DIELECTRIC WAVEGUIDE & DIELECTRIC WAVEGUIDE & OPTICAL FIBER

FIBER OPTICS
TRANSMISSION MEDIA  Index of Refraction
 Snell’s Law

 Critical angle

 Reflection Coefficient

COMEC 513 L1

SABILE, s.s.

Dielectric Waveguide Dielectric Waveguide

Index of refraction:
Let us consider the simpler case of a The index of refraction, n, is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
rectangular slab of waveguide. the speed of light in the unbounded medium, or
r Velocity of light in Free Space c
Snell’s Law of Reflection n   r r
Velocity of light in the medium uu
i   r 1
Case(1):  i    i  critical Case(ii): i    i  critical Where c  1 1 1 1 c
Snell’s Law of Refraction o  o
uu    
1 sin t  o  r  o r  o o r r r r

 2 sin  i Refracted
wave In nonmagnetic material r  1
1   11 and  2   2 2 n  r

Critical Angle:    Snell’s Law of Refraction can be expressed in terms of refractive index:
 i  critical  sin 1  r 2  Incident
Incident
Reflected wave
Total internal
reflection Critical Angle:  i  critical
 n2 
 sin 1 
  r1  wave wave 
 n1 
When the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, the
Snell’s Law of Refraction: n1 
sin  t
wave is totally reflected back and this phenomenon is known as
Total internal reflection. n2 sin  i
 Dielectric Waveguide Dielectric Waveguide
TE wave
Example The reflection coefficient of a TE plane Ex Hz
A slab of dielectric with index of refraction 3.00 sits in air. What is the relative wave (See Chapter 5) is given by
TE wave TE
permittivity of the dielectric? At what angle from a normal to the boundary will n1 cos  i  n2 cos  t Hy
light be totally reflected within the dielectric? (Ans: 9, 19.5) 
n1 cos  i  n2 cos  t TE modes (50 mm thick dielectric of
What is the relative permittivity of the dielectric? r = 4 or n=2 operating at 4.5 GHz)
Using Snell’s Law of refraction
cos  i  j sin 2  i   n2 n1 
2

n1   r 1  r1  n12 n2  1 (air)
TE  LHS
cos  i  j sin  i   n2 n1 
2 2
n1  3
(A) RHS
 r1  3  9
2  i  Critical (B)
 sin 2    n n  2  (C)
1  
TE  2 tan
i 2 1

 cos i 
At what angle from a normal to the boundary will  
light be totally reflected within the dielectric? Possible modes can be obtained by
evaluating the phase expression for
various values of m.
 n2  1  1  LHS RHS
For this example only three TE
 i  critical  sin 1    sin    19.5
 modes are possible;
 3   sin i   n2 n1 
2
 n1  A) TE0 at i = 74.4,
2

tan 
 a1 cos i  m
 B) TE1 at i = 57.9, and
 2 2  cos  i C) TE2 at i = 39.8.

Dielectric Waveguide Dielectric Waveguide

TM wave RHS for various m
Ex Ez LHS RHS
The reflection coefficient of a TM plane TE
 a1 cos  i  m   sin  i   n2 n1 
2 2

wave (See Chapter 5) is given by Hy tan  

 2   n2 n1  cos i
2
TM wave 2
n1 cos  t  n2 cos  i
TM  TM modes (50 mm thick dielectric of r
n1 cos  t  n2 cos  i = 4 or n=2 operating at 4.5 GHz) A larger ratio of n1/n2 results in
a) a lower critical angle and therefore
Using Snell’s Law of refraction
b) more propagating modes.
LHS
cos  i  j sin 2  i   n2 n1 
2

