Project

Emotional Intelligence and perceived stress

Abstract
The theme of my paper is Emotional Intelligence (EI) and its influence on the perceived
stress. I will reveal some of the challenges that the phenomenon stress is causing nowadays,
then explain more about what Emotional Intelligence actually is and then will briefly focus
on the theoretical relationship between them. I will also address some of the practical
researches made from different scientists regarding the relationship between stress and EI
as well on the workplace, but also in a collage setting. Based on the discussed literature I
will reveal my idea of how the existing experimental work can be to some degree fulfilled
with the help of my own experimental design and its methods. My intention is to study the
connection of both sensations: stress and Emotional Intelligence among college students
and then to make a comparison between my results and those from previous experiments
from different scientists. I want to see if previous results regarding college students and
working adults namely that higher EI leads to lower stress levels corresponds to the
outcome from my research.

Motivation
Stress
Stress is a wide and very complex process especially nowadays in our modern society,
affecting people all around the world and because of its growing negative impact the
scientists are even more eager to understand more about its nature and possible relations
to other phenomena so that new ways for its management can be found. The term stress
was made known in Psychology by Selye (1956), and Cox and Mackay (1981) and they have
defined it as a stimulus on one hand and on the other as an answer or interaction stimulus–
response. As a stimulus is when the individual is faced with stress evoking situations such as
death of a relative, disease, accident, work overload etc. Stress as a transactional stimulus–
response represent the process which a person use to evaluate the demands of a certain
situation and his own abilities to confront those demands and in the core of this process its
outcome depends on the individual perception of each persons about the situation itself
(Harrison,1978; Edwards, 1988; Lazarus and Folkman 1984a, b ; McGrath 1970; Parkes,
2001). Many researchers dedicated their work to understand why some people thrive and
cope better with stress than others under similar circumstances. According to resent survey
made from the American institute of stress, nearly 46% from the American adults are feeling
stressed and the main factor about those numbers is work. Challenging and overwhelming
situation, a manifestation of negative emotions is the first that comes to mind for most of
the people when they hear the word stress. Our understanding of the world shapes our
reality and when a challenging situation occurs it could be seen either as a destructive or as
an opportunity to grow and learn from it. Stress is a more subjective phenomenon than
objective (Lazarus 1990) and directly related to poor mental and physical health when not
managed properly.Most of the researches regarding differences in stress experience
between people are based on personality traits or demographics (Friedman & Rosenman,
1974; Parkes, 1990; Kobasa, 1979; Spector & O’Connell, 1994), which supports the
statement that stress is actually a person–environment relationship (Folkman, 1984;
Lazarus, 1966) and it is an adjusting response for an external action (Matteson and
Ivancevich, 1987)
Emotional Intelligence
Salovey and Mayer (1990) are the ones that presented the term "emotional intelligence”.
Mayer et al. (2008) define emotional intelligence as the competence of someone to
recognize the essence of his own emotions and their relations and to use them to solve a
particular problem. Nasir (2010) on the other hand considers this phenomenon as a
collection of skills like self-control, determination, self-motivation etc. Peter Salovey (2005)
actually outlines 5 dimensions of EI: knowing and managing the own emotions, motivating
oneself, recognizing the emotions of others and handling relationships. It could be said that
in general EI describes the way a particular person recognizes and regulates his own
emotions (Salovey,1990). EI is not about emotions per se but actually more about the way
an individual integrates them with thoughts and behaviour and is able to reduce unpleasant
emotional experiences (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). Emotional Intelligence correlates
with different psychological constructs like mental health and physical wellbeing (Donaldso-
Feilder and Bond, 2004), stress (Mikolajczak et al., 2006; Salovey et al., 2002), alexithymia
(Parker et al., 2001) and life satisfaction (Augusto et al., 2006b; Livingstone and Day, 2005;
Wolfradt et al., 2002). Ciarrochi et al. (2002) bases the relationship between EI and
psychological health and stress on several factors such as attention to the Emotions,
Emotional Clarity and Emotional Repair that not only define the anticipated EI, but also have
an effect on person’s psychological health, job satisfaction and stress coping mechanisms.
Attention to Emotions predicts two Burnout dimensions (Augusto et al. 2005). People with
higher Attention to Emotions have reported more physical symptoms such as depression,
anxiety (Salovey et al., 2002) than those that scored lower on the Attention to Emotions
scale and the reason behind that is that the information gathered from this process
regarding one's emotions is not properly used and applied to some kind of regulation
strategy (Gohm, 2003). Another interesting finding is that people that have developed their
ability of Clarity and Emotional Repair actually score low on the symptoms scale of anxiety
or depression and high on the scale of life satisfaction (Ferna´ ndez-Berrocal et al.,2003).
Emotional Repair itself correlates positively with physical and mental health (Extremera and
