Botany Lecture | Millen O.

Arenas

Introduction to Botany Rudolf Virchow

Leon Ma. Guerrero - Claimed that “life comes from life”
- Cells are living things
- Father of Botany in Philippines
- National scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek
- Father of Pharmacy in PH
- Invented the microscope
Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus
von Hohenhei, Scientific name – Genus species (Family
name) or Genus species (Family name);
- Father of Botany used for identifying botanical source (SN +
- Protégé of Aristotle (used to be Plato) FN)

Pedanius Dioscorides  The Latin language is used in honor for

the discoverer
- De Materia Medica (Libre Cinque): “5  Family name is included in order to
chapters” generalize their application
- Known physician (observed his (substitution) e.g.: there is no T. cacao
patients) in the country…
- Named 600 plants; named its
pharmacology (therapeutic activities) Complete botanical source – plant part used,
- Known all over Europe SN + FN + CN

Shen Nung e.g. Bark, Salix purpurea (Salicaceae) Willow

plant
- Pen T’sao
- Taking in all herbs or applying them in  Salicin – natural origin of aspirin
his own body (Acetyl salicylic acid)
- Has a very “resistant” stomach even Bark, Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae) Pacific
on poisons yew tree
- Known in Asia (China)
 Taxol – first “anti-cancer” agent (stops
Carolus Linnaeus the development); given for some
breast cancer types; metaphase arrest
- Much contribution in plant taxonomy*
in identifying plants Leaf, Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)
- Specie plantarum (book) Sambong
- In recognition to him, some plants
have L. or Linn.  Re-leaf (brand); urinary antiseptic –
*(plant systematics; science of naming prevents growth of disease-causing
plants) microorganisms

Robert Hooke Seeds, Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae)

Kakaw
- Experiment that uses cork* cells; thus,
 Chocolate
he saw tiny boxes (called it cells)
*bark or dead cells Latex, Papaver somniferum
(Papaveraceae) Poppy opium plant
Robert brown
 Flowers are collected before sunrise
- Discovered cell’s nucleus
and then cut
Matthias Schleiden* and Theodor Shwann**
Sense of knowing the arrangement of plants
- “Basic unit of life are the cells” – to identify it properly
*botanist
e.g. lagundi (cough) must be the variety five-
**zoologist
leaved chaste tree, not the four-leaved
(poisonous)
 Infusion Decoction Grains Poaceae Graminae
Leaf/flower Bark/seeds Mints* Lamiaceae Labiatae
Hot water– removal of Boiling water – bark & Palms Arecaceae Palmae
leaf/flower - drink seeds – boil – remove –
Flower Asteraceae Compositae
drink
heads
Thin Thick
*contains menthol | **parsley & celery | ***
aroma due to sulfur (rotten egg smell)
Comminuition – breaking down into smaller
pieces Plant Parts

Poultice – known as cataplasms; mass of Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

