TEACHING BY PRINCIPLES

Fetti Anggriaini & Ainul Fitri

This article examines the process of teaching and learning English as a second language.
There are many factors which make the acquiring of language fail. The expert try to discover a great
deal about how to best teach a second language in the classroom.Twelve principles summarized in
this paper are all important and we should be able to place the top of each from its list.

In teaching and learning process of ESL/ EFL need a higher motivation than any other
learning process.There are many factors that effect the student willingness and readiness to acquire
the new language. The teachers should be able to solve their problem by giving appropriate
motivation based on their need and age level.

INTRODUCTION
In Principle of language learning and teaching (brown 2000) it is stated that the last
two decades of research produced a complex storehouse of information on second language
acquisition and teaching. It is discovered a great deal about how to best teach a second
language in the classroom and, while many mysteries still remain about why and how learner
successfully acquire second language. It is appropriate for us to focus on what we do know,
what we have learned and what we can say with some certainty about second language
acquisition, we can then clearly see that a great many of teachers choices are grounded in
established principle of language learning and teaching.
Learning English is more difficult than teaching other language, therefore learner
need high motivation both intrinsicly and extrinsicly. Internal and external factors that
stimulate desire and energy in learner to be continually interested and committed to a job,
role or subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal. Motivation results from the interaction of
both conscious and unconscious factors such as the (1) intensity of desire or need, (2)
incentive or reward value of the goal, and (3) expectations of the individual and of his or her
peers. These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way. An example is a
student that spends extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the
class.
In teaching EFL we have to consider the learner variable of age, because the need in
acquiring language of each level is different. Children have their own way to acquire a new
language, as well as adults and teens. The children attention is shorter than adult and teens.
But teens’ attention will cut short due to the distraction. As the teacher we should know their
psychological development. So, the teacher duty is how to motivate them and teach them in
positive learning environment.
In this paper the authors attempt to examines the more important principle in teaching
EFL and to know what factors that motivate them in learning a new language. This paper also
examines the teaching across age level implementation and to know the learner psychological
development in learning English as foreign language.
 COGNITIVE PRINCIPLES
We will call the first set of principle “cognitive” because they related mainly to
mental and intellectual functions.
Principle 1: Automaticity
We commonly attribute children’s success to their widely observed tendency to
acquire language subconsiously, that is without avertly analyzing the form of languages
themselves. Through an inductive process of exposure to language input and opportunity to
experiment with output, they appear to learn languages without thinking about them.
The characteristic of automaticity principle:
o Subconscious absorption of language through meaningful use
o Efficient and rapid movement away from a focus on the form of language to afocus
on the purpose to which language is put.
o Efficient and rapid movement yfrom a capacity-limited control of a few bits and
pieces to a relatively unlimited mode of processing language form.
o Resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms

The principle of automaticity may be stated as follows:

Efficient second language language learning involves a timely movement of the
control of a few language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited
number of language forms
The vast number of bit of information-both adult and children must sooner or later
move away from processing language unit by unit, piece by piece, focusing closely on each
and “graduate” to a form of high speed, automatic processing in which language forms are
only the periphery of attention. Children usually make this transition faster than adult, who
tend to linger in analytical.
Here are some possibilities of pedagogical implications:
o Focused on how to use of language
o Exercise patience. Help learners achieve fluency
o Grammatical rules are for adults, not young learner.

Principle 2: Meaningful learning

"Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning"
(Brown, 1994, p. 57)

Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge (lets say a fact)
is fullyunderstood by individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates
to other stored fact (stored in your barin that is). It is good to contrast meaningful learning
with the much less desirable, rote learning.
“Rote learning” is where you memorize something without full understanding and
you don’t know how the new information relates to your other stored knowledge.
 The principle of meaningful learning is stated as follow:
Meaningful learning will lead oward better ling term retention than rote learning.
Meaningful learning _ Don’t:
o Too much grammar explanation
o Abstract principle and theories
o Too many drills many memories
o Activities with unclear purposes
o Extraneous activities
o Distractions that take the focus off meaning.

Here are some possibilities of pedagogical implications:

o Capitalize on the power of meaningful learning by appealing to student’s interest,
academic goals, and career goals
o Anchor the introduced concept in the students’ existing knowledge and background
so that it become assosiated with something they aleady know.
o Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning.