Ferna´ndez-Berrocal, 2002; Mikolajczak et al., 2006), with work (Berrios et al., 2006) and life
(Augusto et al., 2006a,b) satisfaction. Limonero et al. (2004) shows that Emotional Clarity
and Emotional Repair actually are negatively related to stress and burnout. In conclusion,
when all of the dimensions of emotional Intelligence are good developed, then the
individual will be able to experience all the benefits from this phenomenon.
Emotional Intelligence and stress
Researches have showed that Emotional Intelligence has a very significant impact on work-
related issues such as stress (Bar-on et al., 2000), satisfaction (Augusto et al., 2006a, b) or
performance (Boyatzis, 2006; Lam and Kirby, 2002; Lopes et al.,2006), therefor EI can
increase workers problem solving abilities and help them easier to find suitable strategies
for dealing with stress (Gohm and Clore 2002; Mikolajczak et al., 2006; Tsaousis and
Nikolaou, 2005). Many researchers already have proven the existence of a correlation
between the ability to recognize the meanings and relationships of emotions and how they
affect human behavior when under stress. There is a negative correlation between
emotional intelligence and occupational stress. People who have more developed EI
experience less stress at work and therefore are healthier physically and mentally and have
better overall performance. Lazarus and Susan Folkman are two of the most outstanding
researchers in the field of stress and they have suggested that “we should now speak less of
stress and more of emotion” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987), nevertheless stress is purely a
manifestation of negative emotions. The authors understood the importance of the
emotions in the way each individual appraises and respond to a stressful situation.
Rreview of the related literature
A developed Emotional Intelligence has a positive impact on social relationships as well
within children and in adults, also leads to better academic achievements and performance
(Chew, 2013; Hasegawa, 2015; Radfar, 2013; Fernandez, 2012; Miri, 2013), higher work performance
(Codier, 2009) and better psychological well-being (Mayer, et. al ,2008), but here in this
paper I will address some scientific work which is concentrated on the impact that EI has on
the stress and human health.
Mark Slaski and Susan Cartwright (2003) have developed their work from 2002 on Health
Performance and emotional itelligence and examine how EI can moderate the stress
processing. They have been testing 60 UK managers that have been trained in EI. The
authors compared the results from the tests made for the management performance,
health condition (using General Health–GHQ 28) stress and the quality of working life before
and after the training process and concluded that after the training the managers are
performing better, are healthier and doing overall better than before the coaching. With
their paper Slaski and Cartwright showed the impact that EI actually has and most important
that EI can be trained and developed, can be taught, but the subjects need to make an effort
to change and not all of the participants did this, therefore not everybody that have been
trained in EI show better results and development at the end of the experiment.
Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to exactly pick up those aspects of the training
program used in the experiment that actually are significant for the change and
development of EI among the participants. The work from Cartwright and Slaski (2003) was
conducted in an organizational climate of increasing stress and there is no control of other
possible emotional and life changing variables that are happening in the personal life of the
participants. Such undetected factors could have an impact on their performance and stress
anticipation and the results from the EI training namely an increase in the performance,
perceived stress and health condition could be due to unexplored factors rather than to the
EI coaching.
Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) also researched the relation between stress and emotional
intelligence among professionals in mental health institutions. 212 participants were tested
in their EI level (Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire) and in their work stress level
(Organizational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET)). Again, the result from this study show that
there is an existing negative correlation between EI and occupational stress, showing that
participants with high EI suffered less from work stress. Unfortunately, due to the specific
sample of participants namely workers in a mental health institution a generalization of the
results for other work places is very difficult to be made. In order for the result to apply for
other institutions the same research should be made in other kinds of organizations
preferable non-health ones. Common method variance is the second possible limitation of
this study and represent the problem when every participant uses the same kind of paper-
and-pencil reply format which will result in a more significant than usual correlations
between measurements due to the same biases involved in each task, but in this case, in
this paper, the presence of numerous factors in the results of the factor analyses
(Cartwright & Cooper, 2002) emphasises more that here the common method variance
actually doesn’t have very significant effect and will not impact the correlations of EI with
occupational stress and therefor will not be a reason for the belief that the relation is
biased. The third possible limitation of this study is the conducted cross-sectional research
doesn’t support affirmative clarification of causal relationship between variables, but this
gives a very good foundation for further research, who use the cross-sectional findings to
validate their own results regarding EI, workplace stress and organizational commitment.
