Sensor Resistif-1

DR. Rusminto Tjatur Widodo

Politeknik Elektronika Negeri Surabaya - ITS

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 Klasifikasi sensor berdasarkan
perubahan yang dihasilkan
1. Perubahan nilai Resistansi
2. Perubahan nilai Kapasitansi
3. Perubahan nilai Induktansi dan nilai
transformasi
4. Perubahan kontak potensial
5. Perubahan tegangan junction pada pn-
junction
6. Opto-coupler
7. Foto Listrik
8. Lain-lain
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1. Perubahan nilai Resistansi

a. Strain-gauge
b. Potensiometrik
c. RTD (Resistance Temperature
Detector)
d. LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

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 a. Strain Gauge
What Is Strain?

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an

applied force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as
the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure
below.

Definition of Strain
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Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although
dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in.
or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very
small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as microstrain (me),
which is e x 10-6.

When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure above, a

phenomenon known as Poisson Strain causes the girth of the bar, D,
to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The
magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property
indicated by its Poisson's Ratio. The Poisson's Ratio n of a material
is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse
direction (perpendicular to the force) to the strain in the axial
direction (parallel to the force), or n = eT/e. Poisson's Ratio for steel,
for example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3.
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 The Strain Gauge
While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a
strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the
amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gauge is the bonded metallic
strain gauge.

The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic
foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic
wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction (Figure 2). The cross sectional
area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson
Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached
directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test
specimen is transferred directly to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear
change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges are available commercially with
nominal resistance values from 30 to 3000 Ω, with 120, 350, and 1000 Ω being the
most common values.
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Bonded Metallic Strain Gauge

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It is very important that the strain gauge be properly mounted onto
the test specimen so that the strain is accurately transferred from
the test specimen, through the adhesive and strain gauge backing,
to the foil itself.

A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to

strain, expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge
factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical
resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

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Contoh 1
Sebuah strain gauge tahanan dengan factor
gauge sebesar 2 diikat kesebuah benda baja
yang dipengaruhi oleh tegangan geser sebesar
1050 kg/cm2. Mudulus elestisitas baja adalah
kira-kira 2,1 x 106 kg/cm2.
Hitunglah perubahan tahanan DR dari elemen
strain gauge yang disebabkan oleh tegangan
geser yang dikenakan.

e = Dl/l = s/E = 1050/(2,1 x 106) = 5 x 10-4

Sensitivitas gauge = 2
DR/R = K.e = 2 x 5 x 10-4 = 10-3 atau 0,1 % 9
Contoh 2

Sebuah strain gauge tahanan dengan factor

gauge sebesar 2,4 diikat kesebuah balok baja
yang Modulus elestisitasnya 2 x 106 kg/cm2.
Strain gauge mempunyai tahanan tanpa
teregang 120 W yang bertambah menjadi 120.1
W bila balok dipengaruhi oleh tegangan geser.

Hitunglah tegangan geser pada titik dimana

strain gauge dipasang. (694,44 kg/cm2)

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 Tugas
1. Turunkan persamaan pada rangkaian
jembatan DC, sehingga didapatkan Vo
2. Rancanglah jembatan DC untuk soal pada
contoh 1 dan 2, hitunglah Vo.
3. Rancanglah rangkaian penguatan untuk
soal no.2 sehingga Vo = + 4,5 volt.

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 Memory

Sensor & Amplifier ADC Microprocessor Display

Transducer

Keyboard

Power
Supply

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In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities
larger than a few millistrain (e x 10-3). Therefore, to measure the
strain requires accurate measurement of very small changes in
resistance. For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a
strain of 500 me. A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 will
exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2 (500 x 10-6) =
0.1%. For a 120 W gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 W.

To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gauges are

almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage
excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated
below, consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage,
VEX, that is applied across the bridge

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 Konstruksi pemasangan Straingauge

Straingauge satu sumbu

(a) Kawat
(b) Foil

Rossete dua elemen

(a) Tumpulan foil 90o
(b) Foil datar 90o
(c) Foil geser datar 90o 14
Rossete tiga elemen
(a) Foil datar 60o
(b) Tumpukan kawat 45o

Straingauge
tanpa ikatan

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Use of Dummy Gauge to Eliminate Temperature Effects

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 Rangkaian
(untuk mengeliminasi pengaruh temperatur)

DC
Vo

Dummy
Gauge Active
Gauge

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Half-Bridge Circuit

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Full-Bridge Circuit

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Wire and 3-Wire Connections of Quarter-Bridge Circuit

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Contoh penggunaan
• Sensor berat (timbangan)
• Sensor gaya
• Sensor tekanan
• Dll.

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 3K 2K2

VOut

3mA
RG
120 ohm

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 I2
I1
R7
VR
2K2

A VOut B
I
R8
RG
120Ω

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 RGain

VR2 R7 Rin
2K2 1K
-
0–3
mA +
R8 V
RG VOut
120Ω
Amp. Analog

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 RGain
R1 R2 Rin
5K 5K 1K
-
0–3
mA +
RTH
V
(Tahanan VR1 VOut
Thermistor) Amp. Analog

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Strain gauge sebagai sensor tekanan

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To ensure accurate strain measurements, it is
important to consider the following:

• Bridge completion
• Excitation
• Remote sensing
• Amplification
• Filtering
• Offset
• Shunt calibration

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Bridge Completion – Unless you are using a full-bridge strain gauge
sensor with four active gauges, you will need to complete the bridge with
reference resistors. Therefore, strain gauge signal conditioners typically
provide half-bridge completion networks consisting of high-precision
reference resistors. Figure below shows the wiring of a half-bridge strain
gauge circuit to a conditioner with completion resistors R1 and R2.

