HARVEST UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEATH AND

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMME

COURSE: CHEMICAL SAFETY & MANAGEMENT

LECTURER: MRS MULUNGUSHI

STUDENT NAME: NAMUGODE M. MOLLY

STUDENT ID: HU190100093

NAMUGODE MOLLY
EHT HU190100093
 INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests, including weeds. The term pesticide
includes all of the following: herbicide, insecticides nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide,
rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, antimicrobial, and fungicide. In
general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent (such as a virus, bacterium, or fungus) that
deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant
pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that
destroy property, cause nuisance, or spread disease, or are disease vectors. Along with these
benefits, pesticides also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species.
1. For each classification of pesticides of public health, importance according to
chemical structure (with particular concentration of pesticides and rodenticides)
give five examples of pesticides and their specific use in public health.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as:
Any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any
pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport,
or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or
substances that may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids, or other
pests in or on their bodies.
This use of pesticides is so common that the term pesticide is often treated as synonymous with
plant protection product. It is commonly used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural
pests that can damage crops and livestock and reduce farm productivity. The most commonly
applied pesticides are insecticides to kill insects, herbicides to kill weeds, rodenticides to kill
rodents, and fungicides to control fungi, mold, and mildew.
Types of Pesticides
These are grouped according to the types of pests, which they kill:
1. Insecticides – insects
2. Herbicides – plants
3. Rodenticides – rodents (rats & mice)
4. Bactericides – bacteria
5. Fungicides – fungi
Insecticides are agents of chemical or biological origin that control insects. Control may result
from killing the insect or otherwise preventing it from engaging in behaviors deemed destructive.
Insecticides may be natural or manmade and are applied to target pests in a myriad of
formulations and delivery systems (sprays, baits, slow-release diffusion, etc.). Controlling
malaria and other insect-borne diseases requires insecticides. When used for this purpose, the
enormous benefit of reduced disease transmission far outweighs any risks insecticides pose.
None of the insecticides used in disease control were created for this purpose; almost all were
developed for agriculture.
Herbicide are pesticides used to kill unwanted plants. Selective herbicides kill certain targets
while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the
growth of the weed and are often based on plant hormones. Herbicides or weed killers belong to
a class of pesticides that are used in the management of undesired plants in the areas of
agriculture, landscaping, forestry, gardening, and industry. Herbicides are classified based upon
different aspects, such as mode of action, site of action, chemical families, time of application,
selectivity, translocation, etc. It is important to note here that even a particular herbicide-resistant
weed could be susceptible to a specific herbicide provided the amount and the rate of application
are appropriate. On the other hand, excessive use of herbicides could damage the crop and also
impart resistance to the same weeds which were intended for control or elimination. Therefore, it
is important to strike a balance between these strategies and find the optimum medium for the
best and maximum effect.
Rodenticides are products used to control and/or eliminate mice, rats and other rodents. The use
of rodenticides may be necessary as rodents can carry diseases that can harm humans, damage
buildings and contaminate food. However, using rodenticides can also involve risks to people,
pets and the environment. Today, there are two types of anticoagulant substances: first-
generation anticoagulants (warfarin, coumatetralyl) tend to give way to second-generation
anticoagulants (flocoumafen, difethialone, brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difenacoum).
A bactericide or bacteriocide, sometimes-abbreviated Bcidal, is a substance that kills bacteria.
Bactericides are disinfectants, antiseptics, or antibiotics. Plant diseases caused by bacteria are