TE  RHS
cos  i  j sin 2  i   n2 n1  (A)
2
For single mode operation:
(B)
Possible modes can be obtained by (C) a 1 1 1 o
 a
evaluating the phase expression for o 2 n n
2 2 2 n  n22
2
1 a : Slab thickness
1 2
various values of m.
(or)
LHS RHS Using
For this example only three TM 1 c
c f 
modes are possible; o 
  sin  i   n2 n1 
2
2
2 a n12  n22
 a1 cos  i  m
tan  A) TM0 at i = 71.6, f

   n2 n1  cos i
2
2 2 B) TM1 at i = 52, and
C) TM2 at i = 33.
 Dielectric Waveguide Dielectric Waveguide
Example Example
D7.6: Suppose a polyethylene dielectric slab of thickness 100 mm D7.6: Find e and up at 4.5 GHz for the TE0 mode in a 50 mm thick n1 = 2.0
exists in air. What is the maximum frequency at which this slab will dielectric in air. (Ans: 35 mm and 1.6 x 108 m/s)
support only one mode?
From Fig. 7.16, the critical incident angle n2  1 (air)
n2  1 (air)
From Table E.2, for polyethylene for the TE0 mode

TE0 at i = 74.4
 r1  2.26 n1  2.26  1.5 a  100 mm a  50 mm
n1  1.5 n1  2.0
The maximum frequency at which this
The effective wavelength in the guide is
slab will support only one mode is n2  1 (air) n2  1 (air)
1 c
f 
2 a n12  n22
e 
u

o

c

 3  10
8
  35 mm
sin  i n1 sin  i 
fn1 sin  i  
4.5 10  2  sin 74.4
9

f max 
1 c

1  3 10 
8

 1.2 GHz  c 3 10  8


  1.6 108 m/s
2 a n n 2
1
2
2 
2 100  10 3
  1.5   1.0 
2 2 The propagation velocity is u p  
 e n1 sin i  2  sin 74.4  

FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

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Introduction
 Fibre optic system is a communication system that
carries information through a guided fibre optic
cable
 Light frequencies used in fibre optic systems are
FIBER OPTICS
between 1014 and 4x1014 Hz
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM  Thus, the higher the carrier frequency, the wider
the bandwidth and consequently, the greater the
information carrying capacity
12
 OPTICAL FIBER -
OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION
OPTICAL FIBER - BENEFITS CHARACTERISTICS
 Act as wave guide for 1014 to
 Greater capacity 1015 Hz
 Data rates of hundreds of Gbps  Portionsof infrared and visible
 Smaller size & weight spectrum
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 Lower attenuation
 Cheaper
 Electromagnetic isolation
 Wider operating temp range
 Greater repeater spacing  Last longer
 10’s of km at least  Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
 More efficient
 Greater data rate
 Wavelength Division
13 14
Multiplexing

THE LIGHT SOURCE

Fibre optic - Basic elements
 Fibre optics
 Long thin strand of glass or plastic fibre used to guide light

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rays from a point to another point

 Fibre-to-detector coupler
 Interface between fibre and light detector to couple as much
light as possible from the fibre cable into the light detector
 Light detector
16
 PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type) diode / an APD (avalanche
photodiode)
 OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MODES

FIBER OPTIC TYPES

 multimode step-index fiber

 the reflective walls of the fiber move the light pulses to
the receiver
 multimode graded-index fiber
 acts to refract the light toward the center of the fiber by
variations in the density
 single mode fiber
 the light is guided down the center of an extremely
narrow core
17 18

FIBER OPTIC SIGNALS PROPAGATION MODE

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 Monomode fiber (core 8
~ 12 µm)
fiber optic multimode
 Only one path for the light
step-index
to propagate
along fiber
only one mode, no modal dispersion
fiber optic multimode  All light rays follow the
graded-index same path down
the cable and take the
same time to input pulse output pulse
fiber optic single mode travel the length of the
cable
19 Monomode step-index fiber20
PROPAGATION MODE PROPAGATION MODE
Multimode graded index
 Multimode step index 
fiber
fiber (50 ~200 µm)

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 Light is propagated
 More than one path for light down the fiber by
propagate along fiber refraction which result
a continuous bending
at the light rays
 Light rays are propagated
slowest mode fastest mode
down the cable in a zig-zag
pattern and all the light rays  the rays travel near the
center, so that all the input pulse output pulse
do not follow the same path
with rays arrive at the end
input pulse output pulse point at the same time
different propagation time Multimode graded-index
21 22

Multimode step-index fiber

FIBER OPTIC - ADVANTAGES FIBER OPTIC ADVANTAGES

 Wider bandwidth: have higher information to carry
 Lower loss/attenuation: there is less signal  greater capacity (bandwidth of up to 2 Gbps)
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attenuation over long distance  smaller size and lighter weight