plant samples applied over the body (tapal- Don’t have nucleus and Contains nucleus and
any membrane-bound membrane-bound
tapal) organelles organelles
Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) Tea plant Unicellular Multicellular
Has cytosol (liquid part
 Green tea: fresh leaves infused; of cell)
diluted constituent e.g.: Bacteria e.g.: Plants &
 Black tea: dried leaves infused; more animals
concentrated, compacted constituent
Crude drug – plant samples that undergone
collection and drying only; therefore there is
no alteration on its active components Autotrophs Heterotrophs
Capable of Not capable of
e.g.: Salicin (aspirin is the synthetic producing own food producing own food
counterpart) Photosynthesis and
chemosynthesis
1. Collecting/harvesting – mention the
e.g.: Plants e.g.: Animals
time of the day (regarding
photosynthesis); month
2. Drying – shade drying (pugon); sun- Plasma membrane – aka cell membrane;
drying; oven-drying; 40-60oC (ideal) outer boundary of cell
3. Curing* – modified drying process
done to elicit the active ingredient (AI)  Made up of phospholipids
4. Garbling – removing the excess part  Physical boundary that confines the
5. Packaging – placing in appropriate contents of cell to an internal
container compartment
 Although an outer cell wall surrounds a
*e.g.: Vanilla tahitensis (Orchidaceae) – no plant cell, the plasma membrane
vanilla “flavor” so chemical is added. defines the boundary of a cell because
However, not all plants need curing the plasma membrane regulates the
Cherries, peaches, and apricot’s seeds flow of materials in and out of cell.
contain cyanide (IA) that is activated through Cell wall – made up of cellulose*
crashing
Starch *Cellulose
Exocarp – outer part (e.g.: rambutan) Storage Structural
carbohydrate in carbohydrates in
 Family names that are old/obsolete are plants plants
replaced with new (due to same Polysaccharides Polysaccharide
physiologic and anatomic properties) made up of glucose made up of glucose
linked through linked through beta-
Common New Old
alpha-bonds bonds**
name
Alpha-enzyme can break Beta-enzyme can break
Kakaw Sterculiacea Malvaceae down down
e Seeds, roots, fruits Leaves
Aroma** Apiaceae Umbelliferae (anything that swells in
Mustard*** Brassicaceae Cruciferae plants)
** humans only have alpha-enzymes so we power in ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
can’t digest grasses and the likes form
 Cellular respiration occurs here
Nucleus – control center; separated from the (released energy is temporarily
rest of cell by a double membrane, the packaged in the chemical bonds of
nuclear envelope ATP*)
 The interior of the nucleus,  Double membrane
nucleoplasm, contains the DNA* which  Cristae: inward folds due to large
is associated with certain protein surface area of inner membrane than
molecules to form chromatin, a outer membrane
threadlike material (coils and thickens  Matrix: fluid inside the inner
during cell division and becomes mitochondrial membrane
chromosomes) *formed in Kreb’s cycle
*Deoxyribonucleic acid (sugar’s name: Ribosomes – protein synthesis
deoxyribose)
Endoplasmic reticulum – manufacturing
Chromatin Chromosomes DNA center of cell
Protein Nucleic acid
form form  Network of parallel membrane that
Not dividing Actively dividing extends throughout the cell’s interior
cells  Connects plasma membrane and
Contains nuclear envelope
DNA 1. Rough ER – ribosomes > protein
synthesis
2. Smooth ER – lipid synthesis
Plastids
Golgi apparatus (dictyosome) – collecting
Chloroplas Leucoplasts Chromoplasts
and packaging center
ts
Chlorophyl Colorless Pigments for ✿  Consists of flattened sacs (bulge out
l and detach as vesicles)
Light Starch, oil, From chloroplasts  Factoring/processing and packaging
energy protein when chlorophyll
proteins and polysaccharides
breaks down
Vacuoles (plants) – membrane-bounded sacs
Chloroplasts  Filled with liquid (e.g.: water)
 Vacuolar membrane – tonoplast
 Thylakoids
 Provides strength for non-woody
–
plants
 Rigidity due to erect plants
 Maintains shape making it turgid – firm
due to H2O uptake
membranous stacks of thin, flat,  Temporary storage area
circular plates  Contains anthocyanins (water soluble
 Granum – stack of thylakoid pigments)
 Stroma – jellylike fluid in granum
Cytoskeleton – composed of protein fibers
containing the enzyme that catalyze
the chemical reactions of  Network of fibers that extends
photosynthesis that convert CO2 – CHO throughout the cytoplasm and
provides structure to a eukaryotic cell
Mitochondria –
1. Microtubules – adds cellulose to cell
powerhouse of
wall; make up spindles (mitosis); part
eukaryotic cells
of flagella & cilia
 Convert 2. Microfilaments – thinner than
energy or microtubules; can contract &
 responsible for cytoplasmic streaming- 2. Receive information from surroundings
movement of cytoplasm within the cell (plasma membrane often bind to
special molecules in a membrane &
Cell wall – set off type of response in cell)
coating secreted  Lipid layer is impermeable to ions and
by the cell polar molecules
(microtubules)  Necessary in homeostasis (constant
 Supports set of internal conditions)
and Ergastic Cell Contents
protects
the cell - Identified in vegetable drugs by
 Provides physical/chemical means
routes for H2O and dissolved materials - Non-living; non-organelle