Ranasinghe et. Al (2017) have studied the relationship between perceived stress and
academic performance among 471 medical students from 2nd, 4th and final years of their
education on the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. The methods that the authors used were
self-administered Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and Schutte Self-Report Emotional
Intelligence Test (SEIT). The findings of the experiment concluded that EI have a negative
correlation with the self-perceived stress and a positive one with academic achievement. All
these finding suggest that EI can help students to learn to cope better with stressful
situations during their professional life. The paper from Ranasinghe et. Al (2017) found that
mostly students in their final year of college demonstrated higher EI and performance,
which findings correspond to other experiments made with students mostly medical and
nursing ones (Cherry, 2012; Fernandez, 2012; Chew, 2013), there is no screening in the
papers whatsoever about other possible variables that can exceed student’s performance
other than EI, especially in the last year of college, when everyone is highly motivated that
the end of their education struggles is near.
Deepa Sikand Kauts (2016) from the University Amritsar, Punjab, India has researched the
relationship between emotional intelligence and academic stress among college students
and wanted actually to show that there is no relationship between both phenomena. 300
students were randomly selected from six different colleges in Jalandhar, India. The results
from the experiment were that EI actually has a very significant impact on the stress level of
the students. Those subjects with a lower level of EI have experienced more stress in
comparison to those with higher score on the EI scale. In this particular paper also the kind
of major that the students are being in was considered: humanities, commerce and science
college majors, but there was no significant difference between the level of EI among the
students from different specialities, there is only difference between the stress level
reported from the subject, namely those from science field are experiencing more stress
than those in the commerce or humanity. The limitations of the experiment made from
Kauts is the small sample size only from six universities and only in India, therefor the
subject due to a similar environment could be biased, which makes the findings of this study
not plausible enough to be generalised. In order this limitation to be overcome there should
be either larger and international sample size of subjects or identical experiment made in a
different part of the worlds and comparison between the findings of each of them.
Students are the future and the wealth of each nation, therefor is extremely important that
they are aware of the effect that Emotional Intelligence has on their life and also learn to
develop it, and use it properly so that they can life a balanced life despite the growing stress
environment in our modern society. A possible way to achieve this through the teachers and
parents. Both parties have to evoke discussion about different academic problems that may
cause stress to the student and give them guidance about resolving and getting through
difficulties. There should be a counsellor or a trained guidance worker at school or in the
college as a professional.
Considering all the above that is why I have decided that my contribution to the already
existing literature would be to observe stress within students and if there is a correlation
between their level of EI and their stress management in Europe. The results will be
compared with already existing researches made with students in other countries like India
so that a cultural or demographic bias can be avoided, but actually a match between both
results is expected. Due to the variety of nationalities and cultural backgrounds on the
university of Heidelberg it is possible to gather a demographic unbiased result. A
comparison will be drowned with the experiments made with adults also regarding EI and
stress level. It is interesting to understand if the observations made from numerous studies
about the occupational stress and EI differs in some way. My assumption is that because of
the lack of enlightenment in the educational environment regarding such problems like
Stress management, Emotional Intelligence students will be less aware about those
possibilities of stress management and overall will show lower levels of EI in comparison to
the adults. On the workplace there is Human Resources that should make the employees
more aware of possible coping mechanisms with the help of seminars lectures etc. Also is
expected that the more life experience someone has the more aware is to himself and to
the world around him, naturally this is not always the case. For that same reason I expect
that students with more college experience or life experience to have higher levels of EI and
less perceived stress.
Methods and Design
Participants and Procedure overall
The experiment would be made with two groups of students, such in the first semester and
in the sixth semester. Both groups will be facing the same treatment. The subjects will be
testes of their Emotional Intelligence. There also going to be two treatments one that puts
the participants in a high stress situation (they will have only 3 minutes) and the other one
in a low stress situation (10 minutes). During the “stress test” subjects will have to assemble
pens. The performance will be judged based on the number of pens that each subject
managed to put together and those with higher scores from each group will become a
monetary payment and the rest will become either a gummi bears or cholate bonbon.
Exact order of tasks and treatments (For more detailed information on the method and design see the
experimental script.)