Principle 3: The Anticipation Reward

B.F Skinner and others have clearly demonstrated the strenght of rewards in both animal and
human behaviour. Virtually everything we do is inspired and driven by a sense of purpose or
goal, and according to Skinner, the anticipation of reward is the most powerful factor in
directing one’s behaviour. The term of reward principle can be stated as follow:

"Human being are universally driven to act, or "behave," by the anticipation of some sort of
reward-tangible or intangible, short term or long term-that will ensue as a result of the
behavior" (Brown , 1994, p. 58)

The Characteristic of Anticipation Reward:

o Encourage for confidence

o Encourage students to encourage students

o Be excited and enthusiastic

The implications for the classroom are obvious. Give them immediate reward like “Very
good, John! Excellent! At the other end, it behooves you to help students to see clearly why
they are doing something and its relevance to their long term goals in learning English.

Some possibilities of pedagogical implications:

o Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and keep them confidence in
their ability.
o Encourage students to encourage each other with compliment and supportive actions.
 o In Classes with very low motivation, short term reminders of progress may help
students to perceive their development.
o Show enthusiasm and excitement yourseelf in the classroom. It will drive them to be
more motivated in learning.
o Try to get learner to see the long term reward in learning English by pointing out what
they can do with English for their future.
Principle 4: Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation is the extent to which you make choice about (a) goal to persue and (b) the
effort you will devote to that pursuit. Motivation is known as intrinsic motivaton and
extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic bring feeling competence and self-determination. And
Extrinsic ,motivation is all about gaining an award or avoiding punishment.
Simply stated, the intrinsic motivation is:

"The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the
learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the
behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary"
(Brown, 1994, p. 59)

Intrinsic motivation is a challenging topic. If we go to the secondary context, where

English is just another subject which the system requires to get the certificate, will rapidly
discover that few students are intrinsically motivated to learn English. It is some kind of
irony that everyone would like to speak English because it is the language of globalization
but, few want to invest the time and effort that are needed . If the learner intrinsically
motivated to perform all classroom task we might not even need teachers! The leaner perform
the task because it is fun, interesting, useful, or challenging, and not because they anticipate
some cognitive or affective reward from the teachers.
Principle 5: Strategic Investment
Strategic method is The “method” that the learner employs to internalize and to
perform in the language are as important as the teacher’s methods-or more so.
Simply stated, the Strategic investment is:

The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the
learner. Because the behaviour stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the
behaviour itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administerd reward is necessary.

Two major pedagogical implication of the principle:’

o The importance of recognizing and dealing with the wide variety of styes and
strategies that the learner successfully bring to the learning process.
o The need for attention to each separate individual in the classroom.

The characteristic of Strategic investment principle:

o Successful mastery of the 2nd language will be due to a large extent to a learner’s own
personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the 2nd language.
o Multiplicity of learning style and strategies = multiplicity of techniques.
 o Not everyone has to comfortable at every single moment of every lesson, so push
people!

A teacher’s greatest delemma is how to attend to each individual student in a class

while still reaching the class as a whole group. In relatively large classes of 30 to 50
students, individual attention becomes increasingly difficult; in extra large classes it is
virtually impossible. The principle of strategies investment nevertheless is a reminder
to provide as much attention as you can to each individual students.

AFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES

Principle 6: Language Ego

The language ego principle can be simply stated as follow:

As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of
thinking, feeling, and acting- a second identity. The new “language ego” interwined with the
second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness,
and a raising of inhibition.

The charatceristic of language ego principle:

o Language ego – student TLC
o Be supportive because adult learners often feel stupid
o Be challenging but kind in activities
o Think about Les in planning class logostics (who to call on, correct, “valunteer”, how
to pair group etc).

Some possibilities in the pedagogical implication:

o Overtly show a supportive attitude to your students. your “warm and fuzzy” patience
and empathy need to be openly and clearly communicated, for fragile language ego
have a way of misinterpreting intended input.
o One more mechanical, lesson-planning level, your choice of techniques and
sequences of techniques need to be cognitively challenging but not overwhelming at
an affective level
o Considering learner’s language ego sates will probably

Principle 7: Self-Confidence

“ I can do it” principle or the self esteem principle is the heart of all learning. It is simply
stated:

The eventual success that learners attain in a task is at least partially a factor of
their belief that they indeed are fully capable of acomplishing the task.

