the play by more than half and disrupted its metrical
regularity, while retaining all of the characters and action.

For Eaton The Tempest is Shakespeare’s 20th Century play, a play with
alienation at its core in which many of its characters have little sense of who or
where they are. Eaton translated this into his musical tapestry by ascribing
each character, or set of characters, a distinctive key and meter (ibid). Ariel
and Caliban were both written for mezzo-soprano, thus overcoming the play’s
dearth of female roles whilst re-enforcing a sense of the two characters
representing facets of Prospero’s psyche. Prospero himself, a figure described
by Eaton as his favourite character in all of Shakespeare, holds

the opera’s main key and meter,

controls all other musical forces, and alone
employs electronic music for his magic
(Ibid).

Could Eaton’s fascination and musical approach to Prospero be a development of

Coleridge’s assertion? Perhaps, rather than a portrait of the bard himself,
Prospero, with his “potent art” (Coleridge, ibid) is akin to an opera composer?
Could this be a factor in the play’s seemingly timeless lure and appeal? I will
return to explore this question in more depth later in my analysis.
As with many contemporary operas, Eaton’s Tempest received mixed reviews,
John Rockwell of The New York Times commenting that:

the pervasive impression is of dissonant sludge…

he never lets well enough alone; everything is fussed
with and overcomplicated (Rockwell:1985).

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 No less than two years later in 1985 another American duo, composer Lee Hoiby
and librettist Mark Schulglasser embarked on their adaptation of the play. In
contrast to Porter, Schulglasser adopted a metaphorical slant, setting the play
“as a dream conjured in the sleeping playwright’s unconscious mind”
(Schulglasser, 1985). Resisting the urge to tamper with the bard’s language,
Schulglasser took the play’s structure to the cutting board, explaining how he:

rearranged the sequence of a few scenes to

uncover a spine more unified and direct than is
apparent in the play’s episodic scenography
(Schulglasser in Ibid).

Through his process Schulglasser articulates a dilemma that lies at both the
heart of operatic dramaturgy and the craft of libretto writing: the librettist has
to know “where to cut the difficult passages and still preserve the dramatic
through-lines” (Ibid). Furthermore, working with text as rich and musical as
Shakespeare’s brings an additional dilemma to the librettist: to what extent is it
necessary to simplify or modernize the bard’s diction which could be,

not only patronizing of the audience

but would rob the composer of the very lyric
inspiration which is [our] purpose to provide him
(Schulglasser, Ibid).

Whilst Schuglasser chose to leave Shakespeare’s diction intact, across the pond
in the UK Adès’ librettist Meredith Oakes took a very different approach. Before
we turn to Adès and Oakes’s collaboration it is worth discussing one final
American production.

American composer Peter Westergaard spent twenty years working on his

adaptation of The Tempest which was premiered at the Opera Festival of New
Jersey in 1994. In his description of the opera-making process he adopts a
cautionary tone:

anyone who composes opera has to be

…crazy…because it’s so impractical (Westergaard 1996:9)

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 Working without a librettist, Westergaard trimmed the play to 40% of its
original length, describing the text as: “always beautiful, always fresh, I could
never get tired of it “ (Ibid). However, for New York Times critic Bernard
Holland, Westergaard’s Tempest illuminates a problem central to the project of
opera – operatic time. Whilst Eaton, Hoiby and Westergaard all made structural
changes to make The Tempest compact and dramaturgically coherent, their
refusal to alter Shakespeare’s language might have precipitated their downfall.
Holland warns that the two art forms run on different clocks and,

great lines spoken have a swiftness denied

them when they are stretched against
musical movement (Holland 1994).

Furthermore, Holland asks whether the operatic stage, by necessity, needs to

“grind great literature to its own degree of consistency” (Ibid) suggesting that
structural changes alone cannot create the conditions for opera. In his
assertion that music demands textural simplicity Holland implies that, when
dealing with Shakespeare, librettists can afford to be less reverent, treating the
bard’s diction as a provocation to be toyed and tussled with, an invitation for re-
construction and play!

Whilst there is mention of Eaton’s Tempest being programmed at The Royal

Opera House in the late 1980’s, it never made it. Furthermore, neither Hoiby
nor Westergaard’s productions secured their place in the contemporary operatic
cannon. It was another ten years before Thomas Adès and Meredith Oakes
found a way to crack the play open and successfully

translate Shakespeare’s conventions into [their own]

(Littlejohn 1985:256).