1. Primary cell wall – stretches and 1. Starch – storage carbohydrates in
expands as cell increases in size plants
> a growing plant secretes a primary  Grains, seeds, fruits (less in
cell wall; when a cell stops growing, chlorophyll containing)
additional wall material may be 2. Proteins – storage proteins in form of
secreted that thickens and solidifies aleurone grains (seen in oil seeds e.g.:
the primary cell wall – lignin (becomes nutmeg, castor)
woody) 3. Fixed oil and fats – occur in seeds
2. Middle lamella (secondary cell wall) – a  Soluble in ether-alcohol
layer of pectic compounds that  Potash (KOH – base) saponifies*
cements the primary cell walls of fixed oils
adjacent cells together  FO – plants exc. kakaw; Fats –
> pectin – polysaccharide of several animals
types of sugar; apple and suha’s white  *oil to soap/soap crystals
part through mixing potash & FO
4. Gums, mucilages, and pectins –
Plasmodesma – tiny channels through
polysaccharides from sugars
adjacent walls that connect the cytoplasm of
 Formed from the cell wall
neighboring cells.
deposited in successive layers
 Allows molecules and ions to pass  G – gadta; M – malaway itself
from cell to cell 5. Volatile* oils and resins (incense-hard)
 Droplet in cells
Fluid mosaic model – describes the  Not saponified
membrane structure  *evaporates easily; thus
 Characterizes the plasma membrane aromatic
and other cell membranes as 6. Crystals
consisting of double layer/bilayer of a. Calcium oxalate (most common)
lipid molecules - Tetragonal | trihydrate |
 Membrane structure is fluid rather supersaturation of cell sap
than motionless; the lipids move - Monoclinic | monohydrate |
laterally excess oxalic acid in sap
1. Phosphate group (hydrophilic) b. Other crystals
2. Fatty acids (lypophilic) - Prisms: senna, licorice, cascara
- Rosette: rhubarb, cascara,
senna
Functions of membranes - Single acicular: gentian,
cinnamon
1. Regulate the passage of materials - Sandy crystals: belladonna
because they are selectively (atropine source: dilution of
permeable (prevent entrance/exit of pupils)
certain materials while permitting and c. Calcium carbonate – embedded
even helping others) in/encrusted in the cell wall
 - Outgrowth of the cell wall: Gap 2 – production of new enzymes and
cystoliths (Combretaceae and proteins
Boraginaceae)
Gap 0 – inactive part; metabolically active
- Dissolves with effervescence
but no proliferation
(fizz formation; release of CO2 in
acid) Mitosis – major reorganization
d. Hesperidin and Diosmin – from
Rutaceae (citrus fruits) a. Prophase – chromosomes are seen to
- Feathery-like aggregates or be composed of two sister chromatids
sphaerocrystalline masses attached together at the centromere
e. Silica (sand) – masses in the - At the end of prophase, nuclear
interior of cells (e.g.: cardamom envelope does not show
seeds) - Centromere: location for point of
- Insoluble in all acids except attachment
hydrofluoric acid (HF) - Kinetochore: protein attached
- Upon ignition, still unchanged - Microtubules: found in kinetochore;
spindle fibers
Passage of Materials across Biological b. Metaphase – complete disintegration
Membranes of envelope; chromosomes are spread
through cytoplasm; at the end of
1. Diffusion – movement of a substance
metaphase, metaphase plate is
from a region of higher concentration
formed
to a region of lower concentration;
c. Anaphase – split simultaneously of
moves along a concentration gradient
chromosomes to poles
2. Osmosis – diffusion of H2O across a
d. Telophase – reached the poles;
semi-permeable membrane; from a
chromosomes decondense; nuclear
higher conc. to lower (isotonic,
envelope assembles
hypertonic, hypotonic)
o Meristematic tissue: actively cell
3. Facilitated diffusion – moves from a
region of higher conc. to lower through dividing
a special passage way called carrier o Cambium: anatomical part;
proteins-channel in membranes that containing ^
serve as conveyor belts Vincristine, vinblastine
4. Active transport – movement of a
substance from lower conc. to higher;  Vinca roseus (Apocynaceae)
against concentration agent (requires - Whole plant; periwrinkle
energy through ATP) (Madagascar); poison at
microtubule (metaphase arrest
Cell cycle
Interphase Mitosis phase
G0 (quiescent Prophase (condensation of
chromosomes)
stage)
G1 (cell growth) Metaphase (alignment)
S (DNA Anaphase
synthesis) (karyokinesis*)
G2 (Protein Telophase
synthesis) (Cytokinesis**)
*separation of daughter chromosomes
**division of cytoplasm
Gap 1 – interval of mitosis and initiation of
DNA replication; continuously grow; but DNA
doesn’t duplicate
Synthesis – DNA per cell doubles but there is
no increase in chromosome’s number
Cell Differentiation
Lignified walls – lignin is a strengthening
material which impregnates the cell walls of
tracheids, vessels, fibers and sclerids
(schlerenchyma’s cells) of vascular plants; it
constitutes 22-34% of woods. In the wall, it
appears to occur chemically combined with
hemicelluloses and is build up in greatest
concentration in the middle lamellae and in
the primary walls.
Suberized (made up the cork) and cutinized
(waxy layer over epidermis) walls – suberin
and cutin consist of mixture of substances,
chiefly highly polymerized fatty acids such as
suberic acid, although the acids present in
the two substances are not identical.