The characteristic of self-confidence principle:

o Build/squencies activities to build self confidence
o Encourage the students – let them know that you know they can do the work.
 Some possibilities pedagogical implication:
o Give big verbal and non verbal assurances to students. It help the student to hear a
teacher affirm a belief in the student’s ability.
o Sequences techniques from the easier to more difficult. As a teacher you have to
be able to build up the student’s belief that they can accomplish their task by
themselves.

Principle 8: Risk Taking

Simply stated, the Risk Taking Principle is:

Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as vulnerable

being yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to become “gamblers” in the game
of language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their
absolute

Some possibilities of pedagogical implication;

o Create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages students to try out language,
to venture a response.
o Provide reasonable challenges in your techniques in your techniques – make them
neither too easy not too hard.
o Help your students to understand what calculated risk taking is .
o Return students’ risky attempts with positive affirmation.

Principle 9 : The language - culture connection.

Language and culture have a complex relationship. This principle focuses on the
complex interconnection of language and culture:

Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural
customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Classroom application include the following:

o Discuss cultural differences without being judgmental
o Conciously connect culture and language.
o Teach your students the cultural connotation, especially the sociolinguistic apect of
language
o Be ready to discuss your cultural blind spots assumption.
o Pay attention to possible culture shock.

In such cases, acculturation, social distance and psychological adjustment are factors to
be dealt with. This aspect of the principle may be assummed up this way:

Especially in “second” language learning context, the success with which learners
adapt to a new cultural millieu will affect their language acquisition success, and vice
versa, in some possibly significant ways.
 LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES

Principe 10 : The Native Language Effect

The native language is a significant factor in the acquisition of new language. Most
of the time, we think of the native language as exercising an interfering effect on the
target language.
The principle of the native language effect stress es the importance of that
native system in the linguistic attempt of the second language learner:

The native language of learner exerts a strong influence on the acquisition of the
target language system. While that native language system will exercise both facilitating
and interfering effect on the production and comprehension of the new language, the
interfering effects are likely to be the most salient.

Some possibilities of The native Language Effect Principle :

o Regard learner’s errors as important windows to their underlying system and provide
appropriate feedback on them. Errors are windows to interlanguage.

o Help the students to hold onto the helpful aspects of their NL

o Stop translation in its tracts! Think in the target language!

Principle 11 : Interlanguage

The Interlanguage tells us:

Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or quasi-systematic

development process as they progress to full competence in the target language. Successful
interlanguage development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others.

The characteristic of interlanguage principle:

o Distinguish between interlanguage errors and all others
o Tolerate interlanguage forms that make sense and show learning
o Don’t make students feel stupid
o Treat mistake like an oil dipstick
o Encourage self correction
o Don’t let your correction make students afraid of speaking.

Some possibilities in the pedagogical implication:

o Try to distinguish betwesen a student’s systematic interlanguage error and othet error.
o Teachers need to exercise some tolerance for certain interlanguage form that arise out
of a student’s logical development process.
o Don’t make students feel stupid because of an interlanguage error
o Your classroom feedback should give the student message that mistakes are not bad, it
indicate that their language acquisition abilities are alive and well.
o Try to get students to self-correct selected errors; the ability to self correct may
indicate readiness to use that form correctly.
o Make sure that you provide effective feedback-verbal or nonverbal-to encourage them
to speak(for linguistic output)
o Judge carefully which of error is to treat do so with kindness and emphaty.