Connection of Half-Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit

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Excitation – Strain gauge signal conditioners typically provide a
constant voltage source to power the bridge. While there is no standard
voltage level that is recognized industry wide, excitation voltage levels of
around 3 and 10 V are common. While a higher excitation voltage
generates a proportionately higher output voltage, the higher voltage can
also cause larger errors because of self-heating

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Remote Sensing – If the strain gauge circuit is located a
distance away from the signal conditioner and excitation
source, a possible source of error is voltage drop caused
by resistance in the wires connecting the excitation
voltage to the bridge. Therefore, some signal conditioners
include a feature called remote sensing to compensate for
this error. Remote sense wires are connected to the point
where the excitation voltage wires connect to the bridge
circuit. The extra sense wires serve to regulate the
excitation supply through negative feedback amplifiers to
compensate for lead losses and deliver the needed
voltage at the bridge.

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Amplification – The output of strain gauges and
bridges is relatively small. In practice, most strain gauge
bridges and strain-based transducers will output less
than 10 mV/V (10 mV of output per volt of excitation
voltage). With 10 V excitation, the output signal will be
100 mV. Therefore, strain gauge signal conditioners
usually include amplifiers to boost the signal level to
increase measurement resolution and improve signal-
to-noise ratios.

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Filtering – Strain gauges are often located in electrically
noisy environments. It is therefore essential to be able to
eliminate noise that can couple to strain gauges.
Lowpass filters, when used in conjunction with strain
gauges, can remove high-frequency noise prevalent in
most environmental settings.

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Offset Nulling – When a bridge is installed, it is very unlikely that the bridge
will output exactly zero volts when no strain is applied. Slight variations in
resistance among the bridge arms and lead resistance will generate some
nonzero initial offset voltage. Offset nulling can be performed by either
hardware or software:

1. Software Compensation – With this method, you take an initial

measurement before strain input is applied, and use this offset to
compensate subsequent measurements. This method is simple, fast, and
requires no manual adjustments. The disadvantage of the software
compensation method is that the offset of the bridge is not removed. If the
offset is large enough, it limits the amplifier gain you can apply to the output
voltage, thus limiting the dynamic range of the measurement.

2. Offset-Nulling Circuit – The second balancing method uses an adjustable

resistance, a potentiometer, to physically adjust the output of the bridge to
zero. By varying the resistance of potentiometer, you can control the level of
the bridge output and set the initial output to zero volts.
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Shunt Calibration – The normal procedure to verify the
output of a strain gauge measurement system relative to
some predetermined mechanical input or strain is called
shunt calibration. Shunt calibration involves simulating the
input of strain by changing the resistance of an arm in the
bridge by some known amount. This is accomplished by
shunting, or connecting, a large resistor of known value
across one arm of the bridge, creating a known DR. The
output of the bridge can then be measured and compared to
the expected voltage value. The results are used to correct
span errors in the entire measurement path, or to simply
verify general operation to gain confidence in the setup.

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Alat alat Penjumlah Gaya

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 b. Potensiometrik

Sensor potensiometrik adalah sensor yang mengandung

elemen tahanan yang dihubungkan oleh sebuah kontak geser.

Perubahan tahanan yang

Sumber dihasilkan:
daya luar
- Linear
Keluaran - Logaritmis

Potensiometer

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 Contoh penggunaan
- Sensor level cairan dalam
suatu tangki
- Sensor posisi
Sumber - dll
daya luar

Keluaran  ADC (Analog to Digital Converter)

Potensiometer

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Macam-macam cara pengukuran tekanan

Sebagai sensor tekanan

bisa digunakan Strain
gauge atau potensiometer
putar

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 Sensor posisi potensiometrik

Sensor posisi potensiometrik digunakan untuk menyensor

perpindahan dengan jangkauan 0 – 10 cm. Tahanannya akan
berubah linier dengan range 0 – 1 Kohm. Rancanglah rangkaian
untuk mendapatkan perubahan tegangan output dengan range 0 –
10 V.
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Voltage divider ?  untuk kasus ini kelinearannya tdk bisa didapatkan

OP-AMP  penguat yang sangat linear

Vout = -(RD)/1kohm)(-10V)
Vout = 0.01RD

Dengan demikian jika RD berubah dari 0 - 1 kohm, output akan

berubah secara linear dari 0 - 10 volts 43
 VS

VO

Sensor Level potensiometrik

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 Jika potensiometer digunakan untuk mengukur sebuah panel yang
bergerak sejauh 0,8 meter, dengan diperlukan perubahan tahanan setiap
0,1 cm. Pada bagian mekanik panel mempunyai sudut putar poros sebesar
250o jika digerakkan dari posisi awal sampai ke posisi akhir. Kemudian
untuk mendeteksi putaran panel ini digunakan potensiometer yang
mempunyai rasio 300o pada putaran penuh dan mempunyai 1000 lilitan.
Dapatkah hal ini dilakukan

Jangkauan Poros : 250o /0,8m =312,5o /m

Atau: 3,125o/cm
Resolusi 0,1 cm pada panel adalah : 0,1 cm x 3,125o /cm = 0,3125o
Potensiometer mempunyai resolusi sebesar : 300o /1000 = 0,300o
Oleh karena itu potensiometer dapat mendeteksi setiap perubahan
sebesar 0,300o yang lebih baik dari yang dikehendaki yaitu sebesar
0,3125o
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