 Light weight: higher than copper cable and offer  lower attenuation
good benefit where weight is critical (plane)  immunity to environmental interference

 Small size: smaller diameter than electrical cable  highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of signal

 Strength: as it has cladding, they offer more strength

radiation (Security: cannot be ‘tapped’ easily as
electrical cable)

FIBER OPTIC DISADVANTAGES

 expensive over short distance
 requires highly skilled installers
 adding additional nodes is difficult
23 24
 ATTENUATION – STANDARD FIBER

ATTENUATION

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The attenuation in fiber optics are due mainly
to:
 Scattering losses

 Absorption losses
 Bending losses

 Splicing loss
 Coupling losses

1st window wavelength :0.85 um The lowest minimum loss: 5 to 10 db/km

25 26
2nd window 1.30 um 0.5 to 2 dB/km
3rd window 1.55 um 01. to 0.5 dB/km

FIBRE OPTIC - BASIC ELEMENTS

FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The main elements are:
 Elements in an optical fibre communication link
Driving circuitry:
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
 Serves as an electrical interface between the input
circuitry and light source and to drive the light source
 Light source
 LED / LASER
 Convert electrical energy to optical energy, where the
amount of light emitted is proportional to the amount of
drive current
 Light source-to-fiber coupler
 An interface to couple the light emitted by the source
into the optical fibre cable
 Fibre optics
 Long thin strand of glass or plastic fibre used to signal
in a form of light from a point to another point 27 28
OPTICAL TRANSMISSION MULTIPLEX SYSTEM
APPLICATION OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE

Some of the applications of fiber optic

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 Long haul, backbone public and private networks
 Local loop networks
 Fiber backbone networks (LAN connectivity)
 High resolution image and digital video
 Computer networks, wide area and local area
 Shipboard communications
 Aircraft communications and controls
 Interconnection of measuring and monitoring
instruments in plants and laboratories

30

Optical Fiber
Fiber to the node / neighborhood
(FTTN) / Fiber to the cabinet
• A typical optical fiber is shown in Figure. The fiber core is completely
(FTTCab)
encased in a fiber cladding that has a slightly lesser value of refractive
index. Signals propagate along the core by total internal reflection at
Fiber to the curb (FTTC) / Fibre to the
the core-cladding boundary.
kerb (FTTK) - Also sometimes called
FTTP for "to the pole", which usage
conflicts with use of the "P" to mean
"to the premises". •A cross section of the fiber with rays traced for two different incident
angles is shown. If the phase matching condition is met, these rays
Fiber to the building (FTTB) which each represent propagating modes.
does not imply any fiber actually
inside a home.
n f  nc
Fiber to the home (FTTH) which
actually means "into the home" to
internal fiber optic outlets.
 Optical Fiber Optical Fiber
For step-index multi-mode fiber, the total number of propagating modes is
approximately 2
a  2 2
N  2   n f  nc 
•The abrupt change in n is a characteristic of a step-   
index fiber. Optical fiber designed to support only one Example 7.3: Suppose we have an optical fiber core of index 1.465 sheathed in
propagating mode is termed single-mode fiber. More cladding of index 1.450. What is the maximum core radius allowed if only one
mode is to be supported at a wavelength of 1550 nm?
than one mode propagates in multi-mode fiber.
2 a n 2f  nc2 k01  2.405   1550 x109 m 
 a a or a  2.84 m
k01 2 n 2f  nc2 2 (1.465) 2  (1.450) 2
In step-index optical fiber, a single mode will propagate so
long as the wavelength is big enough such that
How many modes are supported at this maximum radius for a source
wavelength of 850 nm?
2 a n 2f  nc2 where k01 is the first root of the
 2
k01 zeroth order Bessel function,   (2.84 x106 m) 
N  2   (1.465)  (1.450)   9.6 The fiber supports 9 modes!
2 2
equal to 2.405  850 x10 9
m 