- Suberin thickenings, such as are found in

cork cells and endormal cells, usually
consist of carbohydrate-free suberin
lamellae
 - Waxes (largely esters of higher importance in the microscopal identification
monohydric alcohols and fatty of leaves; diagnostic feature (identification)
acids) occur with suberin and 1. Straight-walled – jaborandi, coca,
cutin senna leaves
- Wax is found in larger amounts on leaves 2. Wavy-walled – stramonium,
of Myrcia (moisturizing cream) and in hyoscyamus, belladonna
Copernicia (Carnauba wax) 3. Beadedd walls – Lobelia inflate and
Digitalis lanata
Oils – simple 4. Papillose – has projections containing
alcohol + fatty water
Esters acids 5. Athick cuticle – Aloe leaf and
bearberry leaf
Fats – alcohol is
Waxes Oils Fats 6. Striated cuticle – belladonna, jaborandi
called glycerol Digitalis lutea and D. thapsi.
7. Mucilage – senna and buchu leaves
8. Cystoliths – CaCO3 occur in epidermal
Mucilaginous cell walls – certain cell walls cells of Urticaceae and Cannabinaceae
may be converted into gums and mucilages  The outer and inner epidermis of
(tablet binders). This gummosis (gummous pericarp of umbelliferus fruits are
degeneration) may be observed in the stems highly characteristic structures.
of species Prunus, Citrus, and Astralugus, in  Coriander and vanilla contain prisms
testsa (seed coat; rambutan’s external part) of Ca oxalate
 Striated cuticle (irregularly shapes) –
of many aquatic plants.
aniseed, caraway, and star anise fruits
- In the case of gum-yielding species of  Thickened palisade-like cells form the
Astralugus, gummosis commences near epidermis of testa of colocynth and
the center of the pith and spreads fenugreek seeds
 Thickened lignified cells form the
outwards through the primary medullary
epidermis of lobelia seed, and
rays. When the stem is incised, whole
mucilage cells that of linseed and of
tissues are pushed out by the pressure set white and black mustard.
up by the swelling of gum.
Epidermal trichomes – hairs may be grouped
Gums* Mucilages* into non-glandular (cotton*) or clothing hairs,
prevent water loss physiologic products and glandular** (with water inside) hairs.
disease; pathologic (naturally slimy)
products –produced by *Kapok is the native version of cotton plant
incision
*both are water soluble polysaccharides **essences (essential oils and volatile oils)
evaporates e.g.: ilang-ilang; peppermint (oil
Chitinous walls – chitin, a polysaccharide secretion beneath the cuticle contains
forms the major part of the cell walls of crystals of menthol)
crustaceans, insects, and many fungi
 A particular type of hair is often a
Chitosan – sugar; weight loss property; characterstic of a plant family (e.g.:
prevents absorption of oils and fats (pulv.) biseriate hairs are common in
Compositae, glandular in Solanaceae
Parenchymatous tissue – the fundamental
(tomato, talong, belladonna), and
parenchyma occurring in various parts of the
Labiatae (menthol))
parts of the plant is potentially meristematic,
and such cells achieve maturity without Functions (antimicrobial):
further differentiation except for an increase
in cell size and wall thickness and a 1. Physical and chemical protection for
restricted change of form. the leaf against microbial organisms,
aphids, and insects, and the
Epidermis – one-cell thick; structures of maintenance of a layer of a still air on
epidermis and stomata are of first
 the leaf surface, thus combating 2. Hemp of pericyclic fibres of Cannabis