3.2 Adès & Oakes 2004

In his analysis of Verdi and Boito’s treatment of Shakespeare’s Otello, Joseph

Kerman comments that both composer and librettist

seem to have wished to harmonize the

irrationalities of the play (Kerman 2005:138).

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 Describing his approach to working with The Tempest, Adès expresses a similar
sentiment:
I wanted to approach Shakespeare as if foreign.
We had to preserve…the generalized atmosphere
the play produces…but also make it functional for
an operatic stage (Adès 2012:158).

Adès chose to enter the hermetic space offered in the play by viewing the island
as a metaphor for a character who is cut off from his own psyche. With Caliban
and Ariel conceived as facets of Prospero’s character and the number of scenes
increased from 9 to 15, the libretto creates a claustrophobic hall of mirrors and
“swiftly moving, kaleidoscopic” (Halliwell 2009:366) dramatic world. Crucially,
these decisions re-cast Prospero as a more fallible and vulnerable figure; less
god-like, more human, with more potential for operatic melodrama.

Adès and Oakes, in fact, made a range of structural changes to the play. In
Musical Islands Michael Halliwell illustrates how the pair have re-arranged
Shakespeare’s characters into a symmetrical pattern: a father and child, two
brothers and two conspiracies (see Appendix 2.2). Explaining the rationale
behind this Adès stated,

I wanted something that would make a

geometry from the play…firstly in the language itself
And secondly in the plot (Adès 2012:159, my italics).

Unlike their American counterparts, Adès and Oakes set out with the explicit
intention of remoulding Shakespeare’s language and dramaturgy. In an
attempt to illuminate how this was achieved I will now turn to closer analysis of
the route from libretto into music.

3.2.1 Libretto into music

In his review of the 2004 Royal Opera House production, Alex Ross commented:

Oakes plays fast and loose with Shakespeare’s

words. Grand speeches are telescoped into

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 tight couplets that sometimes read like pop lyrics
(Ross, 2004).

Guardian columnist Anthony Holden, however, was more scathing in his

response:
what’s the point of adapting our greatest poet
if you’re not going to use his words? [It’s] a pop
pastiche paraphrase amid Bardic soundbites
(Holden, 2004).

Although I share Holden’s sentiment regarding the pastiche-like quality of the

libretto, awareness of Adès’s demands renders his question a moot point. Under
instruction to “make a geometry” (Adès, ibid) of the language, Oakes appears to
have stripped back and simplified the music of the text. In an attempt to
illustrate this Appendix 2.1 provides a comparative analysis of key moments in
the drama – beginning with Miranda’s speech in Act1 Sc1. For clarity, I have
highlighted rhyme schemes and use of repetition – this provides a visual picture
of the complex music of Shakespeare’s language in contrast to the metrical
regularity adopted by Oakes.

Repetition is a further device employed by Oakes that simplifies the metrical

structure of the text. In Act1 Sc3 Ariel’s aria becomes incantatory to the point
that Prospero is forced to interject: “Ariel, that’s enough.” Brutal words
arranged with child-like simplicity:

They are blasted

They are dismasted
They are hit
They are spit

They are wave-tossed

They are flame-crossed
They are found
They are drowned….etc.

In contrast to textual simplification, Michael Halliwell argues that Oakes’s

libretto also contributes to a “more complex defamiliarizing process” (Halliwell
2009:365). At the heart of this lies a paradox. Whilst aspects of the text allow
for audience orientation,
the text also has a distancing effect,
particularly in the use of often deliberately banal
rhythms and other linguistic effects such as

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 assonance and alliteration (Halliwell 2009:366).

Based on my research, I suggest that these two process: simplification of - and

distancing from, the original text provided the key that allowed Adès to unlock
The Tempest’s operatic potential, creating space for both the music and
“shafts of light…coming through into the opera” (Adès 2012:57). In Opera as
Drama (2005) Joseph Kerman argues that the instinct to “harmonize the
irrationalities of the play” (Ibid, 138) is shared by many students of
Shakespeare including Verdi and Boito. Furthermore, Kerman suggests that the
pair successfully treated Otello through a process of simplification of character.
In his approach to setting Oakes’s text, aiming to match the musical and
dramatic logic of the piece, Adès pursued the vocal embodiment of character
through music – which I now turn to consider.