very difficult to control, especially when a bacteria like CLas resides in the phloem of the plant
vascular system, and few bactericides are available to treat bacterial diseases. Bactericidal
antibiotics kill bacteria; bacteriostatic antibiotics slow their growth or reproduction. One way
that bactericidal antibodies kill bacteria is by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
Fungicides are pesticides that kill or prevent the growth of fungi and their spores. They can be
used to control fungi that damage plants, including rusts, mildews and blights. They might also
be used to control mold and mildew in other settings. Fungicides are used to prevent or eradicate
fungal infections from plants or seeds. In agriculture, they are used to protect tubers, fruits and
vegetables during storage and are applied directly to ornamental plants, trees, field crops, cereals
and turf grasses. Human Health. Some fungicides can irritate skin and eyes, while others may
cause throat irritation and coughing when inhaled. Prolonged inhalation of certain fungicides,
such as ziram, can cause neural and visual disturbances. The long-term effects of fungicides on
humans are still unknown.
2. List five (5) insecticides that have been used in Zambia for the purpose of malaria
control.
a. Carbamates e.g. bendiocarb and propoxur
b. Organophosphates e.g. malathion and fenitrothion
c. Pyrethroids e.g. Bifenthrin and deltamethrin
d. Organo-chlorines e.g. dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
e. Neonicotinoids e.g. imidacloprid
3. Briefly explain the causes for resistance of insects to insecticides.
What is insecticide resistance?
Insecticide resistance refers to changes in an insect that increase its ability to withstand or
overcome the effects of one or more insecticides. When the frequency of resistant insects in a
population increases (e.g. through resistance traits being passed on from one generation to
another), the efficacy of an insecticidal intervention can be compromised.
In malaria control, the insecticides currently recommended for use against the potential parasite-
carrying adult Anopheles mosquitoes belong to five classes: carbamates, organochlorines,
organophosphates, pyrethroids and neonicotinoids. These insecticides are commonly
deployed through the core malaria interventions of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor
residual spraying (IRS).
The potential result of mosquito resistance to insecticides is that the insects are not killed when
they encounter a standard dose of an insecticide deployed through ITNs or IRS. However, this
does not mean that these interventions will be ineffective immediately, or that there will be a
surge in malaria cases. For example, when mosquitoes are resistant to pyrethroids, ITNs still
provide protection for the people using them.
When insecticide resistance was first identified.
Insecticide resistance is not a new phenomenon; it has been an undesired side effect of malaria
vector control since insecticides first came into broad use in the 1940s.
The main factor driving the emergence and spread of resistance during the past decade has been
the heavy reliance on a single class of insecticides pyrethroids for both public health and
agriculture purposes. Pyrethroids are highly effective and safe. They are the least expensive of
the 5 classes of insecticides used in malaria vector control, and are the only class available for
use on ITNs. In some areas, the use of pyrethroids and similar insecticides in agriculture appears
to have contributed to the development of resistance in mosquitoes.
Currently, ITNs appear to remain effective in countries with malaria transmission although there
is evidence emerging from some areas that resistance can reduce the impact of pyrethroid IRS.
To sustain the remarkable gains in malaria control and move towards malaria elimination, urgent
action is required to prevent the further development of resistance and maintain the effectiveness
of vector-control interventions.
Evidence of insecticide resistance
Behavioural resistance. Resistant insects may detect or recognize a danger and avoid the toxin.
This mechanism of resistance has been reported for several classes of insecticides, including
organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates (none of which we will use), and pyrethroids.
Insects may simply stop feeding if they come across certain insecticides, or leave the area where
spraying occurred.
Penetration resistance. Resistant insects may absorb the toxin more slowly than susceptible
insects. Penetration resistance occurs when the insect outer cuticle develops barriers, which can
slow absorption of the chemicals into their bodies. This can protect insects from a wide range of
insecticides. Penetration resistance is frequently present along with other forms of resistance, and