Principle 12. Communicative competence

Simply stated, communicative competence principle is:

Given that communicative competence is the goal of language classroom, instruction

need to point toward all its components: organizational, pragmatic, startegic, and
psychomotor. Communicative goal are best achieved by giving due attention to language
use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and
contexts, and to students’s eventual need to apply classroom learning to previously
unrehearsed context in the real world

CC consist of some combination components:

o Organizational competence (grammatical and discourse:words and the rules)
o Pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic: appropriateness)
o Strategic competence (appropriate use of communication strategy)
o Psychomotor skill (pronounciation, and intonation)

Then characteristic of CC classroom:

o Grammar is just one part of lesson
o Funcional & sociolinguistic aspects of language are fun, but don’t forget psychomotor
skills.
o Allow the students to be fluent
o Be real – in your material
o Help students become independent leraners and users of language

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM

Motivation is the extent to which you make choices about goals to persue and the
effort you will devote to that persuit.
The theories of motivation in ter ms of two opposing camps; in one of these camps is
a traditional view of motivation that account for human bahavior through a behavioristic
paradigm that stressed the importance of rewards and reinforcement. In the other camps are a
number of cognitive pschological viewpoint that explain motivation through deeper, less
obserable phenomena.

1. A Behavioristic Definition
According to a pschologist, Skinner and Watson motivation stress on the role of
rewards and punishment. Learner will be motivated if there is a reward (a simple reward like:
smiling, clapping hand, or a candy for children) when they answer a question. Learners like
the poverbial horse running after the carrot, persue goal in order to receive externally
administered rewards: praise, gold stars, certificates, diplomas, scholarship and many other.
2. Cognitive Definition
While rewards are very much a part of the whole picture, the different lies in the
source of motivation and the power of self-reward.

a. Drive theory
Those who see human drives as fundamental to human behavior claim that motivation
stems from basic innate drives.
 Exploration
 Manipulation
 Activity
 Stimulation
 Knowledge
 Ego enchancement
This act as innate predisposition, compelling us, as it were, to probe the unknown, to control
our environment, to be physically active, to be receptive to mental, emotional, or physical
stimulation, to yearn answer to question and to build our own self esteem.

b. Hierarchy of need theory

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy is best viewed metaphorically as a pyramid of needs.
Processing from the satisfaction of purely physical n potential.eeds up through safety and
communal needs, to needs of esteem, and finally to selfactualization, a state of reaching your
fullest
The five levels of the hierarchy of needs:
1. Physiological needs
These include the most basic need that vital to survival, such as the need of water, air,
food, and sleep. Maslow believe that these needs are the most basic need in the hierarchy
because all of the needs become secondary until these physical need are fulfilled.

2. Security need
These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival,
but they are not as demanding as physiological needs. Example of security needs include a
desire for staedy employment, health insurance, safe neighborhood, and shelter from
environment.

3. Social needs
These include needs for belonging, love, and affection.. Relationship such as
friendships, romantic attachment, and families help fulfill this need for companionship and
acceptance,as does involvement in social, community, or religious groups.

4. Esteem needs
After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly
important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth,
social recognition, and accomplishment.

5.Self-actualization
This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-
aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and
interested fulfilling their potential.

Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Wahba and Bridwell reported that there was little evidence for Maslow's ranking of these
needs and even less evidence that these needs are in a hierarchical order.

Other criticisms of Maslow's theory note that his definition of self-actualization is difficult to
test scientifically. Regardless of these criticisms, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs represents part
of an important shift in psychology. Rather than focusing on abnormal behavior and
development, Maslow's humanistic psychology was focused on the development of healthy
individuals.

3. Self Control Theory

Hunt. Physchologists focus on the importance of people deciding for themselves what
to think or feel or do. We define ourselves by making our own decisions, rather than by
simply reacting to others. Motivation is highest when one can make one’s own choices,
whether they are in short-term or long term contexts.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Intrinsic means internal or inside of yourself. When you are intrinsically motivated,
you enjoy an activity, course or skill development solely for the satisfaction of learning and
having fun, and you are determined to strive inwardly in order to be competent. There is not
external inducement when intrinsic motivation is the key to behavior or outcome.

Examples of Intrinsic Motivation

When you are motivated intrinsically, you have fun and look for skill development
and competency, personal accomplishment and excitement. If you write articles for the
curiosity and fun of learning and sharing information or run because it relieves stress and
makes you feel better or excites you to improve your personal time, you are intrinsically
motivated. As well, when you learn a new game and seek to play it often because it excites
you to think differently and work internally to develop your skills, you are motivated by
intrinsic measures.