I think that music in an opera should be a

sort of fate that the characters are going
to be subjected to (Ades 2012:13)

Adès’s approach to musical characterization is closely aligned with critiques of

The Tempest that suggest Caliban and Ariel represent body and mind, facets of
Prospero’s character. Keen to avoid using “magical” sounding instruments, the
majority of Ariel’s arias are set at the extremes of the singer’s coloratura
soprano range. Here, Ariel’s text very often becomes unintelligible, giving way
to a bird-like, otherworldly sound capable of piercing through the texture of the
orchestra.

At moments of high dramatic tension Adès’s vocal writing seeks further

“estrangement from the original text” (Ibid:371). At the end of the opera Ariel
effectively disintegrates, becoming a voice with no physical substance as she
sings: “A – I – e.” Halliwell argues that during these final moments,

Adès acknowledges the power of the voice

without any need of signification through text
(Halliwell 2009:377).

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 In Full of Noises Adès echoes this, stating that by the end of Act III everything
had to be “boiled down to essentials.” Ariel sings only with vowels and Caliban’s
last word is his own name. Voice and emotion.

Perhaps, like Shakespeare, by placing his trust in the power of music, by

breaking text and characters down and re-constructing them through his own
language, Adès achieved a much sought-after unity between music and drama?
Perhaps Adès too has created a self-conscious piece in which Ariel’s sung text
embodies the broader tensions of the form, whilst Prospero, the only character
who can hear Ariel’s words at the very end, represents the composer himself
operating at the height of his power, tussling with the musical forces in his own
mind? Could Prospero be the reason why so many composers have been drawn
to The Tempest – his craft and control over his Island offering a metaphor for
the process of composition?

4. Conclusion

From its inception and function as courtly entertainment in the 17th Century, to
rip-roaring success on operatic stages across the world in the 21st, The Tempest
has become a palimpsest, mirroring both the development of operatic
dramaturgy and cultural preoccupations of the time. However, one of the
conclusions of my research supports Gary Schmidgall’s thesis that:

when masterly literature is taken up for

operatic treatment, literary values do not
necessarily loom importantly in the process
(Schmidgall 1977:3).

In seeking to understand the processes through which various composer-

librettist teams adapted The Tempest for the operatic stage, it appears that the
most obviously successful, Adès and Oakes, made choices that favoured
structure over semantics. I suggest that by silencing the inner music of
Shakespeare’s language through a combination of devices including repetition
and rhyming couplets, Oakes’s libretto subsumed literary values whilst re-
casting the dramaturgical arc to serve the specific needs of opera. In so doing

14
 the pair created space for music to drive the drama, allowing the audience to
experience a
radical antagonism between letting [themselves]
be swept away by the emotion and applying [themselves]
to the meaning of each word as it is sung
(Poizat in Halliwell 2009:367).

Furthermore, my analysis reveals a broader lesson regarding the role of the

librettist in the craft of opera making, reminding us that:

opera routinely involves the dictates of multiple

authorial intentions (Parker 2006:7).

A librettist adapting Shakespeare’s work is faced with complexity of many forms

not least of character, plot and the language itself. Coupled with the
abovementioned challenge of handling multiple authorial intentions, the task of
creating the backbone for a successful opera seems almost impossible. As a
writer, I find the beauty and power of Shakespeare’s language in The Tempest
intoxicating. However, it appears that for the opera to work the composer must
be given permission to invoke those very qualities in the music. This is the
paradox and trap of adapting such rich material for operatic treatment. There
has not been scope within the confines of this paper to interrogate the final
productions that resulted from the collaborations discussed, further study might
consider the role of the entire creative team: director, designer etc in bringing
the work to life on stage.

In researching operatic attempts on The Tempest I have begun to question

whether, as well as becoming a palimpsest charting developments of the form,
the high rate of apparent failure is symptomatic of the process and difficulties
presented by the genre. Operatic works, like all creative arts, demand time and
failure, repeated failure and re-drafting, in order for something truly powerful to
emerge. Over the course of almost 400 years, Shakespeare’s most musical play
has failed its way to success as an opera, illuminating salient points about the
challenges and craft of opera making in the process.