reduced penetration intensifies the effects of those other mechanisms. This is currently
happening with bed bugs and the use of pyrethroids.
Metabolic resistance. Resistant insects may detoxify or destroy the toxin faster than susceptible
insects, or quickly rid their bodies of the toxic molecules. Metabolic resistance is the most
common mechanism and often presents the greatest challenge. Insects use their internal enzyme
systems to break down insecticides. Resistant strains may possess higher levels or more efficient
forms of these enzymes. In addition to being more efficient, these enzyme systems also may
have a broad spectrum of activity (i.e., they can degrade many different insecticides).
Cockroaches are known to be able to metabolize pyrethrin when a synergist is not present.
Altered target-site resistance. The site where the toxin usually binds in the insect becomes
modified to reduce the insecticide's effects. This is the second most common mechanism of
resistance.
Recommended insecticide resistance management programs
The best strategy to avoid insecticide resistance is prevention. More and more pest management
specialists recommend insecticide resistance management programs as one part of a larger
integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The old school of rotating family of products is one
example. This means do not us the same product or family group for more than three consecutive
months.
Monitor pests. Scouting is one of the key activities in the implementation of an insecticide
resistance management strategy. Monitor insect population development in fields with the
assistance of a consultant or advisor if necessary to determine if and when control measures are
warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control decisions in some cases.
Use mechanical means to reduce pest populations (vacuum or exclusion). Environmental
changes such as water reduction and food sources will reduce the overall pest population. After
treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
Focus on economic thresholds. Insecticides should be used only if insects are numerous enough
to cause economic losses that exceed the cost of the insecticide plus application. Remember that
the economic thresholds in the urban environment vary. In hospital settings, the economic or
tolerance it should be zero. Consult local advisors about economic or toleance thresholds for
target pests in your area.
Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures as
possible. Effective IPM based programs will include the use of synthetic insecticides, biological
insecticides, beneficial arthropods (predators and parasites), cultural practices, mechanical or
environmental changes, and chemical attractants or deterrents. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work.
Time applications correctly. Apply insecticides when the pests are most vulnerable. For many
insects this may be when they have just emerged. Use application rates and intervals
recommended by the manufacturer or a local pest management expert (i.e., university insect
management specialist, county Extension agent, or consultant).
Mix and apply carefully. As the potential for resistance increases, the accuracy of insecticide
applications in terms of dose, timing, coverage, etc. assumes greater importance. The pH of
water used to dilute some insecticides in tank mixes may need to be adjusted to the product
manufacturer?s specifications. Sprayer nozzles should be checked for blockage and wear, and
should be able to handle pressure adequate for good coverage. Spray equipment should be
properly calibrated and checked on a regular basis. Use application volumes and techniques
recommended by the manufacturers and local advisors.
Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide or
insecticides in the same chemical class, which can lead to resistance and/or cross-resistance (1).
Rotate insecticides across all available classes to slow resistance development. In addition, do
not tank-mix products from the same insecticide class. Rotate insecticide classes and modes of
action, consider the impact of pesticides on beneficial insects, and use products at labeled rates
and spray intervals.
Protect beneficial arthropods. Select insecticides in a manner that is the least damaging to
populations of beneficial arthropods. For example, apply insecticides in crack and crevices
instead of a spot treatment.
4. Briefly discuss DDT under the following sub-headings:
a. Classification of DDT according to chemical structure
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and
almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochlorine. Originally developed
as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts. Chemical formula:
C14H9Cl5