Optical Fiber Optical Fiber

Numerical Aperture Numerical Aperture
Light must be fed into the end of the fiber to initiate
mode propagation. As Figure shows, upon The incident light make an angle c with a
incidence from air (no) to the fiber core (nf) the light normal to the core–cladding boundary. A
is refracted by Snell’s Law: necessary condition for propagation is that
90
c exceed the critical angle (i)critical, where
no sin  a  n f sin b sin 2  b  cos 2  b  1
nc
sin   i  crit 
Laser Source Fiber nf
Laser Source Fiber
no sin  a  n f 1  cos  b 2
The sum of the internal angles
Therefore, the numerical aperture, NA, can be
in a triangle is 180 deg.
 
cos  b  cos 90   c  sin  c  c   b  90  180
written as
nc
no sin  a  n f 1  sin  c
2
 b  90   c sin   i  crit 
nf
n f 1  sin  c
2
n 2f  nc2
NA  NA 
no no
The numerical aperture, NA, is defined as

n f 1  sin 2  c
NA  sin  a 
no
 Optical Fiber Signal Degradation Optical Fiber
Numerical Aperture
Intermodal Dispersion: Let us consider the case when a single-frequency source (called
Example 7.4: Let’s find the critical angle within the fiber described in a monochromatic source) is used to excite different modes in a multi-mode fiber. Each
Example 7.3. Then we’ll find the acceptance angle and the numerical mode will travel at a different angle and therefore each mode will travel at a different
aperture. propagation velocity. The pulse will be spread out at the receiving end and this effect is
termed as the intermodal dispersion.
The critical angle is
 nc  Waveguide Dispersion: The propagation velocity is a function of frequency. The
 c  sin 1 
 1.450   81.8.
  sin   spreading out of a finite bandwidth pulse due to the frequency dependence of the
 nf   1.465  velocity is termed as the waveguide dispersion.

The acceptance angle Material Dispersion: The index of refraction for optical materials is generally a function of
frequency. The spreading out of a pulse due to the frequency dependence of the
 (1.465) 2  (1.450) 2  refractive index is termed as the material dispersion.
 a  sin 1    12.1 .


 1 Attenuation
 
Electronic Absorption: The photonic energy at short wavelengths may have the right
amount of energy to excite crystal electrons to higher energy states. These electrons
Finally, the numerical aperture is subsequently release energy by photon emission (i.e., heating of the crystal lattice due
to vibration).
NA  sin  a  0.209.
Vibrational Absorption: If the photonic energy matches the vibration energy (at longer
wavelengths), energy is lost to vibrational absorption.

Optical Fiber LINK BUDGET

Graded-Index Fiber
 A link budget is the accounting of all of the gains and
One approach to minimize dispersion in a
multimode fiber is to use a graded index fiber losses from the transmitter, through the medium (free space,
(or GRIN, for short). cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a
telecommunication system.
The index of refraction in the core has an
engineered profile like the one shown in  It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation,
Figure. Here, higher order modes have a as well as the antenna gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses. Randomly
longer path to travel, but spend most of their varying channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding
time in lower index of refraction material that some margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The
has a faster propagation velocity. amount of margin required can be reduced by the use of mitigating
techniques such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.
Lower order modes have a shorter path, but
travel mostly in the slower index material
near the center of the fiber. A simple link budget equation looks like this:
The result is the different modes all
propagate along the fiber at close to the
same speed. The GRIN therefore has less of  Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains
a dispersion problem than a multimode step (dB) − Losses (dB)
index fiber.
 Cable Plant Link Loss Budget Analysis Analysis of Link Loss In The Design Stage

Loss budget analysis is the calculation Prior to designing or installing a fiber optic system, a loss budget
analysis is recommended to make certain the system will work over
and verification of a fiber optic system's the proposed link.
operating characteristics.
Both the passive and active components of the circuit have to be
included in the budget loss calculation.
This encompasses items such as routing,
Passive loss is made up of fiber loss, connector loss, and splice
electronics, wavelengths, fiber type, and loss.
circuit length. Attenuation and bandwidth
Don't forget any couplers or splitters in the link. Active components
are the key parameters for budget loss are system gain, wavelength, transmitter power, receiver sensitivity,
analysis. and dynamic range.

Prior to system turn up, test the circuit with a source and FO power
meter to ensure that it is within the loss budget.

Analysis of Link Loss In The Design Stage

The idea of a loss budget is to insure the network

equipment will work over the installed fiber optic link. It is
normal to be conservative over the specifications!

Don't use the best possible specs for fiber attenuation or

connector loss - give yourself some margin!