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Bibliography:

Adès, Thomas & T Service (2012) Thomas Ades: Full of Noises

Faber and Faber: London

Barton, Anne (1968) The Tempest

Penguin Books Ltd: UK

Butler, Martin (2015) The Tempest

Penguin: UK

Donnington, Roger (1990) Opera & Its Symbols

Yale University Press: London

Eaton, John (1985) pp. 26-35 in Princeton Alumni Weekly Vol. 86

September 11th

Halliwell, Michael (2009) “The Island’s Full of Noises, Sounds and Sweet Airs.”
Thomas Adès version of Shakespeare’s The Tempest.
pp. 360 – 379 in Elizabeth Mackinlay et al (eds)
Musical Islands: Exploring Connections between Music, Place
and Research
Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Newcastle

Kerman, Joseph (2005) Opera As Drama

University of California Press: USA

Kirk, Elise K (2001) American Opera

University of Illinois Press: Chicago

Littlejohn, David (1992) The Ultimate Art: Essays Around and About Opera
University of California Press: Berkeley

Murphy, Patrick (2001) The Tempest: Critical Essays

Routledge: UK

Parker, Roger (2006) Remaking the Song: Operatic Visions & Revisions from
Handel to Berio
University of California Press: Berkley

Sanders, Julie (2007) Shakespeare & Music: Afterlives & Borrowings

Cambridge Polity Press:

Schmidgall, Gary (1977) Literature As Opera

Oxford University Press: USA

Shakespeare, William (2015) The Tempest

Penguin: UK

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Vaughan, Alden T & (2014) The Tempest: A Critical Reader
Virginia Mason Vaughan A&C Black: UK

Westergaard, Peter (1999) pp.9-10 in Princeton Alumni Weekly Vol.97

Online References:

Canning, Hugh
Opera: A Triumph for Tragedy The Sunday Times 13 August 2006
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Kent_(director)
Accessed 13:00 22.05.16

Lee Hoiby
http://www.musicsalesclassical.com/composer/work/29032
Accessed 14:00 17.05.16

Holden, Anthony
Classical Review: The Tempest, Royal Opera House
http://www.theguardian.com/music/2007/mar/18/classicalmusicandopera.features
Accessed 14:59 17.05.16

Holland, Bernard
Opera Review; New musical Tempest Servant of Shakespeare
http://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/18/arts/opera-review-new-musical-tempest-servant-of-
shakespeare.html
Accessed 18:40 17.05.16

Holmes, Jonathan
The Tempest: An Early Musical?
http://www.classical-music.com/news/tempest-early-musical
Accessed 14:31 11.04.16

Jacobs, James David

The Tempest, Shakespeare’s Most Musical Play
http://www.wgbh.org/articles/The-Tempest-Shakespeares-Most-Musical-Play-2388
Accessed 12:10 11.04.16

Kent, Jonathan
In Halsey, Eric
Vienna Opera Feature in June: The Tempest by Thomas Adès
https://www.concertvienna.com/blog/vienna-opera/june-the-tempest-by-thomas-ades/
Accessed: 12:15 11.04.16

Muller, Julia
Music as Meaning in The Tempest pp.187-200
http://www.julieandfransmuller.nl/musicasmeaning.pdf
Accessed 09:28 10:04.16

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Rockwell, John
Opera: World Premier of Eaton’s Tempest
http://www.nytimes.com/1985/07/30/arts/opera-world-premiere-of-eaton-s-tempest.html

Schulglasser, Mark
http://www.musicsalesclassical.com/composer/work/29032
Accessed 09:40 10:04.16

Audio:

Bell, Brian
Interview with composer and conductor Thomas Adès
http://www.wgbh.org/articles/The-Tempest-Shakespeares-Most-Musical-Play-2388
Accessed 15:25 21.05.16

Image (p2):

https://www.flickr.com/photos/undergroundbastard/4335757686/
Accessed: 12:15 11.04.16

Reproduced under conditions of Creative Commons agreement:

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/

18

i
Halliwell (2009:363)
Although this figure varies according to source:
Wikipedia – The Tempest suggests 46
Littlejohn argues 31 (Littlejohn 1985:255)

19