b. Physical Properties of DDT

– Created by the reaction of trichloroethanol with chlorobenzene
– Stable, Nonflammable, Combustible molecule
– Able to perform substitution reactions because of its chlorine atoms

Appearance: – waxy, solid

– pure form consists of colourless crystals

Odour: Odourless
CAS Number: 50-29-3
Molecular Weight: 354.51 g/mol
Water Solubility: < 1 mg/L @ 20 degrees
Melting Point: 108.5-109 °C
Boiling Point: 260 °C
Molecular Formula: C14H9Cl5
Solubility Information: – Low solubility in water, high solubility in fats
– Soluble in aromatic and chlorinated solvents

c. Chemical properties of DDT

DDT is prepared by the reaction of chloral with chlorobenzene in the presence of
sulphuric acid. Pure DDT is a colourless, crystalline solid that melts at 109° C (228°
F); the commercial product, which is usually 65 to 80 percent active compound, along
with related substances, is an amorphous powder that has a lower melting point. DDT
is applied as a dust or by spraying its aqueous suspension.
d. Toxicity of DDT
 DDT is slightly to moderately acutely toxic to mammals, including humans,
when ingested. The acute oral LD50 (rat) is 113 to 800 milligrams per
kilogram of body weight or mg/kg. Indirect exposure is considered relatively
non-toxic for humans.
 DDT is poorly absorbed through mammalian skin, but it is easily absorbed
through an insect’s exoskeleton.
 Animals given potentially fatal doses of DDT develop liver lesions. Mice and
rats fed low doses (0 or 2 mg/kg for mice and 0 or 5 mg/kg for rats) of DDT
over an extended period develop liver changes, including hepatocellular
hypertrophy, margination, and formation of lipospheres.
 People excessively exposed to DDT while working with the chemical or
accidental exposure report a prickling sensation of the mouth, nausea,
dizziness, confusion, headache, lethargy, incoordination, vomiting, and
fatigue, tremors in the extremities, anorexia, anemia, muscular weakness,
hyperexcitability, anxiety, and nervous tension.
e. Biological solubility
DDT is highly fat soluble (dissolves in fat easily), but is poorly soluble in water. Due
to its 'fat-loving' nature, it tends to accumulate in the fatty tissues of insects, wildlife,
and people. DDT is stored and biomagnifies in fatty tissues, but produces no known
toxic effects while it is stored.
 5. Briefly discuss the reasons for continued use for DDT for public health purposes
despite its ban under the Bamako Convection. Are there any risks attached to the
continued use of DDT?
Today, the WHO actively promotes the use of IRS with DDT and recommends implementation
in essentially all epidemiologic settings, including unstable, epidemic-prone areas, stable-
endemic areas with seasonal transmission and stable-hyper endemic areas with seasonal or
perennial transmission. In this strategy, DDT is sprayed on the walls and other surfaces inside
dwellings where female Anopheles mosquitoes land and rest before or after a blood meal. The
WHO currently recommends a standard dosage of 1–2 g active ingredient per m 2 every 6
months. Sufficient contact with DDT-sprayed surfaces kills malaria vectors. More importantly,
DDT has an excitorepellent effect, deterring entry into and promoting exit from sprayed
dwellings.
The risks attached to the continued use of DDT
Because it is highly persistent and lipid soluble, DDT bio accumulates through the food chain.
The half-life of dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), a primary metabolite of DDT, is about
11 years. For these reasons, intensive agricultural use of DDT from the 1940s to the 1970s led to
adverse environmental effects, including acute toxicity to birds. Several reproductive effects
have been demonstrated in birds, in particular thinning of eggshells in several species. An
association between exposure to DDT and a number of health outcomes in humans has also been
proposed. It has been suggested that because of its weak estrogenic activity, DDT exposure is
linked to breast cancer. Because of its persistent nature in human adipose tissue and recorded
levels in breast milk, neurodevelopmental effects are an important concern. Residues of DDT
and its metabolites in human blood and the environment are detected even in areas where IRS is
not implemented, suggesting diversion of DDT to agriculture.
 CONCLUSION
Pesticides are used to control various pests and disease carriers, such as mosquitoes, ticks, rats
and mice. Pesticides are used in agriculture to control weeds, insect infestation and diseases.
There are many different types of pesticides; each is meant to be effective against specific pests. Some
examples include:

 Algaecides to kill and/or slowing the growth of algae.

 Antimicrobials to control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.
 Disinfectants to control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.
 Fungicides to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust.
 Herbicides to kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, also known as weeds.
 Insecticides to control insects.
 Insect Growth Regulators to disrupt the growth and reproduction of insects.
 Rodenticides to kills rodents like mice, rats, and gophers.
 Wood Preservatives to make wood resistant to insects, fungus and other pests.
Pesticides can cause short-term adverse health effects, called acute effects, as well as chronic
adverse effects that can occur months or years after exposure. Examples of acute health effects
include stinging eyes, rashes, blisters, blindness, nausea, dizziness, diarrhea and death. Pesticides
can contaminate soil, water, turf, and other vegetation. In addition to killing insects or weeds,
pesticides can be toxic to a host of other organisms including birds, fish, beneficial insects, and
non-target plants.
 REFERENCES
 https://www.magicexterminating.com/articles-detail.asp?nid=28
 http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/archive/ddttech.pdf
 https://www.intechopen.com/books/herbicides-physiology-of-action-and-safety/modes-
of-action-of-different-classes-of-herbicides
 https://www.health.belgium.be/en/the-rodenticides-pt14