The best way to illustrate calculating a loss budget is to show

how it's done for a 2 km multimode link with 5 connections (2
connectors at each end and 3 connections at patch panels in
the link) and one splice in the middle.

See the drawings in the next slide of the link layout and the
instantaneous power in the link at any point along it's length,
scaled exactly to the link drawing above it.
Cable Plant Passive Component Loss Step 2. Connector Loss
Step 1. Fiber loss at the operating wavelength
Multimode connectors will have losses of 0.2-0.5 dB typically.
Singlemode connectors, which are factory made and fusion spliced
Cable Length 2.0 2.0 have losses of 0.1-0.2 dB. Field terminated singlemode connectors
may have losses as high as 0.5-1.0 dB.
Fiber Type Multimode Singlemode
Let's calculate it at both typical and worst case values.
Wavelength (nm) 850 1300 1300 1550

Fiber Atten. dB/km 3 [3.5] 1 [1.5] 0.4 [1/0.5] 0.3 [1/0.5] 0.3 dB (typical 0.75 dB (TIA-568 max
Connector Loss
adhesive/polish conn) acceptable)
Total Fiber Loss 6.0 [7.0] 2.0 [3.0]
Total # of Connectors 5 5

(All specs in brackets are maximum values per EIA/TIA 568 Total Connector Loss 1.5 dB 3.75 dB
standard. For singlemode fiber, a higher loss is allowed for
premises applications. )
(All connectors are allowed 0.75 max per EIA/TIA 568 standard)

Step 3. Splice Loss

Step 4. Total Passive System Attenuation
Multimode splices are usually made with mechanical splices, although some Add the fiber loss, connector and splice losses to get the link loss.
fusion splicing is used. The larger core and multiple layers make fusion
splicing about the same loss as mechanical splicing, but fusion is more Best Case TIA 568 Max
reliable in adverse environments. 0.1-0.5 dB is for multimode splices, 0.3 850 nm 1300 nm 850 nm 1300 nm
being a good average for an experienced installer. Fusion splicing of Total Fiber Loss (dB) 6.0 2.0 7.0 3.0
singlemode fiber will typically have less than 0.05 dB (that's right, less than
Total Connector Loss (dB) 1.5 1.5 3.75 3.75
a tenth of a dB!)
Total Splice Loss (dB) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Typical Splice Loss 0.3 dB Other (dB) 0 0 0 0
Total Link Loss (dB) 7.8 3.8 11.05 7.05
Total # splices 1
Total Splice Loss 0.3 dB

Remember these should be the criteria for testing. Allow +/- 0.2 -0.5
(All splices are allowed 0.3 max per EIA/TIA 568 standard) dB for measurement uncertainty and that becomes your pass/fail
criterion.
 Equipment Link Loss Budget Calculation: Step 5. Data From Manufacturer's Specification for
Active Components (Typical 100 Mb/s link)

Link loss budget for network hardware

depends on the dynamic range, the Operating Wavelength (nm) 1300
difference between the sensitivity of the
receiver and the output of the source into the Fiber Type MM
fiber.
Receiver Sens. (dBm@ required BER) -31

You need some margin for system Average Transmitter Output (dBm) -16
degradation over time or environment, so
subtract that margin (as much as 3dB) to get Dynamic Range (dB) 15
the loss budget for the link.
Recommended Excess Margin (dB) 3

Step 6. Loss Margin Calculation

CRITERIA & CALCULATION FACTORS
Dynamic Range (dB) (above) 15 15
Basic Items Used To Determine General
Cable Plant Link Loss (dB) 3.8 (Type) 7.05 (TIA) Transmission System Performance
 Fiber Loss Factor

Link Loss Margin (dB) 11.2 7.95  Type of fiber

 Transmitter
As a general rule, the Link Loss Margin should be greater than
 Receiver Sensitivity
approximately 3 dB to allow for link degradation over time.
 Number and type of splices
LEDs in the transmitter may age and lose power, connectors or  Margin
splices may degrade or connectors may get dirty if opened for
rerouting or testing.