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic means external or outside of yourself. This type of motivation is everywhere
and frequently used within society throughout your lifetime. When you are motivated to
behave, achieve, learn or do based on a highly regarded outcome, rather than for the fun,
development or learning provided within an experience, you are being extrinsically
motivated.

Examples of Extrinsic Motivation

Trophies, medals, money, discounts, grades, entrance to programs or schools, higher
commission percentages, new clothes and losing weight are all examples of extrinsic
motivators. In childhood, bribery is used, schools use grades, trophies and academic
recognition based on good behavior, grocers use discount cards and coupons to save you
money while you shop at their store and corporations use bonuses and commission scales to
encourage growth and sales numbers.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION

Traditionally, elementary and secondary school are fraught with extrinsically
motivated behavior. school curriculum is dictated by institutions (sometimes political
influenced) and can be far removed from even the teacher’s choice. Parents’ and society
values and wishes are virtually forced onto pupils, whether they like it or not). Tests and
exams, many of which are standardized and given high credence in the world “out there”, are
imposed on students with no consultation with the students themselves.
The consequence of such intrinsic motivators is that schools all too often teach
students to play the “game” of pleasing teacher and authorities rather than developing an
internalized thirst for knowledge and experience. The curriculum that comes from “the
administrator” can be modified to some extent to include student-centered learning and
teaching, to allow students to see some –not all, perhaps- of their own learning goals, and to
individualized lesson and activities as much as possible. The result: higher student self-
esteem, great chances for self-actualization, more deciding for oneself. Expectations of
parents and other authority figures are a reality that we cannot simply dissolve by waving a
magic wand. The result: an appreciation, love, intimacy, and respect for the wisdom age. In
turn, society’s expectations may through a process of education and counseling, be seen as a
means for providing comfortable routines (time schedule, customs, more). Class discussion
can focus on critical evaluation of society so that students aren’t forced to accept some
specific way of thinking or acting, but are coaxed into examining both sides of the issue. The
result is a sense of a belonging, a sense of the value of the wider community, of harmony.
The otherwise extrinsic values can also be redirect through:

• Emphasizing the “big” picture – larger perspectives

• Letting students set long-term goals
• Allowing sufficient time for learning
• Cooperative learning activities
• Group work
• Viewing the class as team
• Content centered teaching
• English for specific (vocational/professional) purposes
• English in workplace
• Allowing risk-taking behavior
• Rewarding innovation and creativity.
 INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM

Zoltan Dornyei and Kata Csizer (1998:215) offered a set of “ten commandments” for
motivating learners, based on a survey of Hungarian foreign language teacher. All ten
items focus on what the teacher can do to stimulate intrinsic motivation.

1. Set a personal example with your own behavior

2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom
3. Present the tasks properly
4. Develop a good relationship with the learners
5. Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence
6. Make the language classes interesting
7. Promote learner autonomy
8. Personalize the learning process
9. Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness
10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.

Other factor affect learning outcomes: native ability, age context of learning, style
preferences, background experience and qualification availability of time to give the effort
needed, and the quality of input tat is beyond the immediate control of the learner. But when
all these factors are duly considered, the students’ long-term goal their deepest level of
feeling and thinking, and their global assessment of the potential to be self-actualized is
much, much better served by promoting intrinsic motives.

LEARNER VARIABLE I:
TEACHING ACROSS AGE LEVELS

This chapter begins to deal with contextual considerations in language teaching by

addressing the learner variable of age. The each level of age has its own aprroach and
techniques especially in language teaching and learning.

TEACHING CHILDREN.
Popular tradition would have you believe that children are effortless seond language learner
and far superior to adult in their eventual success. On both counts, sme qualification are in
order:
First, Children’s widespread success in acquiring second language belies a
tremendous subconscious effort devoted to the task. Children exercise a good deal of both
cognitive and affective effort in order to internalize bith native and second language
 Second, Adults are not necessarily less successful in their efforts. They can learn and
retain a larger vocabulary. They can utilize various deductive and abstract process to shortcut
the leraning of grammatical and other linguistic aspect. So while children’s fluency and
naturalness are often envy of adults srtuggling with second language, the context of
classroom instruction may introduce some difficulties to children learning a second language.
Third, The popular claim fails to differentiate very young children (4-6 Years old)
from pre-pubescent children (12-13 Years old) and the whole range of ages in between.
Teaching ESL to school age children require spediffer from those appropriatecific skills and
intuitions thatfor a dult teaching. Five categories may help give some practical approaches to
teching children.