excess water loss by transpiration. sativa (marijuana). The cell wall of the
2. The secretion of glandular trichomes flax fibre is composed almost pure
of certain genera constitute important cellulose; in hemp some lignifications
materials for the perfumery, food and has taken place.
pharmaceutical industries; some  Sclerid: star shaped; dead cells
secretions contain narcotic resins and
others give rise to skin allergies Secretory tissues – include secretory cells,
3. The sesquiterpenes of capitates and secretory cavities or sacs, secretory ducts or
non-capitate glandular trichomes of canals and latex tissues.
Helianthus annuus (sunflower) and 1. Oil cells form an important diagnostic
chrysanthemum (mosquito repellant) character of powdered sassafras root
are antimicrobial. bark (ginger, pepper, mace,
4. Some Solanum species contain cardamoms, cinnamon, cassia).
sucrose esters of carboxylic acids, 2. Secretory cavities or sacs may arise
which are aphid deterrents. by separation of the cells and
Cork tissue – dead cells; nothing inside. As subsequent formation of a secretory
the plant axis increase in diameter, a cork epithelium (schizogeneously) or by
cambium or phellogen usually arises which, breakdown of the cells forming a
by its activity, produces new protective cavity not bounded by a definite
tissues, known collectively as periderm that epithelium (lysigeneously).
replaces the epidermis and part/all of a. Schizogeneous oil cavities:
primary cortex. split/separated
e.g. eucalyptus, lysigenous oil
- Cork tissue is built up of a compact mass activities of Gossypium species.
of cells, usually rectangular in transverse b. Schizolysigenous oil cavities: cell
sections, and are often arranges in lysis (cell destruction: lusaw; plant
regular radial rows. The cell wall is acids); space creation
composed of inner and outer cellulose e.g. Rutaceae and Burseraceae
layers and a median suberin lamella, or  The vittae (oil ducts) of Umbelliferae
of a suberin lamella laid down upon the are schizogenous oleoresin canals and
primary cellulose wall they occur in stem, roots, and leaves.
- The cellulose layers may be lignified, as  The oleoresin ducts of Pinus species
in cassia bark. The mature cork cell is are also of schizogenous origin.
dead, impermeable to water & often Schizogenous oleoresin ducts wc
filled w dark reddish-brown contents rich enlarge lysigenously occur in some
in tannins* members of Leguminosae (e.g.:
*antioxidants (anti-aging; prevent cell copaifera)
death – Vit C & E)
Latex (lactiferous) tissue – consists of cells or
- The presence of cork cells in powdered
tubes which contain with a milky appearance
drugs may show adulteration or use of
arising from the suspension of small particles
low-quality or improperly peeled drug
in a liquid dispersion medium with a very
(cinnamon, ginger, licorice)
different refractive index. The suspended
Fibres – tissue composed of spindle-shaped particles vary in nature, and may be
or elongated with pointed ends is known as hydrocarbons composed of essential oils,
prosenchyma (looks like pancit). When cells resins, and rubber.
of this kind are thick-walled, it is known as
 Alkaloids are present in latex of
fibres.
Papaveraceae
Differentiated in the pericycle;  Proteolytic enzyme papain in the latex
of Carica (papaya); meat tenderizer
1. Flax (clothing material) consists of
pericyclic fibres of Linum
usitatissimum (linseed)