If cables are accidentally cut, excess margin will be needed to

accommodate splices for restoration.
 EXAMPLE:
TRANSMISSION DISTANCE CLASSIFICATIONS
Two operation centers are located about 8 miles apart
based on map distance. Assume that the primary
communication devices at each center are a wide area network
capable router with fiber optic communication link modules,
 Very Short Reach : 300-600 m or less and that the centers are connected by a fiber optic cable. The
actual measured distance based on walking the route , is a
 Short: 2Km total measured length (including slack coils) of 9 miles. There
 Intermediate: 10-40 Km are no additional devices installed along the cable path. Future
planning provides for the inclusion of a freeway management
 Long: 40- 80 Km systemcommunication link within 5 years.
 Very Long Reach: 120 Km
Note:
All distance measurements must be converted to kilometers.
Fiber cable is normally shipped with a maximum reel length of
15,000 feet (or 4.5km). 9 miles is about 46,000 feet or 14.5km.
Assume that this system will have at least 4 mid-span fusion
splices.

From the Table: Fiber Loss Budget Calculation To determine the correct power option add the transmit
power to the fiber loss calculation.
 Fiber Loss: 14.5 km × 35 dB = -5.075
REACH TRANSMIT POWER FIBER LOSS LOSS BUDGET
 Fusion splice Loss: 4 × .2 dB = - 0.8
 Terminating Connectors: 2 × 1.0 dB = -2.0 Short: -3 -12.875 -15.875
 Margin: -5.0 Intermediate: 0 -12.875 -12.875
 Total Fiber Loss = -12.875 Long: +3 -12.875 -9.875

The manufacturer of the router offers three transmitter/receiver Compare this to the receiver sensitivity specification
options for single mode fiber:
REACH RCVR SENSITIVITY LOSS BUDGET DIFFERENCE
 REACH TRANSMIT POWER RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
Short: -18 -15.875 +3.0
 Short: -3 dBm -18 dBm
Intermediate: -18 -12.875 +6.0
 Intermediate: 0 dBm -18 dBm
Long: -28 -9.875 +19.0
 Long: +3 dBm -28 dBm
 Problem: Assume a system with the following specifications:

 Because a loss margin of 5.0dB was included in the

fiber loss calculation, the short reach option will  Light transmitter LED output power: 30 µW
provide sufficient capability for this system.  Light receiver sensitivity: 1 µW
 Cable Length: 6 km
 In fact, the total margin is 8.0db because the  Cable attenuation: 3 dB/Km, 3X6 = 18 dB total
difference between the loss budget and receiver  Four connectors: attenuation 0.8 dB = 3.2 dB total
sensitivity is 3.0 db.  LED-to-connector loss: 2 dB
 Cable dispersion: 8 ns/km
 Data rate: 3 Mbps

1. Calculate for all the losses.

2. What power gain is needed to overcome this loss?

SOLUTION:
If the receiver sensitivity is 1 µW, 0.036 µW is below the
 First calculate all the losses; add all the dB loss factors.
threshold of the receiver.
 Total Loss, dB = 18 + 3.2 + 2 + 2 = 25.2 dB

 Also add 4-dB contingency factor, making the total loss: The problem may be solved in one of the three ways:
 25.2 + 4 = 29.2 dB
Increase transmitter power
 What power gain is needed to overcome this loss? 1. Get a more sensitive receiver
 dB = 10 log Pt/Pr 2. Add repeater.

where Pt is the transmit power; Pr is the received power

29.2 dB = 10 log Pt/Pr If the transmitter power is increased to 1 mW or 1000 µW:

Pt/Pr = 831.8
The Pr = 1000 ÷ 831.8 = 1.2 µW
Pt = 30/831.8 = 0.036 µW
 Problem :
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATION:
A measurement is made on a fiber-optic cable 1200 ft long.
Its upper frequency limit is determined to be 43 Mbps. What
The performance of a cable is indicated by the bit rate- is the dispersion factor D?
distance product. This rating is the fastest bit rate that
can be achieved over a 1 km cable.
1 km = 3274 ft.
D = 1200 ft = 1200/32274 – 0.367 km
R = 1/5dD
R = 1/5dD
R – maximum data bit rate in Mbps for a given
distance D in Km of the cable with dispersion D = 1/5RD = 1÷ [(43 x 106)(0.367)] = 12.7 ns/km
factor of d, given in µs/km.