1.All subjects pick up two cards, with seat number and their time for the stress test.
2.Both groups will fill out a questionnaire with some demographic data (see Appendix 1)

3.“How do you feel” five-point scale 1-happy, 2-anxious, 3-frustrated, 4-overwelmed, 5-

angry with the appropriate description of each state. (see Appendix 2)
4. The subjects will be then testes of their Emotional Intelligence with the help of the online
test from “psychology today”1, which contains 146 statements regarding individual's
behavior and the answers are on the 5-Likert scale, giving information how much the
subjects relates to the given statement from “completely true” to “completely false” (see
Appendix 3)2
5.“How do you feel "question (same as in point 3)
6. Stress test (3 or 10 Minutes). According to the picked-up ticket at the beginning of the
experiment some will have 3 minutes (high stress) and others 10 minutes (low stress) for
the challenge to assemble as many pens as possible.
7. “How do you feel "question (same as in point 3&5)
8. Subjects will have the opportunity to give a feedback about the experiment, their
thoughts and improvement suggestions if any. (Appendix 4)
The idea behind the choice to research two different groups of students with different
experience is to test if there are significant differences between EI levels and stress
management, among more experienced students (6 semester) and those that don’t have
years of practice in a college environment.
“How do you feel” questionnaire is appearing so much in the experiment so that it can
monitor for changes in the subject's feelings. With the first one we gather information about
our starting point for the individual's feelings and use it to compare if and how the it is
changing throughout the experiment. After the assessment of subjects emotional
Intelligence, they again have to answer the control question “how do you feel” again to
monitor if there any changes in the in subjects' feelings. The last “how do you feel” question

1 questionnaire https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/tests/personality/emotional-
intelligence-test
2I originally intended to use the EIQ test developed from Tsaousis (2003), but I experienced
difficulties in finding the exact questionnaire. If I had it, I would definitely prefer it, because of its
proven scientifically effectivity it is also a self-report questionnaire with 91 self-referencing
statements and requires an answer on a 5-point scale (1 =Not representative at all . . . 5 = Very
representative).
is after the stress test and so we can recognize if the stress task is actually experienced as
such in other words the perceived stress level will be monitored.
The chosen “stress test” is a little bit unconventional for the research field. Most of the
experiments do use Organizational Stress Screening Tools in order to test the perceived
stress, which is a questionnaire with different questions such as” how often did you felt
stressed in the last week”. In my opinion it is better when the subjects are put in a direct
stress situation and we can directly observe how they are actually coping in a stressful
situation and not just relying on their memory of how did they felt, because people do tend
to forget or to undermine their feelings regarding a particular situation when it is already
past, feelings are happening simultaneously and this first reaction to something cannot be
reenacted again with the same level of emotion.

Hypothesis
Students that scored higher on the EI test would have better performance both in low- and
high-pressure situation that those participants that score lower on the EI test. Another
hypothesis to be tested is that students with higher EI will do better in a high stress situation
than in a low stress one. The Students that have low EI are expected to do worst in a high-
pressure situation than those in a low one. Another assumption to be observed would be
the experience differences between the subjects: students in the sixth semester will score
higher on EI test than those in the first semester, because EI can be developed over time
and requires a self-awareness and self-effort to so. If the hypotheses are true then we will
discover the same correlation for students as previous found for workers, namely that EI
correlates negatively with percieved stress.
My research is open about limitations and other possible factors other than EI that influence
on the students' performance in the first and sixth semester. It is not necessarily that only
their EI is responsible for their stress management, but due to other stress management
techniques learnt through college like meditation and breathing exercises and also a life
changing event in their personal life can lead to a major change in their perception of the
world and therefor their perception of stressful situations.