1. Intellectual Development,
Since children (up to the age of about eleven) are still in an intellectual stage of What
Piaget (1972) called “concrete operations”, we need to remember their limitation. Some rules
of thumb for the classroom:
1. Don’t explain “ using term like “present progressive” or relative clause.
2. Rules stated in abstract terms should be avoided.
3. Some grammatical concept, especially at the upper levels of childhood can be
called to learner’s attention by showing them certain patterns and examples.
4. Certain more difficult concept or pattern more repitition than adult need.
2. Attention Span
One of the salient differences between adult and children is attention span. Attention
span do come into play when children have to deal with material that to them is boring,
useless, or too difficult. And our job is to make them interesting, lively and fun. How do you
that?
 Children are focused on the immediate here and now.
 A lesson needs a variety of activities to keep interest and attention alive.
 A teacher needs to be annimated, lively, and enthusiastic about the sublject matter.
 A sense of humor will go along way to keep children laughing and learning]
 Children have alot of natural curiosity. Help tehm to maintain attention and focus.
3. Sensory Input
Children need to have five senses stimulated. Your activities should strive to go well
beyond the visualand auditory modes that we feel are usually sufficient for a classroom.
 Pepper your lessons with physical activity.
 Project and other hands-on activities go along way toward helping children to
internalize language.
 Sensory aids hereb and there help chlidren to internalize concept.
 Your nonverbal language is important, because children will indeed attend very
sensitively to your facial features, gestures, and touching.
4. Affective Factors
Childen are often innovativein language form but still have a great many
inhibitions.Their ego still being shaped, and therefore the slightest nuances of
communication are can be nagative interpreted. The teacher need to help them to overcome
such potential barriers to learning:
 Help your students to laugh with each other at various mistake that they all make.
 Be patient and support to build self-esteem.
 Elicit as much oral as possible from student, especially the quieter one.
5. Authentic, Meaningful Language
 Children focused on what this new language can avtually be used for here and
now.Your class can ill afford to have an overload of language that is neither authentic nor
meaningful.
 Children are good at sensing language taht is not authentic.
 Language need to be firmly context embedded
 A whole language approach is essential.

TEACHING ADULT

Adults have superior cognitive abilities that re nder them more successful in certain
classroom endeavors. Their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children,
but adult have acquired a self-confidence not found in children.So as you consider the five
variables that apply to children, keep in mind some specific suggestions and caveats.
 Adults are mote able to handle abstract rule and concept.
 Adult have a longer attention span for the material may not be interesting for them
 Sensory input need not always be quite as varied with adults.
 Adult often bring a modicum of general self confidence into a classroom
 Adult, with their developed abstract thinking ability are better able to understand a
context-reduced segment of language.

Some implication for general adult calssroom manegement:

 Adults have mor intelligent with mature cognition and emotion. Show for the deeoer
thought and feeling that may be trapped for moment by a low proficiency level.
 Don’t treat adult in your class like children.
 Do give your students as many opportunities as possible to make choice
 Don’t discipline adults in the same way as children.

TEACHING TEENS

The “terible Teens” are an age of transition, confusing, self-consciousness, growing,

and changing bodies and minds. Teens are between childhood and adulthood, and
therefore a very special set of considerations applies to teaching them. Nevertheless,
some thought are worth verbalizing, even if in the form of simple reminders:
 Intellectual capacity adds abstract operational thought around the age of
twelve. Therefore, some sophisticated intellectual processing is increasingly
possible. Complex problem can be solved with logical thingking.
 Attention span are lengthening as a result of intellectual maturation, but, with
many diversions present in a teenager life, those potential attention span can
easily be shorten.
 Varieties of sensory input are stll important, but again. Increasing capacitied
for abstraction lessen the essential nature of appealing to all five senses.
 Factor surrounding ego, self-image, and self-esteem are at their pinnacle.
 Seconday school students are of course becoming increasingly adultlike in
their ability to make those occasionals diversions from here and now nature of
immediate communicative context.
CONCLUSION