Possible outcomes by the comparison made with previous work

By the comparison between results from previous studies made with students there is no
significant difference and the correlation between stress and EI stays negative.
When my results are compared with those made with adult subjects on their workplace the
correlation between EI and stress will be the same, but I assume the adults will have overall
higher scores on the EI than students.
Experimental script
People will come and their name will be ticked. Then will let them choose a card with the
number either 3 or 10 on it. Participants will also have to pick up a number card.
Start the experiment
Thank you everyone for coming to our experiment today
The experiment has 6 parts. I will explain to you each task just before completing.

When you entered the room, you picked up two cards. On one of them is either the number
3 of 10 to be seen, which represents the time that you will have to complete the task that
we will give you. Please put this number on the side so that we are able to see it. The other
number card that you have picked corresponds to your participant ID number and at the
same time to your place on the computers. The experiment is anonymous, the card
numbers will help us to identify you. Please make sure that you are sitting at the correct PC
with matches your number card. And make sure to stack every already answered sheet on
top of each other and live them by your side.
In each step of the experiment I will give you the instructions for each task. If you have any
questions at any point of the experiment do not hesitate to raise your hand and we will
come to you. Please remain silent during the experiment, or otherwise we will be forced to
terminate the session.
1. Fist task that you will have to complete is the demographic questionnaire that we
will now give you for you to fill out. When you ready just put the sheet on the desk
to your side, faced down so that we know you are ready.
See Appendix 1
2.We will now proceed with the second task for you to complete. We will give you another
piece of paper and you have to mark the one emoji that at most relates to you for the given
moment. When you are ready put the piece of paper on the top of the first one again facing
down.
See Appendix 2

3.We will now proceed with the experiment on to your computers. We already have loaded
the page. You just need to press the power button on your computer screen to switch it on.
Read the instructions, when you are ready klick on the button below which say “take the
test”. When you are ready with the test turn your computer screens off again.
See Appendix 3
4.Everybody are ready, perfect. Now you will again receive a piece of paper with the already
known emojis, mark the one that most corresponds to you and your feelings at the
moment. When ready stack it on the pile, facing down. (we will put a number of this
questionnaire N=2 just in case someone mixes or drops something on the floor and to be
able to set the three similar questionnaires)
See Appendix 2
5. We will get now to the interesting part of the experiment. Please put your card with
either 3 or 10 on your computer screen, so that we can see. This number represents the
minutes that you will have to assemble as many pens as possible. As you can see there are
several different boxes in front of you each containing the same part of the pen. When we
say start you will pick each part from each box and will assemble a pen. We will make a
demonstration for you how is a pen to be assemble. Those of you that managed to assemble
most pens will become a monetary price. When the third minute is up, I will say stop and
everyone who has picked up 3 minutes will have to stop and the others with 10 minutes will
continue to assemble and during that time we will count how many pens each one of you
(from the 3 minute group) had put together. And also, again give you the already known
emoji piece of paper, please mark the most corresponding to your emoji and again stack it
up, faced down. (We will mark the number of the place with the number of the pens and
give the “how do you feel questions to ones that have the 3-minute treatment). The second
time when we say stop the rest of you have to put the pencils and pencil parts down.
Start......Stop...............Stop.
We will now note how many pens the rest of you have assembled. And also give the rest of
you the questionnaire with how do you feel emojis, please mark the most corresponding to
your mood emoji.

6. The last piece of paper that you will become from us the evaluation sheet you will have
the opportunity to give us a feedback about the experiment, your thoughts and
improvement suggestions if any.
See Appendix 4

7. When you are ready please again leave the piece of paper on your side. I will now call our
winners that have most pens, the rest of you please remain seated. Thank you all for the
participation on our experiment, we wish you a very nice day.
8.After we paid our winners up Know the rest of you come forward and choose your price
either a gummi bears or a chocolate bonbon.
Appendix 1
1.Age
…..............................
2.Gender
Δ Female Δ Male Δ Other
3.Nationality
…..............................
4. Are you make use of some spiritual practices (like yoga, meditation, breathing exercises)?
If yes what kind?
…................................
5.In which semester are you?
….................................
Appendix 2

Appendix 3
Appendix 4
1.How did you find overall the experiment?
Δ Boring Δ Exiting Δ Pointless
2.Any thoughts about the experiment?
..............................................................
3.Any improvement suggestions for us?
…..............................................................

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